Unit 1

Post Gandhian Scenario

1.1 Introduction

Simplified Introduction in Detail

 Gandhi's Vision vs. Post-Independence India:

o Gandhi's India: Small, self-reliant village communities, minimal wants,
democratic local governance.
o Nehru's India: Modern, industrial civilization, in contrast to Gandhi's ideals.
Nehru aimed to transform India into a new, industrialized nation.
 Challenges for Nehruvian Vision:
o Ethnic and Social Divisions: India had a diverse population with significant
social and cultural differences.
o Economic Disparities: Extreme poverty, low productivity, lack of health
services, high illiteracy.
o Regional Differences: Varied languages, existence of princely states, regional
loyalties.
 Necessary Reforms:
o Political Integration: Unifying diverse groups and fostering a unified political
purpose.
o Social and Economic Reforms: Addressing illiteracy, poverty, and improving
health services. Enhancing economic productivity and modernizing
agriculture.
 National Reconstruction Goals:
o Re-alignment of Past: Modernizing socio-economic institutions without
disrupting existing balances.
o Radical Economic Change: Introducing new ways of thinking and working to
boost modernity.
 Focus of the Unit:
o Understanding Indian Polity: Explore various aspects of India's political
system.
o Assessing Achievements and Challenges: Review successes, shortcomings,
and vulnerabilities.
o Evaluating Historical Performance: Analyze India's actions and developments
over the past six decades.

1.2 Political Structure and Its Working

Introduction of the Indian Constitution

 Constitution Formation:
o Took three years of discussions and drafting.
o Inaugurated on 26th January 1950.
 Key Promises and Provisions:
 o Preamble: Promises social, economic, and political justice.
o Directive Principles: Guides the government to pursue social revolution and
protect minorities.
o Fundamental Rights: Mandates the government to protect citizens' rights
and avoid violations.
o Judicial Review: Ensures amendments to the Constitution are subject to
judicial oversight.
o Supreme Court: Established as the highest court and the final appeal
authority.
o Central Government Powers: Includes significant control over state
governments.
o President: Introduced as the constitutional head of state.
o Finance and Planning Commissions: Created to oversee economic
development.

Federal Structure and Its Functions

 Federalism:
o Based on the 1935 Reforms Act but enhanced.
o Three Tiers: Center, State, and Concurrent lists define the division of powers.
o Each list specifies areas of legislative authority for the federal and state
governments.
 Parliamentary System:
o Lok Sabha (House of the People): Represents the sovereign people, elected
every five years.
o Rajya Sabha (Council of States): Shares equal legislative power with Lok
Sabha, except for money bills.
o Lok Sabha reflects the people's will through elected representatives.

Constitutional Goals and Changes

 Rule of Law: Institutionalized by the Constitution.

 Goals:
o Set goals for a social revolution and provide a framework for achieving them.
 Adaptability:
o The Constitution evolves with socio-economic changes and political
pressures.
o Can be amended or reinterpreted to reflect changing values and societal
forces.

Democratic Governance

 Representative Democracy:
o People rule through elected representatives.
o Single-Member Constituencies: Representatives chosen by majority vote.
o Existence of multiple political parties is essential for the system's functioning.
Political Party Dynamics

 Congress Party Dominance and Decline:

o Initially dominated Indian politics.
o Faced challenges like the JP Movement and the 1974 railway strike.
o Emergency (1975-1977): Imposed by Indira Gandhi, leading to unpopularity
and electoral defeat in 1977.
o Return and Assassination: Indira Gandhi returned to power in 1980 but was
assassinated in 1984, affecting Congress's dominance.
 Rise of Multi-Party System:
o Decline of Congress led to the emergence of regional parties and coalitions.
o Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP): Emerged as a strong national rival.
o Regional Parties: Samajwadi Party (SP), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Rashtriya
Janata Dal (RJD) gained prominence.

Impact of Electoral Changes

 Inducing Change:
o Socio-economic groups compete for power to influence decision-making.
o Leads to social cleavages reflected in elections.
 Material Prosperity as a Goal:
o Economic prosperity seen as key to development and a good life.
o Demands for privileged access to resources arise from those in poverty and
deprivation.
 Formation of Regional/State Parties:
o Failure to meet expectations leads to regional loyalties and new parties.
o These parties seek greater influence in national decision-making, leading to
coalition governments.

1.3 Economic Change

Introduction

 Need for Support:

o Democracy and economic development are essential for sustaining
modernisation.
 Inherited Economy:
o India inherited a backward economy from the British, exacerbated by wealth
drain.
o Despite rich natural resources, India was very poor at independence in 1947.

Development Strategies

 Gandhian Model:
o Emphasized simplicity, decentralization, and cottage industries.
o Focused on village-level economic activities and democratic political
management.
 o Minimization of wants and avoiding consumerism and large-scale
industrialization.
 Nehruvian Model:
o Advocated for a modern social order with state-led economic development.
o Focused on industrialization, capital-producing industries, and scientific
research.
o Emphasized central planning, material life, and mixed economy (public and
private sectors).

Post-Nehru Economic Challenges

 Political Instability and Wars:

o Indo-China war (1962) and Indo-Pak war (1965) weakened the economy.
o Natural calamities like droughts further impacted agricultural productivity.
 Central Role of the State:
o The state controlled core production sectors and aimed for distributive
justice.
o Emphasis on heavy industries and scientific research resulted in skilled
manpower.
 Indira Gandhi Era:
o Populist policies and slogans like "Garibi Hatao" (Remove Poverty).
o Economic issues included balance of payments difficulties, food shortages,
and rising population.
o Dependence on foreign aid (e.g., USA for food supply).

Green Revolution and Economic Shifts

 Green Revolution:
o Increased farm production, especially wheat.
o Benefited better-off farmers in well-endowed regions, increasing rural
inequality.
o Linked agriculture and industry but made agriculture vulnerable to market
fluctuations.
 Economic Crisis and Liberalization:
o Economic crisis in the 1970s led to the imposition of Emergency in 1975.
o Shift towards liberalization in the 1980s to tackle inefficiencies in state
control.
o Emphasis on deregulation, privatization, and integration with the global
economy.

Liberalization and Reforms (Post-1980s)

 Third Phase of Planning (1984 onwards):

o Accelerated liberalization, allowing a greater role for the private sector.
o Removal of License Raj to reduce bureaucracy and corruption.
o Focus on telecommunications and software industries.
 1991 Economic Reforms:
 o Balance of payments crisis led to major policy reforms.
o Shift from quantitative controls to market instruments.
o Greater integration with the global economy and efforts to attract Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI).

Current Challenges and Outcomes

 Positive Outcomes:
o Higher economic growth rate.
o Improvements in certain sectors like telecommunications and IT.
 Unresolved Issues:
o Lower average GDP and per capita income growth rates.
o Deceleration in agriculture and industrial growth rates.
o Increased unemployment and neglected agriculture infrastructure.
o Green Revolution increased production costs, burdening small farmers.
o Widening gap between rural and urban areas in resource access and living
standards.
 Social Impact:
o Increased poverty, slow productivity growth, and rural-urban migration.
o No significant land reforms leading to ongoing marginal and landless farmer
issues.
o Emergence of a politically influential middle peasant class.

Summary

India's economic journey post-independence involved two major development strategies:

the Gandhian model focusing on simplicity and decentralization, and the Nehruvian model
emphasizing state-led industrialization and modernization. Political instability, wars, and
natural calamities posed significant challenges. The Green Revolution boosted agricultural
production but also increased rural inequality. The shift towards liberalization in the 1980s
aimed to address economic inefficiencies, leading to significant reforms in 1991. While
liberalization spurred economic growth, unresolved issues like lower GDP growth,
agricultural neglect, and rising unemployment persist.

1.4 Democracy and Social Revolution

Overview

 India aimed to establish a social order based on freedom, equality, and fraternity.
 The Constitution includes various provisions for social revolution: Directive Principles
of State Policy, Fundamental Rights, minority rights, and protections for weaker
sections (SCs, STs, OBCs).

Fundamental Rights and Group Rights

 Fundamental Rights:
o Protect individual freedoms from societal and governmental encroachment.
 o Group rights address cumulative inequality in caste-differentiated society.
o SCs, STs, and OBCs receive special provisions to uplift their social and
economic status.
 Constitutional Provisions:
o Aim to eliminate socio-economic disparities and ensure social, economic, and
political justice for all.
o Influenced by India's socio-cultural environment, which affects the spread of
democracy and reforms.

Challenges and Incompatibilities

 Socio-cultural Influence:
o Social stratification and cultural traditions limit the impact of democratic and
economic reforms, especially for lower castes and poor citizens.
o Despite this, representative government and adult franchise are valued for
their empowering effects.
 Constitutional Strains:
o Conflicts between individual rights (e.g., property) and social revolution
goals.
o Tensions between Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights led to
constitutional amendments and debates over guardianship of the
Constitution.
o Fundamental Rights are subject to limitations and judicial review to align with
the Constitution’s basic structure.

Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights

 Balancing Acts:
o Efforts to harmonize Directive Principles with Fundamental Rights.
o Supreme Court decisions since 1970 emphasize the importance of Directive
Principles in achieving a welfare state.
o Fundamental Rights are seen as incomplete without implementing Directive
Principles.

Preferential Treatment and Social Justice

 Group Rights:
o Preferential treatment for marginalized groups like SCs and STs to ensure
social justice.
o Directive Principles require the state to promote the interests of weaker
sections and protect them from exploitation (Art. 46).
o Art. 15 (1) prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, place of
birth, etc.
 Reservation and Special Provisions:
o Reservation of seats in legislative bodies, government jobs, and educational
institutions.
 o Provision of services and schemes like scholarships, loans, land allotments,
healthcare, and legal aid.
o Special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes (Art. 15)
and for SCs and STs.

Impact and Limitations

 Achievements:
o Preferential treatments have alleviated economic distress and social
degradation for many.
o Helped reduce some effects of dispossession and destitution.
 Ongoing Challenges:
o Persistent discrimination in employment, wages, and credit.
o Economic status differences among social groups remain significant.
o Social justice programs have not significantly altered the exclusion structure
or fully addressed inequalities.

1.6 Summary

India's Development Issues

 Forsaking Gandhi's Vision:

o India's development path has diverged from Mahatma Gandhi's vision.
o The current development pattern has failed to address fundamental societal
issues.
 Lopsided Development:
o Development is uneven across regions, economic sectors, and social groups.
o While GDP has grown significantly, the benefits are not evenly distributed.
 Food and Hunger:
o Food grain production has increased, but hunger remains a major issue.
o This highlights the disparity between production and distribution.
 Education and Employment:
o Lack of education leads to unemployment and underemployment.
o This perpetuates poverty and results in low-wage jobs.
 Health and Nutrition:
o Health and nutrition have not received adequate attention.
o This neglect contributes to ongoing poverty and poor quality of life.

Disproportionate Development

 Promise vs. Performance:

o There's a significant gap between the government's promises and actual
outcomes.
o India's progress on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is lacking in
key areas:
 Poverty eradication
  Food security
 Reducing child and maternal mortality
 Combating infectious diseases

Catalyst for Social Movements

 Social Justice and Equality:

o The failure to meet basic development goals has sparked movements focused
on social justice and equality.
o These movements address issues such as hunger, health, education, and
overall well-being.

Key Points

 India's development has been uneven and has not fully addressed historical societal
issues.
 Despite increased GDP and food production, significant problems like hunger,
unemployment, and poor health persist.
 The gap between promised and actual performance on development goals highlights
systemic issues.
 Social movements have emerged to address these disparities and promote justice
and equality.

Unit 2
Leadership and Organizational Patterns

2.1 Introduction

 Historical Context:
o Throughout history, whenever groups or nations have engaged in wars, there
have always been individuals and movements rising up to fight for peace.
o History can be seen as a constant struggle between the forces of war and
peace, or between realists and idealists.
 Modern Peace Movements:
o Modern peace movements are unique, especially because they aim for global
peace.
o Achieving global peace is challenging, and even small successes are
significant.
o However, these movements sometimes suffer from illusions or unrealistic
goals spread by their leaders or organizational structures.
 Contributions of Peace Activists:
o Many committed individuals, including young people, have dedicated
themselves to the cause of peace.
o Their efforts make it difficult for arms dealers and military strategists to
operate without opposition.
o While the achievements of peace movements may be limited, they are
important and should not be exaggerated.
  Importance of Leadership and Organization:
o Effective leadership and a clear organizational pattern are crucial for the
success of peace movements.
o If the peace movement's goals are well understood, it is led by committed
leaders, and it operates on a sustainable basis with broad public support, it
can be very powerful.
o Conversely, if the movement is narrowly focused, regional, class-based, or
infiltrated by external interests, it can become counterproductive.
 Challenges for Peace Movements:
o Peace movements must address issues like global power imbalances,
structural violence, economic exploitation, technological determinism, and
human rights violations.
o A coherent organizational structure and broad participation are necessary for
the movement to be effective.

Aims and Objectives

 Understanding Leadership and Organization:

o Analyze the leadership and organizational patterns of peace movements in
India.
 Gandhian Agenda:
o Explore the Gandhian agenda for peace movements.
 Gandhian Lieutenants:

Learn about the key figures in Gandhi's peace movements and their contributions.

2.2 Peace Movements in India

 Early Stages:
o Peace movements in India are still developing and have not yet become a
significant part of the political landscape.
o They lack a strong organizational structure due to intellectual fragmentation
and isolated activities.
 Emerging Vision:
o Despite these challenges, some groups are articulating a new vision in
response to India's current political and socio-economic crises.
 Different Perspective:
o Indian peace movements differ significantly from those in the West.
o In Western countries, peace movements often arose from concerns about
nuclear war.
o In India, peace encompasses more than just the absence of war.
 Broad Concept of Peace:
o For ordinary Indians, peace means:
 A decent livelihood.
 Freedom from oppression.
 Access to essential resources.
 Cultural autonomy.
  Freedom from violence by both the state and powerful entities.
o People's security, rather than national security, is the primary concern.
 Interlinked Issues:
o While no single movement addresses all these issues simultaneously, there is
a growing awareness that these issues are interconnected.

Summary

 Peace movements in India are in the early stages and need more time and
development to become influential.
 They lack cohesion and organization but are starting to respond to India’s unique
crises.
 Indian peace movements have a broader focus than those in the West, addressing
everyday issues like livelihood, freedom, and security from violence.
 There is a growing realization that various aspects of peace are interrelated, even if
not all are addressed by each movement.

2.3 Gandhian Agenda for Peace Movements

 Commitment to Non-Violence and Truth:

o Gandhi believed deeply in non-violence and truth as essential for peace.
o He stated that doubting permanent peace is akin to doubting the goodness of
human nature.
 Philosophic vs. Political Strategy:
o Gandhi's belief in peace was more of a philosophical stance than a political
strategy.
o Peace, for him, was a complex issue involving politics, being (ontology), and
existence (existentialism).
 Real Peace Requires Effort:
o Gandhi emphasized that achieving real peace needs:
 Scientific precision.
 Deep soul-searching.
 Patience.
 Resources.
o He argued that peace cannot be achieved just by popular support or slogans.
 Critique of Existing Peace Movements:
o Current peace movements, from a Gandhian perspective, are not very
successful.
o They lack the depth and commitment Gandhi advocated.
 Gandhian Approach:
o The Gandhian agenda involves:
 Non-violent actions.
 Non-cooperation with unjust systems.
 Movements that are both spontaneous and organized.
  Participation from everyone concerned with peace, poverty, ecology,
and human rights.

Summary

 Gandhi's philosophy of peace was rooted in non-violence and truth, viewing peace as
a deeply complex issue.
 He believed achieving true peace requires much more effort and resources than
simply gathering support or promoting slogans.
 Current peace movements fall short by Gandhian standards, lacking the depth and
commitment he deemed necessary.
 A true Gandhian peace movement would be non-violent, involve non-cooperation
with injustice, and require broad-based participation focused on interconnected
issues like peace, poverty, and human rights.

2.5 Post-Gandhian Leadership in Peace Movements

Key Figures:

 Vinoba Bhave:
o Considered Gandhi's moral and spiritual heir.
o Acknowledged for his deep understanding of peace principles.
o Not just an interpreter of Gandhi but an original thinker.

 Kishorilal Ghanshyam Mashruwala:

o Associated with Gandhi from his return from South Africa.
o Recognized as an important interpreter of Gandhian philosophy.
o Despite health issues, edited Harijan Weeklies after Gandhi's death.

 J.C. Kumarappa: (Person Important from Unit 7, Prohibition Movements POV)

o Taught at Gujarat Vidyapith and was Secretary of All India Village Industries
Association.
o Known for interpreting Gandhian economics for the educated community.
o Seen as an extremist by some but deeply committed to non-violence.

 Kaka Kalelkar:
o Formerly at Shantiniketan before joining Gandhi.
o Principal of Gujarat Vidyapith.
o Led several peace movements and engaged in constructive work.

 Dada Dharmadhikari:
o Prominent Sarvodaya thinker and co-editor of Sarvodaya monthly.
o Devoted his life to the Sarvodaya movement.

 Shankerrao Deo:
 o General Secretary of All-India Congress Committee.
o Dedicated himself to Sarvodaya activities.

 Dhirendra Mazumdar:
o President of All-India Spinners’ Association after Gandhi's death.
o Both a thinker and a constructive worker.

 Jayaprakash Narayan:
o Founder of the Congress Socialist Party.
o Transitioned from Marxian to Gandhian thought.
o Effective interpreter of Sarvodaya with a socialist outlook.

 Acharya J. B. Kripalani:
o Former president of the Indian National Congress.
o Founder of the Gandhi Ashram in Uttar Pradesh.
o Gandhi consulted him on personal matters, indicating high regard.

Contribution:

 These leaders, mostly associated closely with Gandhi, played significant roles in
interpreting and furthering Gandhian principles after his death.
 Their influence extended beyond mere interpretation, contributing to the growth
and development of peace movements in India.

Diversity of Thought:

 Each leader brought their unique perspective and emphasis to the peace
movements, enriching the movement with diverse ideas and approaches.
 Despite their individual differences, they shared a common commitment to
Gandhian ideals and the promotion of peace and social justice.

2.6 Post-Gandhian Organisational Patterns in Peace Movements

Two Broad Categories:

1. Gandhian School of Thought and Action:

o Gandhian Ashrams serve as centers for nonviolent movements and address
basic issues of security and survival.
o Various initiatives like Bhoodan Movement, Chambal Experience, Shanti
Sena, and Swadhyaya Ashram are active in promoting peace.
o Scholarly support from Gandhian academies and societies across India
contributes to the intellectual foundation of the peace movement.

2. Autonomous Peace Initiatives:

o Diverse groups including students, women's organizations, religious bodies,
environmental activists, artists, educators, civil rights workers, and journalists
initiate peace efforts.
 o These movements emerge from different sectors but converge on the
common goal of addressing threats to peace.
o Lack of organizational coordination and collaboration hampers their
effectiveness in influencing government policies and actions.

Challenges and Impact:

 Isolation and Lack of Collaboration:

o Movements operate independently without establishing connections or
common strategies.
o Collaboration is essential to bring about significant social and political
transformation.

 Urban Centrism:
o Many movements are concentrated in metropolitan areas, limiting their
reach and impact, particularly evident in anti-nuclear movements.
o Recent growth in anti-nuclear movements mirrors the success of European
counterparts but remains limited in influence.

Achievements and Goals:

 Awareness Building:
o Anti-nuclear groups raise awareness about the dangers of nuclear weapons
and energy through publications, debates, and demonstrations.
o Demand government accountability and public debate on nuclear policies
and military expenditures.

 Alternative Energy Advocacy:

o Oppose nuclear power projects and advocate for efficient, renewable, safe,
and appropriate alternative energy technologies tailored to Indian needs.

Conclusion:

 While peace movements in India demonstrate a growing awareness of threats to

peace, their impact is hindered by organizational fragmentation, lack of
collaboration, and urban-centric focus. Collaboration and strategic alignment are
essential for these movements to effectively influence government policies and bring
about meaningful social and political change towards a violence-free society.

2.8 Summary: Evolution of the Indian Peace Movement

 Current State:
o The Indian peace movement faces challenges due to its fragmented and
scattered nature, leading to a lack of clarity in its perspective.
o Despite the size and diversity of India, efforts related to peace and survival
often occur in isolation, hindering cohesive action.
 Emerging Trends:
 o Signs of unity are emerging, particularly among anti-nuclear groups, as
activists seek to learn from and collaborate with each other across regions.
o Greater interaction among activists and citizens, facilitated by academic
seminars, discussions, publications, and media exchanges, fosters solidarity
and shared understanding.
 Distinctive Issues:
o Peace movements in India are driven by concerns different from those in
developed countries, such as the fear of nuclear war or accidents.
o The focus extends beyond single issues like anti-nuclear activism to address
interconnected issues like nuclear energy/weapons, environmental
degradation, displacement, and human rights.
 New Direction:
o Indian peace movement leadership has moved away from single-issue
activism, embracing an integrated perspective that analyzes a spectrum of
interrelated issues.
o This shift marks a new beginning, signaling a broader and more
comprehensive approach to peace activism in India.

Unit 3
Dynamics, Strategies, and Outcomes

3.1 Introduction to Nonviolent Movements

Gandhi's Influence:

 Mahatma Gandhi is a monumental figure in nonviolent movements, revolutionizing

ideas and strategies.
 His leadership during India's independence struggle showcased various effective
nonviolent strategies.

Gandhi's Approach:

 Gandhi, deeply religious and experimental, was not just a leader but also an astute
organizer and social visionary.
 He developed the concept of Satyagraha, expanding nonviolence beyond personal
life to achieve political goals.
 Satyagraha required commitment to truth, self-improvement, constructive
programs, and active resistance against exploitation.

Universal Phenomenon:

 Nonviolent movements, offering alternatives to armed struggle, are widespread

across different societies and political systems.
 People from all walks of life challenge state authority and legitimacy through
nonviolent means.
Aims and Objectives:

This unit aims to:

 Explore key features, strategies, and dynamics of nonviolent movements post-

Gandhi.
 Understand how nonviolent movements seek justice and liberation from oppression.
 Examine categories, methods, and types of nonviolent strategies.
 Assess areas of success and failure in nonviolent movements since Gandhi's era.

3.2 Nonviolent Movements After Gandhi

Influence of Gandhi's Nonviolent Satyagraha:

 Gandhi's theory and practice of nonviolent Satyagraha had a significant global

impact.
 Nonviolent movements for social and political change, both within India and
internationally, drew inspiration from Gandhi's ideas.

Nonviolent Movements in India:

 The Bhoodan (gift of land) and Gramdan (gift of village) movement, spearheaded by
Acharya Vinoba Bhave, was one of the most impactful post-independence efforts for
socio-economic change in India.
 Emerging from Gandhi's constructive programs, Bhoodan aimed to address rural
inequality through voluntary land redistribution.
 Movements like Total Revolution against authoritarian regimes and Emergency in
the 1970s, as well as movements against big dams, human displacements,
prohibition, and conservation, added new dimensions to India's socio-political
landscape.

Global Nonviolent Movements:

 Globally, Gandhi's nonviolent methods found application in various movements

under diverse political circumstances.
 Remarkable examples include the American Civil Rights movements led by Martin
Luther King, Jr., and the movement against the Apartheid regime in South Africa led
by Nelson Mandela.
 Pro-democracy movements against dictatorial regimes in various countries, as well
as movements for national self-determination, anti-nuclear initiatives,
environmental advocacy, human rights protection, and fair globalization, all reflect
the influence of Gandhian principles of nonviolence.

3.3 Features of Nonviolent Movements

Definition and Scope:

 Nonviolent action goes beyond conventional political methods like voting,

negotiation, or lobbying.
 It actively resists oppression and injustice without resorting to physical harm or
property destruction.
 Nonviolent movements reject passivity and cowardice; they're dynamic and mass-
oriented, often mobilizing people's moral power against injustice.

Active Resistance:

 Nonviolent movements challenge the legitimacy of state actions and seek change
from the grassroots level.
 They prioritize changing mentalities and values over imposed or legal reforms.
 Adherents must be willing to take risks and endure personal suffering without
resorting to violence.

Effectiveness and Support:

 Nonviolent methods are preferred as they challenge state legitimacy more

effectively than legal approaches.
 They often gain broader public support compared to violent tactics.
 Violence against nonviolent protesters is seen as unjust, expanding the movement's
support base.
 Nonviolent movements can even win over sympathizers from the adversary's side
due to the suffering endured by protesters.

Participatory and Empowering:

 Nonviolent movements encourage participation from diverse groups, including

children, elderly, women, and disabled individuals.
 Greater participation leads to greater empowerment of the movement's members.
 Unlike violent movements, which may lead to increased state power or dictatorship,
nonviolent movements promote decentralized, democratic processes.

Opposition to Violence:

 Nonviolent movements oppose both direct physical violence and structural violence.
 Direct violence involves personal injuries, while structural violence stems from state
policies and results in inequality, starvation, disease, and lack of education, jobs,
housing, and freedom of expression.

3.4 Types of Nonviolent Movements

Principled Nonviolent Movements:

 Definition: Rooted in religious, spiritual, or moral beliefs against violence.

 Intent: Practitioners explicitly reject violence and take precautions to avoid it.
 Values: Nonviolence is guided by principles of love, self-sacrifice, and human dignity.
 Selflessness: Participants transcend self-interest and are willing to suffer rather than
inflict harm.
 Conviction: Nonviolence is practiced out of deep conviction, not expediency.
 Gandhian Influence: Nonviolence is not pursued for selfish or arbitrary ends but
aims for spiritual upliftment and societal transformation.

Strategic Nonviolent Movements:

 Definition: Relies on nonviolent tactics for pragmatic or strategic reasons.

 Motivation: Participants may not deeply subscribe to moral or spiritual aspects of
nonviolence.
 Objective: Nonviolence is chosen for its effectiveness and lower costs compared to
violence.
 Gene Sharp: Prominent figure embodying the strategic approach to nonviolent
movements.
 Nickname: Referred to as the "Clausewitz of nonviolent struggles" due to his
strategic insights.

Complementary Nature:

 Overlap: Both principled and strategic dimensions may coexist in nonviolent

movements.
 Balance: While principled nonviolence emphasizes moral values, strategic
nonviolence focuses on practical effectiveness.
 Examples: Civil disobedience campaigns in India's independence movement and the
American civil rights movement showcase how both dimensions can work together
to bring about change.

3.8 Dynamics of Nonviolent Movements

Structural Conditions:

 Origin: Arise when conventional political and legal avenues for justice seem blocked.
 Advantages of Nonviolence: Nonviolent actions are preferred due to various
advantages over violence.
 Less Retaliation: Nonviolent actions typically result in less severe retaliation from
State forces compared to violence.
 Disunity in Adversary Camp: Nonviolence tends to keep the opposing camp
disunited, while violence strengthens their unity and legitimizes oppression.
Mechanisms of Nonviolent Change:

1. Conversion: Rare phenomenon where the adversary accepts the movement's

objectives for practical or ethical reasons.
2. Accommodation: Most common mechanism where parties compromise on select
objectives to avoid conflict escalation.
3. Coercion: Movement compels the adversary to concede demands through
nonviolent methods, sometimes leading to internal division.
4. Disintegration: Uncommon scenario where the adversary's capacity to respond
collapses due to extensive non-cooperation and defiance.

Strategic Decision-Making:

 Varied Approaches: Movements strategically choose which mechanisms to apply,

when, and to which groups.
 Resource Calculation: Decisions based on the movement's power resources and
those of the adversary.
 Mass Participation: All mechanisms require active participation from the masses and
support from influential community leaders.
 Post-Regime Change: Structural alterations post-regime change are crucial for long-
term stability and prevention of new injustices.

Role of Leadership:

 Levels of Human Resources: Leadership, movement activists, and the general public
constitute the human resources in a movement.
 Critical Role of Leadership: Visionary and charismatic leaders like Gandhi, King, or
Mandela are pivotal for a movement's success.
 Influence and Motivation: Leadership involves influencing, motivating, and enabling
members to achieve movement objectives.
 Democratic and Participatory: Effective leaders create future visions, act
democratically, and involve the movement's social base.

Unit 4
Social and Ecological Issues

4.1 Introduction to Social and Ecological Issues

Context:

 Modern World Challenges: Social and ecological crises impact individual, social,
political, and cultural aspects of life.
 Materialistic Pursuits: Emphasis on growth and development hasn't led to happiness
or harmony.
 Inner-Contradictions: People feel disconnected from themselves, society, and
nature.
  Pressing Problems: Poverty, hunger, unemployment, female foeticide, honour
killings, racism, and inflation are escalating.
 Environmental Threats: Pollution, resource depletion, and ecological imbalance pose
grave risks.

Urgency of the Situation:

 Catastrophic Scenario: Albert Schweitzer observed the ongoing "suicide of

civilization."
 Uncertain Future: Concerns arise about the survivability of humanity if current
trends persist.

Aims and Objectives:

 Understanding Social Issues: Learn about the challenges confronting society.

 Grasping Ecological Challenges: Explore the environmental issues facing the world
today.

4.2 Social Issues

1. Female Foeticide

 Definition: Foeticide refers to the illegal killing of a fetus or termination of a

pregnancy.
 Female Foeticide: Also known as sex-selective abortion, it involves terminating
pregnancies based on the gender of the fetus, which is illegal in India.
 Amniocentesis: Used for detecting foetal abnormalities, but misused for sex
determination, leading to selective abortion.
 Decline in Child Sex Ratio: The 2001 census showed a decline in the overall child sex
ratio, indicating a widespread issue.
 Legislation and Enforcement: The Preconception and Pre-natal Diagnostic
Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act aims to curb sex-selective abortions,
but enforcement challenges persist.

2. Honour Killings

 Definition: Murder of family members believed to have brought dishonor upon the
family or community.
 Motivations: Perceived dishonor from actions like refusing arranged marriage or
seeking divorce.
 Geographical Prevalence: Common in North India, especially in Punjab, Haryana,
and Western Uttar Pradesh.
 Challenges: Lack of specific laws addressing honour killings and difficulty in
prosecuting perpetrators due to societal and legal complexities.
3. Plight of Women Victims of NRI Marriages

 Background: Rising trend of Punjabi girls marrying Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) for
economic opportunities.
 Exploitation: NRIs exploit young girls, often already married, for financial gain and
abandon them.
 Challenges: Lack of strong laws, awareness, and support mechanisms for victims.
 Response Needed: Improved verification processes for NRI grooms, stronger legal
protections for victims, and enhanced support from government agencies and NGOs.

4.3 Ecological Issues

 Ecology, originally a scientific field, has gained broader attention due to growing
ecological problems.
 Modern ecology traces back to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, emphasizing
the intricate connection between organisms and their habitats.
 However, human activities often disrupt this connection, driven by a perspective that
views Earth solely for human exploitation.
 Two opposing views persist: a human-centric approach and an ecocentric approach,
focusing on ecosystem health.
 Lack of concern has led to species endangerment and widespread pollution.

 Understanding Ecology:

 Ecology encompasses the study of the interplay between organisms and their
environment, including plants, animals, humans, and institutions.
 An ecological crisis arises when this balance is disrupted, either by natural forces or
human actions.
 The environment comprises both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components,
forming a complex interconnected system.
 Human dependence on the environment makes degradation a global concern.

 Air Pollution:

 Defined as the presence of harmful substances in the atmosphere, air pollution

poses risks to human health and the environment.
 Major pollutants include carbon compounds, sulfur compounds, nitrogen dioxide,
acid rain, greenhouse gases, and others.
 Industrialization and transportation systems are primary sources of toxic fumes,
leading to illnesses and environmental disasters like the Bhopal gas tragedy.

 Water Pollution:

 Industrialization and urbanization contribute to water pollution through sewage,

factory waste, and agricultural runoff.
 Excessive use of water resources, coupled with pollution, threatens water scarcity
and impacts ecosystems.
  Degradation of wetlands and coral reefs, coupled with chemical contamination,
further exacerbates the issue.

 Land Pollution:

 Development activities disrupt land ecosystems, generating artificial wastes harmful

to both the environment and human health.
 Plastic pollution, a significant concern, arises from the widespread use of synthetic
materials, impacting ecosystems and human health.
 Deforestation, driven by urbanization, industrialization, and population growth,
leads to erosion, climate change, and loss of biodiversity.

 Other Pollution Types:

 Noise pollution, electronic pollution, and thermo-nuclear pollution contribute to

environmental degradation and health risks.
 Radioactive fallout from nuclear testing and waste disposal poses a significant global
threat, with long-term consequences such as cancer and ecosystem disruption.

 Conclusion:

 Ecological issues encompass a wide range of challenges, from air and water pollution
to deforestation and nuclear contamination.
 Addressing these issues requires collective action, awareness, and sustainable
practices to ensure the health of both ecosystems and human populations.

4.4 Summary of Social and Ecological Issues:

 Current social and ecological problems result from humanity's failure to comprehend
and shoulder the responsibilities that accompany its newfound power on Earth.
 The root of these issues lies within humans themselves, not external factors, and
consequently, so does any potential solution.
 It's imperative for humans to recognize that a lifestyle rapidly depleting Earth's
resources is inherently violent.

 Call for Nonviolent Lifestyle:

 Urgently, humans must adopt a nonviolent way of life, expanding beyond personal
actions to encompass interactions with the natural world and its finite resources.
 This necessitates a deep examination of personal goals and values, aligning them
with a desire for global change.
 Sustained dedication to this cause ensures human survival without descending into a
state of meaningless existence.

 Towards Ecological Redemption:

  Global cooperation is vital; more individuals worldwide should seek ways to reshape
the ecological system with a focus on human values and well-being.
 In essence, the path forward involves redirecting human actions and priorities to
prioritize the preservation and enhancement of the natural world, thereby ensuring
a sustainable future for all.

Unit 5
Bhoodan Movement

5.1 Introduction

Introduction

 Context: In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Acharya Vinoba Bhave observed severe
economic issues in India, particularly in agriculture.
o Landless Laborers: Over 50% of agricultural labor households were landless
in 1950-51, increasing to 57% by 1956-57.
o Agrarian Laws: Land distribution and ceiling laws by state governments were
ineffective because:
 Big landowners evaded laws.
 Traditional land customs were strong.
 Peasants were generally ignorant of their rights.

 Need for Change: Vinoba realized that legal reforms alone couldn't address these
issues. He aimed to bring about a moral and spiritual change in society's values to
solve the socio-economic problems.

Bhoodan Movement

 Origin: The idea of Bhoodan (land gift) came to Vinoba during his 1951 tour of
Telangana.
o Goal: To address India's basic land problem and improve the lives of landless
peasants.
o Beyond Land Distribution: While initially focused on land for the landless,
Bhoodan aimed at a broader social and economic revolution (Sarvodaya
society) through non-violent means.

 Mission: Not merely charity, Bhoodan was a call for landowners to:
o Recognize the importance of equitable land distribution.
o Contribute to true democracy by ensuring land tillers own the land they work
on.

 Meaning of 'Dan': In this context, 'Dan' means equal distribution, not charity.

Aims and Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the basis and ideology behind the Bhoodan Movement.

 Understand the concept of Gramdan (village gift).

5.2 Basis and Ideology

Basis and Ideology

 Core Principles: The Bhoodan movement is based on the universal principles of Love,
Truth, and Non-Violence.
o Trust Concept: Everything people possess, whether land, property,
knowledge, skills, or experience, should be seen as a trust.
o Community Sharing: These resources are not just for personal use; they
should benefit the whole community.

 Philosophy:
o Universal Brotherhood: Vinoba Bhave propagated a philosophy where
everyone lives as one family, sharing resources.
o Non-Violent Revolution: The goal is to achieve a non-violent agrarian
revolution by encouraging people to share their land.

 Evolution of Sharing:
o Initial Phase: Started with the surrender of part of a person's land.
o Later Phase: Evolved into the concept of total sharing.

 Aims of Bhoodan Movement:

o Agrarian Economy: To create an economy where land is not a commodity to
be bought or sold.
o Community Welfare: Individuals work for the benefit of the entire
community.

 Real Democracy and Decentralisation:

o Swaraj (Self-Rule): The movement aims to achieve real democracy or self-
rule by correcting economic centralisation.
o Power Decentralisation: Encourages the decentralisation of political and
economic power based on the principles of non-violence

5.6 Simplified Summary of Section 5.6

Gramdan

 Concept:
o Bhoodan: Involves individual acts of charity where landowners donate land,
which is then redistributed to the landless while maintaining private
ownership.
 o Gramdan: Involves collective community decisions to pool all village land and
abolish individual ownership, elevating the status of landless laborers to
equals within the community.

 Vision and Ideals:

o Inspired by Gandhi’s vision of self-sufficient, autonomous villages with
decentralized political and economic power.
o Aimed to create a society where individuals prioritize community welfare
over personal gains.

 Vinoba’s Elaboration:
o Advocates for a stateless society with localized production, distribution, and
education.
o Proposes minimal central authority, relying on moral authority and mutual
cooperation instead.

 Movement's Focus Areas (since 1963):

1. Establishing Gramdan villages across India.

2. Developing self-sufficient village industries (e.g., khadi).
3. Training a "Shanti Sena" (Peace Army) to maintain non-violence and control
conflicts.

 Expansion of the "Dan" Concept:

o Shramdan: Donation of labor to Sarvodaya projects.

o Sampattidan: Donation of property or income.
o Buddhidan: Donation of intellectual abilities and knowledge.
o Jeevandan: Dedication of one's entire life to the Movement's cause.

 Sulabh Gramdan (1963):

o Modified Concept: Differentiates between "ownership" and "possession" of
land.
o Concessions: Donors can retain up to 95% of their land, but it remains under
community control, preventing external takeover.

 Implementation Strategy:
o Blockdan: Achieved when a significant portion of a block’s land and
population join Gramdan.
o Districtdan: Achieved when all blocks in a district meet Blockdan conditions.
o Statedan: Achieved when all districts in a state meet Districtdan conditions.

 Progress by 1969:
o Claimed to have reached 1,40,000 out of 5,60,000 Indian villages.
o Bihar, with 90% coverage, was declared the first Statedan.

 Development Stages of a Village:

 1. Prapti: Persuading people to join Gramdan and transfer land ownership to
the village council.
2. Pushti: Implementing Gramdan conditions, redistributing land, and legally
transferring titles.
3. Nirman: Mobilizing resources for development programs through the Gram
Sabha (village assembly).

 Challenges and Criticism:

o By 1970, few villages had reached the "nirman" stage.

o Most were in the initial stages of propaganda and good intentions.
o Legal and agricultural follow-up was challenging and lacked adequate
support.
o Vinoba emphasized a change in attitude over immediate agricultural
productivity, aiming for broader societal loyalty.

 Historical Context:
o Despite the declaration of Bihar as a Statedan, the Naxalbari Movement
highlighted challenges to Vinoba’s approach, emphasizing revolutionary
methods for progress.
o Vinoba’s response was to withdraw and focus inward, maintaining his vision
despite external pressures.

5.7 Misgivings About the Bhoodan Movement

The Bhoodan movement has faced significant criticism from economists, philosophers,
political thinkers, and social reformers, including some followers of Gandhi. Key criticisms
are:

1. Absence of Clarity

 Critique: Lack of clear objectives; although it claims to promote a non-violent social

revolution for a stateless society, the practical benefits for the people are uncertain.
 Response: Advocates argue that the movement aims for the greatest good, focusing
on the welfare of the common man based on Gandhian ideals of non-violent social
change.

2. Lopsidedness

 Critique: The movement only assists landless villagers, ignoring those with small
plots who still need to work as laborers.
 Response: Bhoodan prioritizes landless laborers' urgent needs, aiming eventually to
eliminate land ownership distinctions through Gramdan.
3. Insufficient Land

 Critique: The land provided is often insufficient, not offering year-round employment
or significantly increasing income, potentially reducing cultivated land temporarily.
 Response: Donated land remains cultivated until redistributed, and even small plots
(five acres) are beneficial given the small average landholdings in India.

4. Fragmentation and Sub-Division

 Critique: Accepting small land donations from smallholders leads to further

fragmentation of land.
 Response: Small land donations are accepted to create a positive atmosphere for
bigger donations. Efforts are made to consolidate small plots before distribution.

5. Uneconomic Holdings

 Critique: The creation of small, uneconomic holdings from already tiny plots reduces
land productivity.
 Response: Five-acre holdings improve the existing situation, as most holdings in
India are smaller. Small plots can be productive with intensive cultivation, as seen in
Japan.

6. Land Unfit for Cultivation

 Critique: A large percentage of donated land is of poor quality or uncultivable.

 Response: About 35% of the collected land was found unfit for cultivation, but
efforts are made to reclaim and improve it. Donors are often asked to make land
cultivable before donating.

7. Question of Rehabilitation

 Critique: Simply giving land doesn't rehabilitate landless laborers without providing
resources for farming.
 Response: Vinoba Bhave advocated for providing necessary implements and
resources along with land, emphasizing collective efforts and shared resources.

8. Why Land to the Landless?

 Critique: Land isn't as essential as air, water, or sunlight; it's more like a factory and
should be used efficiently, not just distributed.
 Response: Bhoodan promotes the idea that land should benefit all, enhancing social
status and economic power of the landless, advocating for voluntary redistribution
and transformation of values.
9. Against Mechanised Farming

 Critique: Small plots from Bhoodan are unsuitable for mechanized farming,
necessary for higher productivity.
 Response: The movement encourages cooperative farming and aims for large plots if
villagers agree, balancing mechanization with the stability of village economies.

10. Legitimate Objection

 Critique: The distribution process is slow and inefficient.

 Response: As of March 1967, a significant amount of land had been collected, but
much of it remained to be distributed.

11. Target Not Achieved

 Critique: The target of fifty million acres by 1957 was unrealistic and not met.
 Response: Although the target wasn't met, the focus shifted to Gramdan, achieving
significant success with entire villages being donated.

12. Collectivisation or a Misgiving?

 Critique: There is concern that the movement might lead to collectivization, reducing
individual freedom and initiative.
 Response: Bhoodan doesn't impose collectivization; it aims to redistribute land while
promoting individual responsibility and community cooperation for the common
good.

Overall, while the Bhoodan movement faced various criticisms, it aimed to address deep-
rooted social and economic inequalities through voluntary land redistribution and fostering
a sense of community and shared responsibility.

5.8 Summary of the Bhoodan Movement

 Context: In post-independent India, during a period of reconstruction, the Bhoodan

movement emerged as a hopeful initiative for the landless poor, aiming to improve
their lives.
 Gandhian Spirit: The movement was deeply rooted in Gandhian ideals, aiming for
the ultimate good of society, known as 'sarvodaya' (the welfare of all).
 Challenges: Despite its noble goals, the movement lost momentum due to a lack of
sustained effort and follow-up.
 Historical Significance: It remains a significant historical effort, demonstrating the
practical application of Gandhian principles.
 Legacy: Although we may not see another movement like Bhoodan, it continues to
inspire hope that a true non-violent movement can succeed with determination and
goodwill.
Unit 6
Total Revolution

6.1 Introduction to Total Revolution

 Roots in Gandhian Teachings:

o The concept of Total Revolution is deeply rooted in Gandhi’s teachings.
o Jayaprakash Narayan, the leader of the movement, turned to Gandhi’s ideas
after becoming disillusioned with traditional revolutionary methods.
 Extension of Gandhian Thought:
o Total Revolution extends Gandhi’s ideas on socio-economic problems and
methods of change to address contemporary issues.
o Narayan’s journey from Marxism to Gandhism shaped this concept.
 Gandhi’s Unconventional Thinking:
o Gandhi's unique approach to social and economic arrangements gave his
ideas a revolutionary character.
o Narayan built on these ideas, emphasizing specific components.
 Vision of Total Revolution:
o It is a comprehensive vision of the relationship between the individual, state,
and society.
o This vision is informed by over two centuries of industrial development.
 Foundation on Gandhian Principles:
o Based on Gandhi’s basic principles, the movement advocates for non-violent
methods of societal change.
o It aims for a holistic process of change at both individual and societal levels.
 Key Emphases:
o Moral Values: Placing a primary emphasis on moral values.
o Decentralization: Promoting the decentralization of economic and political
power.
o Non-Violence: Insisting on non-violent means to achieve positive ends.

Aims and Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:

 The concept, components, and dynamics of change within Total Revolution.

 The modes of action that drove the movement forward.

6.2 Concept of Total Revolution

Understanding Revolution:

 General Definitions:
o Revolution often refers to a change in the dominant values of a community.
o Common definitions emphasize a transformation in social relationships and
institutional bases.
 o Structural change theorists view revolution as replacing one social structure
with another, particularly in economic terms.
 Economic Structure:
o Narrow (Marxian) View: Focuses on changes in property ownership and
economic relations.
o Broader View: Includes changes in various aspects of the social structure
beyond just economic relations.
 Institutional Change:
o Wilbert E. More: Defines revolution as a significant change involving a large
portion of the population, affecting government structure.
o Other definitions include changes in leadership, legal/constitutional changes,
and violent acts.

Total Revolution and Gandhian Approach:

 Comprehensive Change:
o Gandhi believed partial changes could lead to societal instability; thus, all-
around change is necessary.
o Total Revolution involves a holistic change in individual behavior, attitudes,
and societal structures.
 Gandhi’s Beliefs:
o Revolution starts in the minds of individuals.
o Individuals must first change themselves to bring about societal change.
o It includes changes in lifestyle, thought, and behavior.

Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) and Total Revolution:

 Historical Context:
o JP introduced the concept of Total Revolution during the Bihar Movement in
1974.
o Aimed at addressing the broader issues beyond students' demands, seeking a
complete societal transformation.
 Gandhi’s Influence:
o JP built on Gandhi’s ideas, emphasizing moral character and non-violent
methods for change.
o Vinoba Bhave also contributed to the idea, advocating for changes in hearts,
lives, and social structures.

JP’s Vision of Total Revolution:

 Philosophical Foundations:
o Total Revolution is both a change in material conditions and moral character.
o Involves personal and social ethics, and economic, political, and social
institutions.
 Continuity with Past Movements:
o JP saw Total Revolution as a continuation of non-violent movements like
Bhoodan and Gramdan.
 o Sarvodaya (universal upliftment) is the goal, and Total Revolution is the
means to achieve it.

Process of Total Revolution:

 Individual and Societal Change:

o Emphasizes the need for individuals to change first to inspire societal change.
o Morally transformed individuals drive the process of change.
o Societal change and individual transformation should occur simultaneously.

JP’s Revolutionary Practice:

 Lifestyle and Attitude:

o JP’s concept of revolution includes commitment to the cause and personal
lifestyle changes.
o He blended ideas with practice, constantly refining his concepts through real-
world application.
 Non-Conformist Approach:
o JP’s vision of revolution deviates from conventional definitions, incorporating
a wide range of variables and emphasizing non-violence and moral integrity.

In summary, Total Revolution, as conceptualized by Jayaprakash Narayan, is a holistic and

comprehensive approach to societal transformation rooted in Gandhian principles. It
emphasizes moral values, non-violence, and simultaneous changes in both individual
behavior and societal structures to achieve a stable and dynamic society.

6.3 The Components of Total Revolution

Overview:

 Total Revolution encompasses seven components: social, economic, political,

cultural, ideological, intellectual, educational, and spiritual.
 These components can be restructured into three main categories: cultural, social-
economic, and political.

Cultural Revolution:

 Comprehensive Sense:
o Culture includes spiritual, moral, ideological, intellectual, and educational
aspects.
o Focuses on individual and group behavior and moral values.
 Ends and Means:
o Emphasis on the importance of ethical means to achieve goals.
o JP, following Gandhi, opposed unscrupulous methods used by communists
and stressed moral and ethical foundations.
 Moral and Ideological Change:
o Changing moral values leads to a change in belief systems (ideology).
o A new ideological revolution aligns with Gandhian thought.
  Intellectual Change:
o A change in the ends-means approach leads to a new intellectual outlook.
 Educational Change:
o Education should drive social change and national development.
o JP’s educational reforms include:
 More emphasis on social service and national development activities
in educational institutions.
 Expansion of non-formal education and vocational training.
 Focus on universal elementary education, adult education, and
education for out-of-school youths.
 Changes in higher education to improve quality and accessibility, with
a focus on vocational education and delinking degrees from
employment.

Social-Economic Revolution:

 Marxian Influence:
o Social revolution often includes economic revolution.
o JP adapted this to the Indian context, considering caste and economic class
distinctions.
 Caste and Social Change:
o Total Revolution aims to break caste barriers and introduce new social
norms.
o Practices like inter-caste dining, abolition of dowry, and modern marriage
norms are essential.
 Economic Change:
o Focus on technological, industrial, and agricultural revolutions with changes
in ownership and management.
o Promotes diversified ownership patterns and labor-intensive small-scale
industries linked to agriculture.
o Advocates for “land to the tillers” and effective implementation of land
reform laws to ensure land ownership for those who cultivate it and fair
wages for landless laborers.

Political Revolution:

 Decentralization of Power:
o Following Gandhi’s vision, JP emphasized power rising from grassroots levels,
avoiding centralization.
o Advocated for local governance structures (village, block, district levels) with
most power residing at these levels.
o Supported the panchayati raj system for decentralized governance.
 Partyless Democracy:
o Rejected Western democracy models for not allowing full participation in
self-management.
o Proposed a model where individuals manage their affairs without political
parties, seeing parties as sources of many evils.
 o Suggested reforms in the parliamentary system and election processes to
prevent corruption and ensure fair elections.
 Key Political Reforms:
o Creation of formal structures at local levels for effective power distribution.
o Emphasized the need for electoral reforms to prevent defections and reduce
the influence of money in politics.
o Suggested the introduction of a recall clause for legislators to ensure
accountability to constituents.

Summary: Total Revolution, as envisioned by Jayaprakash Narayan, is a comprehensive and

holistic approach to societal transformation. It includes moral, ideological, and intellectual
changes under cultural revolution; economic reforms and caste system changes under
social-economic revolution; and decentralization of political power with reforms in the
electoral process under political revolution. This multifaceted approach aims to create a just
and equitable society through non-violent means and ethical practices

Mode of Action in Total Revolution

Overview:

 Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) advocated three main modes of action for achieving Total
Revolution.
 These modes include direct non-violent action, formation of people’s committees,
and class struggle.

Direct Non-Violent Action:

 Context:
o Constitutional devices might be inadequate in addressing issues like
corruption, inefficiency, and authoritarianism within the regime between
elections.
o In such cases, waiting for the next election might not be advisable.
 Action:
o JP urged people to resort to non-violent action instead of waiting for the next
election.
o Non-violent action serves as a means to resist injustices and tyrannies within
the system.

Formation of People’s Committees:

 Purpose:
o People’s committees were envisioned as organs of people’s power at the
grassroots level.
o They have a dual function: mobilizing people’s energies into constructive
channels and resisting injustices.
 Interaction with State Power:
 o These committees are meant to interact with state power in a constructive
manner.
o Jan Shakti (People’s power) and Rajya Shakti (State power) are supposed to
complement each other.

Class Struggle:

 Overlap of Caste and Class:

o Caste and class tend to overlap both sociologically and economically in Indian
society.
o JP advocated for non-violent resistance against injustices and tyrannies faced
by the ‘have-nots’.
 Moral Appeal:
o JP lifted the appeal to resist injustice to a moral plane.
o It’s not merely about economic interests but a choice between good and evil,
justice and injustice.
 Role of Nonviolence:
o Nonviolence involves self-suffering and aims to arouse moral sensibilities in
both parties.
o Violence in class struggle perpetuates animosity, whereas nonviolence aims
for reconciliation.

Summary: Jayaprakash Narayan proposed three main modes of action for achieving Total
Revolution: direct non-violent action, formation of people’s committees, and class struggle.
These approaches aim to address issues of corruption, inefficiency, and injustice within the
system, while also promoting constructive engagement between people’s power and state
power. Non-violence plays a crucial role in resisting injustices and promoting moral values in
societal change.

6.4 Mode of Action in Total Revolution

Overview:

 Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) advocated three main modes of action for achieving Total
Revolution.
 These modes include direct non-violent action, formation of people’s committees,
and class struggle.

Direct Non-Violent Action:

 Context:
o Constitutional devices might be inadequate in addressing issues like
corruption, inefficiency, and authoritarianism within the regime between
elections.
o In such cases, waiting for the next election might not be advisable.
 Action:
 o JP urged people to resort to non-violent action instead of waiting for the next
election.
o Non-violent action serves as a means to resist injustices and tyrannies within
the system.

Formation of People’s Committees:

 Purpose:
o People’s committees were envisioned as organs of people’s power at the
grassroots level.
o They have a dual function: mobilizing people’s energies into constructive
channels and resisting injustices.
 Interaction with State Power:
o These committees are meant to interact with state power in a constructive
manner.
o Jan Shakti (People’s power) and Rajya Shakti (State power) are supposed to
complement each other.

Class Struggle:

 Overlap of Caste and Class:

o Caste and class tend to overlap both sociologically and economically in Indian
society.
o JP advocated for non-violent resistance against injustices and tyrannies faced
by the ‘have-nots’.
 Moral Appeal:
o JP lifted the appeal to resist injustice to a moral plane.
o It’s not merely about economic interests but a choice between good and evil,
justice and injustice.
 Role of Nonviolence:
o Nonviolence involves self-suffering and aims to arouse moral sensibilities in
both parties.
o Violence in class struggle perpetuates animosity, whereas nonviolence aims
for reconciliation.

Summary: Jayaprakash Narayan proposed three main modes of action for achieving Total
Revolution: direct non-violent action, formation of people’s committees, and class struggle.
These approaches aim to address issues of corruption, inefficiency, and injustice within the
system, while also promoting constructive engagement between people’s power and state
power. Non-violence plays a crucial role in resisting injustices and promoting moral values in
societal change.

Unit 7
Prohibition Movements
7.1 Introduction to Prohibition

Historical Significance:

 Prohibition holds a significant place in the agendas of various groups, including

Gandhians in India, neo-puritans in the West, and religious communities worldwide.
 Gandhi's staunch commitment to prohibition stemmed from his personal
experiences in India and abroad, along with deep reflections on the plight of the
Indian masses.

Policy Efforts:

 Advocates of prohibition have made efforts to push it into mainstream political

agendas and enact legislation, albeit with limited success.
 However, contemporary policy priorities, particularly in India, often prioritize
maximizing revenue from liquor production and sales, overlooking public health
concerns related to morbidity and mortality.

Aims and Objectives: Upon completing this unit, you will:

 Understand the meanings of prohibition and temperance.

 Trace the evolution of anti-liquor movements and attempts at prohibition.
 Explore Gandhi’s perspectives on various aspects of prohibition.
 Examine the problems and issues associated with prohibition and liquor addiction.

7.3 Gandhi and Kumarappa on Prohibition

Gandhi's Perspective:

 Gandhi considered prohibition a cornerstone of his vision for a better world.

 He likened alcohol consumption to a disease rather than just a vice, believing it to be
more damaging than theft or prostitution.
 Reflecting on historical examples, Gandhi attributed the downfall of empires to
alcohol abuse.
 He advocated for total prohibition, condemning alcohol for its detrimental effects on
physical, moral, intellectual, and economic well-being.
 Gandhi emphasized the need to prioritize the moral and pragmatic grounds for
prohibition, urging congressmen to implement total prohibition without
compromise.
 He proposed stringent measures against liquor production and consumption,
including tough penalties for offenders.
 Gandhi integrated prohibition into his constructive program, considering it essential
for societal well-being.
 While passionate about prohibition, Gandhi acknowledged cultural differences in
attitudes towards drinking and recognized the need for tailored approaches in
different contexts.
Kumarappa's Viewpoint:

 Kumarappa echoed Gandhi's advocacy for prohibition, emphasizing its importance in

safeguarding the interests of the poor.
 He highlighted the social and economic impact of alcohol addiction on families,
advocating for state intervention to curb individual freedom in the interest of
society.
 Drawing parallels with narcotic drugs, Kumarappa argued for legislative measures to
restrict alcohol consumption, citing examples from Hinduism and Islam that prohibit
drinking.
 He emphasized the role of educative propaganda alongside prohibition, viewing it as
a non-violent approach to tackling the problem.
 Kumarappa criticized moderate drinking, arguing that it often leads to excessive
consumption and addiction.
 He proposed socio-economic reforms and the provision of recreational facilities as
alternatives to alcohol consumption, addressing the underlying causes of drinking.
 Kumarappa condemned liquor taxation as unjust and advocated for revenue
diversification to offset the loss from prohibition.
 He presented statistics to demonstrate the positive impact of prohibition on savings,
investments, public health, and social cohesion.
 Kumarappa stressed the importance of public cooperation for the success of
prohibition, recognizing that legislation alone cannot eliminate the problem.

Both Gandhi and Kumarappa viewed prohibition as not only a moral imperative but also a
pragmatic solution to address social, economic, and health issues caused by alcohol
consumption. They advocated for comprehensive approaches that encompassed legislative
measures, socio-economic reforms, and public awareness campaigns to achieve their vision
of a society free from the harms of alcohol.

7.4 Effects of Alcohol Consumption: Research Findings

Alcohol and Social Interaction:

 Alcohol impacts social interactions in various ways, both positive and negative.
 Intoxication can lead to changes in behavior and appearance, sometimes resulting in
negative reactions from others.
 It may disrupt interactions through rude or obnoxious behavior.
 Excessive affectionate behavior, while intended positively, can sometimes be
perceived negatively.
 Alcohol can attract people together but also incite aggression and conflict, often
leading to violence.
 Individuals may use alcohol as an excuse for deviant behavior, such as vandalism or
theft, claiming lack of responsibility.

Alcohol-Related Social Costs:

  Extensive research has been conducted on the social costs of alcohol consumption,
including mortality, morbidity, and lost productivity.
 The majority of alcohol-related costs to society stem from mortality, morbidity, and
lost productivity due to illness or death.
 While alcohol-related crimes contribute to costs, they make up a smaller percentage
compared to mortality and morbidity.
 Alcohol-related crimes have significant intangible costs, causing fear, suffering, and
trauma to victims and negatively affecting their quality of life.
 These crimes also undermine societal norms and consensual foundations necessary
for societal functioning.

Alcohol and Crime:

 There is a strong correlation between alcohol addiction and criminal behavior.

 Studies in the US and other countries show high levels of alcohol involvement in
murders, family violence, child abuse, robberies, rapes, and arson.
 Traffic offenses are a major category of alcohol-related crimes, as alcohol impairs
judgment and increases risk-taking behaviors.
 Statistical evidence supports the link between alcohol consumption and criminal
behavior, although under-reporting of minor crimes and rape is an issue due to
victim stigma or perpetrator influence.

Alcohol consumption not only affects individuals but also has significant social and economic
consequences, including increased mortality, morbidity, lost productivity, and crime rates.
Understanding these effects is crucial for implementing effective prevention and
intervention strategies.

7.5 Tax Levies and Social Costs of Liquor Addiction

Neo-Puritan Argument:

 Neo-puritans argue that liquor consumers don't bear the full costs of their choices
but impose costs on society.
 They suggest heavy taxes and levies on liquor to compensate for these "social costs."

Effects of Taxation:

 High taxes raise liquor prices, discouraging consumption, especially among moderate
drinkers.
 However, they also affect responsible drinkers, punishing them for the actions of a
minority.

Regulatory Cycle:

 The tension between prohibition and taxation leads to a cycle: prohibition satisfies
anti-liquor movements but benefits bootleggers.
 Prohibition often leads to underground markets, law disobedience, and calls for
repeal, restarting the cycle.
Price Increase and Consumption:

 Research shows alcohol consumption is sensitive to price, with price increases

leading to reduced consumption.
 Heavy drinkers are less responsive to price changes, while addicts are even less
sensitive.
 Price increases can also reduce alcohol-related problems like fatal motor vehicle
crashes and liver cirrhosis mortality.

Health Effects:

 Higher alcohol prices could lead to reductions in various health issues, including liver
cirrhosis, motor vehicle crashes, homicides, suicides, and domestic violence.
 Analysts suggest that alongside tax increases, additional policies should be
implemented to tackle alcohol consumption and abuse effectively.

7.7 Discussion and Suggestions on Alcohol Policy

Loss of Revenue and Prohibition:

 Prohibition in India faces challenges due to revenue loss for state governments.
Advocates propose austerity measures and cuts in defense spending to compensate,
with partial support from the Union Government.

Balanced Approach Needed:

 Extreme policies like complete prohibition or total permissiveness are ineffective. A

balanced approach integrating regulation with rigorous public health enforcement is
essential for sustainable alcohol policy.

Public Health Intervention:

 Alcohol misuse poses chronic public health problems in India. Rational policies based
on public health approaches are needed to address alcohol-related morbidity and
mortality effectively.

Behavioural Counselling Campaigns:

 Campaigns like those in Western countries involving behavioural counselling can

help individuals understand the health risks of excessive alcohol consumption,
empowering them to make informed lifestyle choices.

Regulation of Alcohol Retailing:

 Implementing tough measures to curb irresponsible expansion of retail outlets,

restricting new entrants, and preventing excessive consumption can mitigate risks
associated with liquor consumption. Locating liquor shops away from religious and
educational institutions is crucial.
Effective Implementation of Laws:

 State governments must ensure the effective implementation of laws regarding illicit
distillation and sale of spurious liquor, requiring commitment from those in
authority.

Expansion of Dry Days and Restriction of Outlet Hours:

 Increasing the number of dry days, including pay days and festival days, and
restricting the hours of retail liquor outlets can help reduce alcohol consumption.

Enforcement during Election Campaigns:

 Rigorous enforcement of anti-liquor laws during election campaigns, including

apprehending drunk individuals, can curb liquor consumption and promote healthier
political campaigning.

Research on Social Costs:

 India should undertake rigorous research on the social costs of alcohol consumption
to inform rational public policy making, drawing from the experiences of Western
countries.

Empowering Local Communities:

 Women's groups advocating for devolution of power to local bodies in controlling

liquor access, licensing vendors, and providing treatment services to alcoholics can
empower communities to make decisions through referenda and community-based
participatory approaches, particularly through women's self-help groups.

Unit 8
Farmer’s Movements

8.1 Introduction to Farmers' Movements in India

Historical Context:

 India has a rich history of peasant or farmers' movements, dating back to the
colonial period. These movements arose due to severe exploitation, oppression, loss
of land rights, imposition of new taxes, and changes in agrarian relations under
colonial rule or feudal landlords.
 Farmers revolted against Zamindars, landlords, and British colonial powers. Many
movements occurred independently or as part of the nationalist struggle.

Key Struggles:
  Significant peasant revolts during the British period include the Bhil Revolt (1822,
1823, 1837-60), Deccan Peasant Revolt (1875), Mopilla Revolt (1921), Muslhi
Satyagraha (1921-24), Struggle of Warlis (1945), Birsa Munda revolt, and Nagar
Peasant Uprising (1830-33).
 Gandhi led three notable struggles: Champaran (1918-19) against the Tinkathia
System imposed on Indigo cultivators, Bardoli (1925), and Kheda (1918) against
oppressive rent demands during distress.

Impact:

 These struggles brought peasants into the nationalist movement, highlighting their
grievances and uniting them against oppressive systems.

Aims and Objectives

After Reading This Unit, You Would Understand:

 The post-independence farmers' movement in India.

 Farmers' movements influenced by Gandhi or Gandhian ideology.
 The extent to which the New Farmers' Movement adhered to Gandhian principles.
 The contributions of the New Farmers' Movement in the overall Indian context.

8.2 Farmers' Movement After Independence

Shift in Nature:

 With the end of colonial rule, the nature of peasant or farmers' movements in India
changed significantly.
 Post-independence, two main types of farmers' struggles emerged:

1. Peasant Movements Led by Marxist and Socialists:

 Examples include the Telangana Movement (1946-51), Tebagha Movement (1946-

1949), Kagodu Satyagraha (1951), Naxalbari Movement (1967), and Lalgarh
Movement (2009).

2. Farmers' Movement Led by Rich Farmers:

 These movements were led by wealthy farmers in states like Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, and Gujarat.

Conceptualization Challenges:

 Scholars faced challenges in conceptualizing these movements, particularly in

distinguishing between "peasants" and "farmers."
  The term "peasant" is being replaced by "farmers" due to the development
paradigm post-independence, which created a new category known as "Market
Oriented" farmers.
 Peasants are defined as those living at a subsistence level and avoiding market
competition, while farmers actively engage in market competition, aiming for
autonomy in production, distribution, and cropping patterns.
 The introduction of the Green Revolution, new technology, and government
subsidies created a category known as "rich farmers."

New Farmers' Movement:

 Movements led by these rich farmers have been termed as the "New Farmers'
Movement."
 This movement shares similarities with the Gandhian movement of the past in terms
of strategies, methodologies, politics, and analysis.
 Some organizations within the New Farmers' Movement openly advocate Gandhism,
while others, like the Shektari Sanghathana of Maharashtra, do not fully adhere to
Gandhism.

8.3 New Farmers' Movement

8.3.1 The Beginning

 Genesis: The movement emerged in the 1970s, gaining momentum in the 1980s.
 Key Figures: Chaudhury Charan Singh organized farmers in political parties,
addressing issues like price parity, representation, and subsidies.
 Regional Initiatives:
o Punjab: Khetkari Zamindari Union struggled on various fronts like power
tariffs and tractor quality.
o Tamil Nadu: Narayana Swamy Naidu organized Tamiliga Vyavasaigal Sangam,
advocating for farmers' rights and wearing green towels as symbols.
 1980s: Maharashtra's Shetkari Sanghathana, led by Sharad Joshi, began with a focus
on remunerative prices for commodities like onions. Similar movements started in
Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.

8.3.2 Major Struggles

 Uttar Pradesh: Bharatiya Kisan Union led by Mahendra Singh Tikait organized rallies
and agitations against issues like power tariffs and arrears.
 Karnataka: Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha conducted roadblocks, rail rokos, and
agitations for remunerative prices and against social forestry.
 Maharashtra: Shetkari Sanghathana focused on remunerative prices through
protests like rail rokos and Pandharpur rallies.
8.3.3 Debate about "Newness"

 Argument: Some believe the movements are not entirely new but reenact old
strategies.
 Proponents:
o Focus on economic issues like remunerative prices.
o Address exploitation within larger market systems.
o Reject categorizing movements based on economic status.

8.3.4 Movements Beyond Local to Global

 Opposing Globalization: Movements in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab

protested globalization, fearing loss of identity and cultural degradation.
 Actions: Protested in front of multinational companies and opposed genetically
modified crops.
 Differences: Some movements avoided global forums like the World Social Forum,
preferring independent anti-globalization initiatives.

8.3.5 Ideology of the Farmers' Movement

 Diverse Ideologies: Movements vary from Gandhian principles to critiques of

capitalism.
 Maharashtra: Shetkari Sanghathana advocates for a free economy, opposing state
intervention.
 Karnataka: Raitha Sangha combines Gandhian principles with arguments about
colonialism's effects on Third World countries.

8.3.6 Party Politics and Division

 Political Engagement: Some movements formed political parties or engaged with

existing ones.
 Maharashtra: Shetkari Sanghathana formed Swatantra Bharat Party and aligned with
parties like BJP and Shiv Sena.
 Karnataka: Emphasized larger social coalitions rather than direct political
participation.

8.3.7 Social Bases of the Farmers' Movement

 Criticism: Accusations of bias towards market-oriented farmers and dominant

castes.
 Representation: Movements primarily focused on the concerns of rich and middle
peasants, often neglecting marginalized groups.

8.3.8 Gandhism in Farmers' Movement

 Debate: Some movements claim Gandhian roots despite incorporating diverse

ideologies.
  Practices: Embraced non-violent strategies and simple living principles, although
some movements like Shetkari Sanghathana used militaristic language.
 Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab: Adopted Gandhian principles like fasting
and decentralized organizing.

8.4 Summary of the New Farmers' Movement

 Emergence: The New Farmers' Movement arose amid agricultural crisis, marked by
declining income, rising input costs, and unfavorable trade terms.
 Origins: Began in Maharashtra with Shetkari Sanghatana's demand for fair onion
prices, followed by movements in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.
 Diverse Initiatives: Despite simultaneous starts, internal differences prevented
unified action, limiting their impact on Indian politics.
 Paradigm Shift: Despite divisions, the movement reshaped discourse and
policymaking on agriculture, prompting attention to rural crises.
 International Engagement: Farmers' movements participated in global anti-
globalization, anti-imperialism, and anti-capitalism movements.
 Limitations:
o Lack of Radical Agenda: Failed to push for radical land reforms or address
atrocities against marginalized groups like Dalits.
o Limited Social Base: Identified with affluent or market-oriented farmers,
neglecting other rural demographics.
o Localized Operations: Operated mainly in areas dominated by affluent
farmers, limiting their reach.
 Significance: Despite weaknesses, the New Farmers' Movement brought fresh
perspectives to the study of Indian agricultural activism, reflecting aspects of
Gandhism in their approaches.

Unit 9
Chipko Movement

9.1 Introduction

 Gandhi's Influence: Gandhi's life and principles continue to inspire various

movements worldwide. Today, environmental concerns have become prominent
globally, and Gandhi's influence is evident in this arena as well.
 Early Environmentalist: Gandhi is increasingly recognized as one of the earliest
environmentalists, particularly since the inception of the Chipko Movement in the
Garhwal Himalayas.
 Western Development Model: Gandhi's primary concern was with the Western
model of development and its potential negative impacts if adopted by countries like
India. He warned against replicating the exploitative practices of England and
America.
 Chipko Movement: This movement originated as a response to the commercial
exploitation of forests by contractors and forest officials. It stands as a significant
 environmental movement in India, characterized by its adoption of Gandhian
principles of protest.

Aims and Objectives:

After studying this unit, you will:

 Understand the importance of non-violent environmental movements.

 Explore Gandhi's perspectives on nature and environmental protection.
 Learn about the origins of the Chipko Movement and its Gandhian approach to
resisting forest resource exploitation.
 Examine the emergence of eco-feminism in India.

Gandhi: The Champion of Environment Cause

 Simple Living, High Thinking: Gandhi's lifestyle and teachings serve as a significant
reference for environmentalists. His emphasis on living simply and thinking deeply,
evident in his ashrams, reflects his commitment to living in harmony with nature.
 Reservations about Industrialization: Gandhi's concerns about India's wholesale
industrialization weren't solely moral; they also had ecological implications. He
cautioned against uninterrupted industrialization, urbanization, and profit-driven
capitalism, which he believed harmed both humanity and nature.
 Balanced Approach: Gandhi advocated for a balanced approach that didn't harm
either humans or nature. Despite being initially ignored, his ideas are now
appreciated as experiences have shown the wisdom in his approach.
 Man-Nature Synchronisation: Gandhi stressed the importance of harmonizing the
relationship between humans and nature, a concept often overlooked in post-
independent India.
 Respect for Nature: In Gandhi's paradigm, respect for nature is as essential as
respect for diverse traditions, cultures, and community livelihoods.
 Practical Utopian: Gandhi skillfully combined visionary ideals with practical means.
His austere lifestyle served as a personal example, while his followers like
Kumarappa and Mira Behn embodied his principles in their lives and works.
 Preference for Traditional Life: Gandhi favored a traditional way of life, preferring
natural elements like air, water, and sunshine over urban living. He advocated for
reducing wants and using minimal resources voluntarily.
 Influence on Environmental Thinking: Gandhi's ideas continue to influence
environmental thinking and practice. They have spurred further non-violent
environmental movements, shaping the trajectory of environmental activism.

9.3 Environmental Movements: Protecting Nature

 Purpose of Environmental Movements: These movements arise against

development projects that excessively use and exploit natural resources. In market
economies, development often prioritizes material progress and consumerism,
overlooking the finite nature of resources and the threat of depletion to human
survival.
  Social and Political Significance: Environmental movements involve various
individuals and events, contributing to social change. They attract participation from
local communities and beyond, setting examples for future generations.
 Ecological Movements: These movements advocate for a non-violent world order
that conserves nature for survival. They demand the right to live peacefully and
justly while preserving the environment. Their success at the grassroots level
impacts global issues of survival.
 Evolution of Environmental Movements in the West: In the US, environmental
movements evolved in waves, starting with land and wildlife conservation, then
pollution control, and later lobbying for industrial waste regulation. Grassroots
movements emerged, reflecting a growing concern for environmental issues.
 India's Historical Concern for Nature: Unlike the West, India has a long-standing
tradition of caring for nature, rooted in spiritual and moral values rather than
materialism. However, modernization and liberalization exposed India to
materialistic lifestyles, prompting environmental concerns.
 International Recognition of Environmental Issues: In the 1970s, environmental
issues gained international attention, exemplified by the Stockholm Conference.
India committed to protecting the environment according to international norms.
The Chipko Movement, already underway, inspired subsequent environmental
movements.
 Grassroots Nature of Indian Movements: Environmental movements in India are
predominantly led by rural and tribal communities, rather than the educated elite.
They initially protested against companies exploiting forest resources and later
focused on water, biodiversity, and pollution issues.
 Historical Examples: Early instances of forest conservation date back to the 18th
century, such as the Bishnoi community's efforts to protect trees. During British rule,
forest resources were extensively used for commercial purposes, leading to
resistance from local communities. The Chipko Movement, emerging post-
independence, became a pioneering example for environmental activism.

9.4 Chipko Andolan: Women Protecting Nature

 Origin and Context: The Chipko Movement emerged in the fragile ecology of the
Garhwal Himalayan region, where massive deforestation threatened local
livelihoods. Women, often left in villages while men sought income elsewhere,
became the custodians of dwindling resources.
 Historical Exploitation: During British rule, forests were leased to contractors for
commercial exploitation, leading to resentment among locals who lost traditional
rights. Deforestation accelerated, affecting women who relied on forest resources
for daily needs.
 Early Visionaries: Figures like Mira Behn and Sarala Behn, disciples of Gandhi,
recognized the ecological crisis as early as the 1940s. They warned against
deforestation and advocated for sustainable practices.
 Women's Leadership: Women like Gaura Devi and Gunga Devi led the Chipko
Movement, hugging trees to prevent their felling. They protested against
commercial exploitation and mobilized villages to protect forests.
  Key Events: Significant protests occurred in 1973 and 1977 against tree auctions and
felling. Women tied sacred threads to trees and stood guard against armed police
and contractors, singing songs to affirm their connection to nature.
 Impact: The Chipko Movement successfully halted commercial tree felling and led to
government bans on deforestation in the region. It empowered women and inspired
similar movements across India.
 Legacy: Chipko remains a symbol of grassroots environmental activism, highlighting
the role of women in protecting nature and advocating for sustainable practices.

9.5 Chipko Movement: A Case of Ecofeminism

 Background: The Chipko Movement is often debated as a women's movement due

to the prominent role played by women in protecting forests. While both men and
women were involved, women's remarkable determination attracted global
attention to their cause.
 Ecofeminist Perspective: Ecofeminism highlights the interconnectedness of women
and nature. In ancient cultures like India, women are seen as nurturing life, reflecting
the feminine principle inherent in nature. However, modern industrial forces disrupt
this harmony.
 Women's Role: Women's traditional ecological knowledge and their role in
sustaining life beyond biology demonstrate their deep connection to nature. They
are often the first to recognize and resist environmental degradation.
 Critiques: Some argue that women's involvement in environmental protection is
driven by their economic dependence on nature rather than altruism. They prioritize
immediate subsistence needs over long-term ecological concerns.
 Marginalization: Despite their contributions, women remain marginalized in
decision-making roles in environmental governance. The Chipko Movement, while
raising awareness, did not alleviate women's broader socio-economic struggles.
 Policy Impact: The movement prompted policy changes in forest management and
environmental conservation. However, it fell short in addressing gender disparities
and empowering women in official roles.
 Ecofeminist Ideals: Despite criticisms, ecofeminist principles, advocated by scholars
like Vandana Shiva, emphasize the intrinsic value of nature and the need for
sustainable coexistence. The Chipko Movement embodies a non-violent resistance to
exploitative forestry practices.
 Conclusion: The Chipko Movement, whether labeled as ecofeminist or not,
underscores the urgent need to preserve natural resources for the well-being of all.
It symbolizes a grassroots effort to reclaim ecological harmony and promote
sustainable livelihoods.

9.6 Summary: The Chipko Movement

 Development Concept: In a market-driven economy, development is often equated

with material progress and increased production. However, this overlooks the
interconnectedness of all living beings and the impact of resource depletion,
especially on women and children who are disproportionately affected.
  Chipko Struggle: The Chipko Movement emerged as a resistance against this flawed
notion of development. It aimed to prevent the commodification of forest resources
and advocated for the conservation of resources essential for local communities'
livelihoods.
 Women's Leadership: Women, often marginalized and most affected by adverse
development practices, played a central role in the Chipko Movement. They
showcased remarkable leadership, becoming decision-makers and sources of
strength.
 Non-violent Activism: Chipko activists employed non-violent means to advocate for
environmental conservation. Their approach serves as a valuable lesson for similar
movements worldwide, highlighting the effectiveness of peaceful activism.
 Resurgence of Woman Power: The Chipko Movement symbolized the resurgence of
women's empowerment and their deep concern for the environment. It underscored
the importance of judiciously utilizing natural resources for the benefit of all
humankind.
 Global Impact: The movement's principles resonate globally, emphasizing the need
for sustainable resource management and the recognition of women's pivotal role in
environmental protection.

The Chipko Movement stands as a testament to the power of grassroots activism and serves
as an inspiration for environmental movements worldwide.

Unit 10
Narmada/Tehri Bachao Andolan

10.1 Introduction to Narmada Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam

 Non-violent Struggle: The Narmada Bachao Andolan and Tehri Dam protests are
notable examples of peaceful resistance against large dam projects. They adopted
Gandhian methods like fasting and mass protests to oppose these constructions.
 Rehabilitation Concerns: These movements are not solely about opposing dam
construction but also about ensuring the rehabilitation of those who lose their land
and livelihood due to these projects. Dams often displace local communities closely
tied to their natural environment.
 Objectives:
o Understand the post-independence era's reliance on large dams for
development.
o Examine the cases of Narmada and Tehri dams.
o Assess the impact of these dams on the livelihoods of local communities.
o Explore the goals of non-violent resistance against large dam projects.

These movements highlight the complex issues surrounding large-scale development

projects and the need to consider the welfare of affected communities.
10.2 Dam Constructions

Reasons for Large Dam Constructions

 Large dams are primarily built to harness water resources for irrigation, hydro-
electric projects, and supplying drinking water.
 Throughout history, civilizations like Sumeria, Babylonia, Egypt, Ceylon, and
Cambodia showcased impressive engineering feats with large dams.
 Modern dam construction involves advanced concrete technology and earth-moving
machinery, resulting in colossal structures.
 These dams, such as the Aswan High Dam in Egypt and the Volta Dam in Ghana, are
celebrated as engineering marvels due to their immense size and complexity.
 The increasing global population demands more water resources, leading to the
exploitation of available sources, sometimes controlled by multinational
corporations (MNCs).

Funding and Expansion

 Many large dams receive funding from international organizations like the IMF, IBRD,
and other aid agencies.
 The number of dam projects has significantly increased, with countries like the
Philippines planning hundreds of dams.
 These projects are often seen as vital for improving water access, preventing floods,
reducing soil erosion, and promoting economic development through hydro-electric
power and irrigation.

Dam Constructions in India

 During British rule, India constructed over a hundred large dams, primarily to combat
famine.
 Post-independence, dam construction continued as symbols of progress, with
projects like Hirakud, Damodar, and Bhakra-Nangal.
 However, the rapid increase in dam numbers led to negative impacts, including:
1. Destruction of agricultural land
2. Conversion of fertile land into salt-encrusted areas
3. Displacement of communities for dam and reservoir construction
4. Disruption of social and cultural lives, and health hazards for affected
populations
5. Land damage from earthquakes and deterioration of drinking water quality
6. Beneficiaries of these projects often being MNCs, industries, elites, and
politicians commissioning the projects.

These negative consequences highlighted the urgent need for better assessment and
mitigation of the impacts of large dam projects on both people and the environment.

10.3 Socio-Economic-Ecological Impact of Large Dams

Disruption of Livelihoods and Social Fabric

 Large dams disrupt the livelihoods of people living nearby, causing loss of land,
property, and cultural ties inherited over generations.
 Displacement leads to a breakdown of social structures and cultural traditions,
leaving affected communities feeling like strangers in their own land.
 Women and children are particularly impacted, facing major adjustments in their
lives and uprooting from traditional social norms and cultural practices.

Challenges of Resettlement

 Displaced people often receive inadequate compensation and inferior housing,

leading to overcrowding, lack of privacy, and security issues.
 Resettlement in new areas strains resources and can trigger conflicts over resource
control among resettled populations.
 Water release during floods damages agricultural land and exacerbates soil erosion,
further harming livelihoods and the environment.

Economic Burden

 The cost of resettlement, rehabilitation, and compensation burdens the state's

finances, leading to strains on the treasury.
 Inadequate compensation and inferior land contribute to the economic hardships of
displaced communities.
 Relocation to urban areas often results in living in slums, impacting health and well-
being.

Urban Migration and Social Issues

 Displaced individuals often migrate to cities, where they face social challenges,
including unemployment, alcoholism, and forced involvement in activities like
prostitution.
 Malnutrition, disease, and limited job opportunities characterize the difficult lives of
those displaced by dam projects.
 Despite promises of a better life, many find themselves trapped in a cycle of poverty
and hardship, far from the paradise envisioned by authorities.

Large dam projects not only alter landscapes but also deeply affect the lives and well-being
of communities, highlighting the need for more comprehensive and sustainable approaches
to development and resettlement planning.

10.4 Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)

Introduction to Narmada River

 The Narmada River, originating in Madhya Pradesh, is revered for its beauty and
cultural significance, flowing through several states in India.
  It sustains diverse ecosystems and supports tribal communities relying on
agriculture.

Narmada Valley Development Project

 The project aimed to harness the Narmada's resources for irrigation, hydroelectric
power, and industrial and domestic water supply.
 It involved constructing numerous dams, irrigation schemes, and hydroelectric
projects across the river basin, with substantial financial aid from international
agencies.

Impact and Concerns

 Large-scale dam construction threatened vast forest and agricultural lands, risking
displacement of thousands of people.
 The Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal outlined directives for compensation and
resettlement but lacked effective implementation.
 Displaced communities faced challenges of inadequate compensation, resettlement,
and loss of traditional livelihoods, leading to protests and demands for justice.

Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada Movement)

 Initiated in 1985, NBA opposed the Sardar Sarovar Project, the largest dam on the
Narmada, advocating for just resettlement policies.
 Led by activist Medha Patkar, NBA employed hunger strikes, marches, and media
campaigns to raise awareness and demand an independent review of the project.
 Despite initial victories in the Supreme Court, subsequent rulings permitted dam
construction under strict rehabilitation conditions.

Struggle and Recognition

 NBA's consistent non-violent struggle earned international recognition, including the

Right Livelihood Award.
 Baba Amte, a prominent social activist, supported the movement, amplifying its
reach and impact.
 NBA's interventions influenced national policies on displacement, development
planning, and rights of affected communities, shaping mass movements and policy-
making processes.

The Narmada Bachao Andolan remains a landmark movement, advocating for social justice,
environmental protection, and the rights of marginalized communities affected by large-
scale development projects.

10.5 Tehri Dam Project

Overview

 The Tehri Dam Project, conceptualized in 1949, aimed to construct one of the tallest
dams globally.
 Situated between the Bhagirathi and Bhilangana rivers near Tehri town, it faced
challenges due to high seismic activity and geological faults.

Project Details

 The proposed dam, expected to be 260.5m high, would impound 3.22 million cubic
m of water, with a reservoir area covering 42.5 sq.kms.
 It aimed to irrigate land, generate hydel power, and supply water to Delhi, displacing
thousands of people and submerging villages.

Opposition and Concerns

 Local opposition stemmed from the project's environmental and social impacts,
including the loss of sacred sites, displacement, and seismic risks.
 The Tehri Bandh Virodhi Sangharsh Samiti (TBVSS) formed to oppose the dam,
engaging in protests and legal challenges.

Legal Battles and Environmental Concerns

 Despite legal challenges and environmental concerns, including seismic risks, the
project received government approval.
 A severe earthquake in 1991 raised safety concerns, prompting protests led by
environmental activist Sunderlal Bahuguna.

Rehabilitation Challenges

 Displaced communities faced inadequate compensation, flawed rehabilitation

policies, and neglect from authorities.
 TBVSS highlighted various flaws in resettlement efforts, including land erosion,
inadequate compensation, and neglect of cultural heritage.

Ongoing Resistance

 The TBVSS and environmental organizations continue to resist the dam's

construction, advocating for safer alternatives and better resettlement policies.
 Their efforts have drawn national and international attention to the safety and social
impacts of large dam projects.

The Tehri Dam Project remains a contentious issue, sparking debates on environmental
sustainability, seismic safety, and the rights of displaced communities.

Unit 11
Silent Valley
11.1 Introduction to Environmental Protection Movements

Overview

 Development models in many Third World countries have harmed the environment,
endangering life on Earth.
 Exploitation of nature for short-term economic gains by powerful individuals has led
to ecological devastation.

Impact of Development Models

 Mainstream development models prioritize short-term economic gains over

environmental preservation.
 Large dams and deforestation have disrupted ecosystems, drying up rivers and
depriving communities of livelihoods.

Emergence of Protest Movements

 Awareness among marginalized communities, like adivasis, has sparked protests

against forest exploitation.
 Movements for soil and water protection challenge development-driven
exploitation.
 Civil society plays a crucial role in environmental protection, transcending political
divisions.

Case Study: Silent Valley Movement

 Initiated locally, the movement in Kerala's Silent Valley gained momentum with
support from civil society and the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP).
 The non-violent movement successfully halted a proposed hydroelectric project,
highlighting the power of grassroots activism.

Beyond Traditional Development Models

 Efforts to develop nature-friendly models of development are emerging in response

to the failures of mainstream development.
 Movements like the one in Silent Valley emphasize the importance of protecting
forests and raising awareness.

Objectives of Study

 Understanding the significance of grassroots forest protection initiatives.

 Exploring the characteristics of new social movements.
 Recognizing the environmental impacts of large-scale projects.
 Appreciating the role of non-violent civil society activism.
 Highlighting the importance of a vibrant civil society in democracy.
The study aims to delve into the importance of grassroots environmental activism, the
characteristics of modern social movements, and the necessity of sustainable development
in harmony with nature.

11.2 The Importance of Silent Valley

Overview

 Located in Kerala, South India, Silent Valley National Park is one of the last
untouched rainforests and tropical moist evergreen forests in India.
 Its unique biodiversity and pristine ecosystem make it a significant natural treasure.

Historical Background

 First explored by botanist Robert Wight in 1847, the area was named Silent Valley
due to the perceived absence of noisy Cicadas.
 Initially declared a Reserve Forest in 1914, portions of Silent Valley were subjected to
forestry operations from 1927 to 1976.

Geographic Features

 Spread over a rectangular area of 7 km (east-west) by 12 km (north-south), Silent

Valley is nestled in the Nilgiri Hills.
 It is characterized by diverse topography, with altitudes ranging from 658 m to 2328
m and rich soil composition.

Hydrology

 The Kuntipuzha River, with its crystal-clear water, runs through the park, dividing it
into eastern and western sectors.
 The river's perennial flow supports the park's unique ecosystem, sustaining diverse
flora and fauna.

Climate

 Silent Valley receives abundant rainfall during the monsoon season, with variations
based on topography.
 The park's micro-climate, enclosed by hills, contributes to its rich biodiversity and
lush vegetation.

Biodiversity

 Silent Valley is home to numerous rare and endangered species of birds, mammals,
insects, and plants.
  Notable species include lion-tailed macaques, Nilgiri langurs, Malabar giant squirrels,
and diverse bird species.

Flora

 The park boasts a rich diversity of flowering plants, orchids, ferns, and algae, with
many species endemic to the region.
 Its forests support valuable plant species with potential applications in biotechnology
and Ayurvedic medicine.

Conservation Significance

 Silent Valley serves as a gene pool resource for agricultural innovations, with wild
germplasm contributing to the development of disease-resistant rice varieties.
 Its conservation is crucial for preserving biodiversity and ensuring future food
security.

Conclusion

 Silent Valley's ecological significance extends beyond its boundaries, highlighting the
importance of conservation efforts to safeguard natural habitats and genetic
diversity.

11.3 The Hydro Electric Project in Silent Valley

Background

 The proposal for a hydroelectric project in Silent Valley sparked global attention in
the 1970s.
 Initially identified in 1928, the Kunthipuzha River at Sairandhri was deemed ideal for
electricity generation.
 In 1958, the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a 120 MV hydroelectric
project costing Rs. 17 Crore.

Environmental Concerns

 Plans for the project raised concerns about its impact on the valley's diverse wildlife.
 An Environmentalist Social Movement called 'Save Silent Valley' emerged in the
1970s to oppose the project.
 The project threatened to submerge 8.3 km² of virgin rainforest, endangering species
like the Lion-tailed macaque.

Resistance and Debate

 In 1976, KSEB announced plans to begin dam construction, sparking public outcry.
  Scientific community, political parties, activists, and civil society engaged in vigorous
debates.
 Despite claims of clearance, KSEB failed to obtain approval from relevant authorities.

Political Pressure

 The central government, led by Morarji Desai, instructed the state to sanction the
project, overriding objections.
 The project became a matter of prestige for KSEB, the Kerala government, and the
Prime Minister.
 Scientific community realized coordinated efforts with local people were necessary
for forest conservation.

Environmental Risks

 Concerns were raised about the potential destruction caused by the dam, citing
examples like the Koyna earthquake.
 Previous projects like the Aswan High Dam and Idukki Hydel project highlighted
ecological disruptions and loss of biodiversity.
 It was feared the proposed dam would alter the valley's ecosystem, leading to long-
term environmental damage.

11.4 Movement Against the Hydro Electric Project

National Attention:

 The Silent Valley Movement gained prominence in the 1980s amidst state-led
development projects.
 Dams were considered symbols of development, but the movement emphasized the
importance of environmental conservation for future generations.
 Protecting the lion-tailed macaque symbolized the non-violent struggle to preserve
the forests.
 Various environmental groups like Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), Bombay Natural
History Society (BNHS), and Silent Valley Action Forum joined the campaign.

Leadership and Participation:

 Leaders like Vandana Shiva, Medha Patkar, Sundarlal Bahuguna, Baba Amte, and
Sunita Narain played key roles.
 The movement began locally and was later led by Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad
(KSSP).
 KSSP conducted scientific studies emphasizing the need to protect the ecosystem
and educated the public about genetic diversity and related concepts.
 Public opinion was generated against the project through media campaigns, public
meetings, and educational initiatives.
Mobilization and Campaign:

 KSSP organized street plays, exhibitions, debates, and a marathon march covering
400 villages.
 Students also protested against the project, marking the first environmental
agitation in Kerala's history.
 Support from celebrities like KPS Menon Sr. bolstered the movement.

Key Campaign Elements:

1. Exposing vested interests benefiting from deforestation.

2. Criticizing the indiscriminate use of science and technology for elite interests.
3. Advocating for the People’s Science Movement to protect common interests and the
environment.
4. Redirecting people's struggles against state policies favoring certain sections.

Achievements and Impact:

 Dr. M.S. Swaminathan was appointed by the Central Government to investigate the
issue.
 His recommendation led to the declaration of Silent Valley as a National Park in
1983.
 In 1985, the park was formally inaugurated, and in 1986, it became the core area of
the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
 The movement served as a model for other environmental campaigns in India,
emphasizing the importance of public participation and collaboration with the
scientific community and civil society for effective environmental protection.

Unit 12
Water Conservation Movement

12.1 Introduction to Water Sovereignty

Water as a Fundamental Right:

 Declarations like the Water Liberation Declaration in Karnataka affirm water as a

fundamental right and a public good.
 Water is crucial for life on Earth and has played a central role in human civilization
and culture.
Current Water Crises:

 The planet faces three main water crises: dwindling freshwater supplies, unequal
access to water, and corporate control of water.
 Attempts to commodify water violate people's fundamental right to life.

Principles of Water Democracy:

 Water conservation policies should prioritize bottom-up approaches, ensuring

people's participation.
 This approach promotes decentralization of power and protects the cultural
uniqueness of local communities.
 However, states often prioritize neoliberal agendas, selling natural resources to
multinational corporations (MNCs).

Resistance Movements:

 There are movements resisting the exploitation of water resources by MNCs and
advocating for traditional water conservation methods.
 These movements primarily use non-violent strategies to mobilize public support for
grassroots livelihood rights.

Importance of Water Conservation:

 The widening gap between water demand and supply makes water the most
precious resource.
 Failure to prioritize water conservation as a major public policy will lead to dire
consequences for humanity.

Global Efforts and Water Rights:

 Coordinated efforts are underway to address water crises through people's

participation.
 Water rights are equated with the right to life in many forums, highlighting the
urgency of prioritizing water conservation as a global concern.

12.2 Water: A Fundamental Right

Historical Significance:

 Water has been crucial for the rise and fall of civilizations, teaching societies about
environmental interconnections and the need for ecology-based perspectives.
Global Water Issues:

 Studies show that a significant portion of the world's population lacks access to safe
drinking water, leading to millions of deaths annually due to water-related diseases.
 By 2050, water scarcity is projected to affect billions of people worldwide.

Water Crisis in India:

 India, with a significant population, faces acute water scarcity despite having limited
freshwater resources.
 Over-exploitation of land, water, and forest resources has worsened water scarcity,
with per capita water availability decreasing drastically over the years.
 Many Indian rivers are polluted, and groundwater levels are declining rapidly,
exacerbating the drinking water crisis.

Environmental Impact of Development:

 The pursuit of modern capitalist development has led to severe environmental

degradation, with mega development projects contributing to the problem.
 Large dams, often considered icons of development, have failed to manage floods
and droughts, resulting in the abandonment of traditional water conservation
practices.

Importance of Community Participation:

 Community participation is essential for water conservation efforts, especially in

cases where government support is lacking.
 Local communities are developing a sense of ownership over natural resources,
resisting the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) seeking to exploit water
bodies.

Legal Framework and Human Rights:

 Historical legislations vested control of water resources solely in the provincial

government.
 However, modern interpretations emphasize the importance of considering people's
interests and ensuring pollution-free water as a human right.
 Decentralization of irrigation management to Water Users Associations (WUAs) aims
to enhance people's participation in water conservation and management.

12.3 Water and Development

Historical Development Discourses:

 Early development discourses often neglected people's involvement in project

formulation and implementation, leading to state-led developmental patterns where
people's role diminished.
 This approach marginalized vulnerable sections of society, leading to their
displacement from their localities.

Impact on Food Security:

 Decreased water availability for irrigation severely affects food security, with
governments promoting water-intensive crops.
 Maharashtra, for example, has a high number of dams but still faces acute drinking
water scarcity in many villages, highlighting discrepancies in water resource
management.

National Water Policy:

 The Indian government's National Water Policy prioritizes drinking water and
irrigation, but in reality, more water is allocated for industry and urban use.
 Privatization of water resources is portrayed as a solution to water mismanagement,
but it disproportionately affects poorer sections of society who cannot afford market
prices.

Human Rights Violations:

 Transferring control of water resources to the private sector violates the basic
human rights of local communities, particularly poor tribals and residents who rely
on water for subsistence.
 Global pressure and collusion between industry, politicians, and bureaucrats drive
this privatization agenda.

Nature-Friendly Development:

 Western-oriented development models are not inherently nature-friendly and often

bring catastrophic effects when imposed on societies like India.
 Traditional communities possess eco-friendly developmental strategies, which are
often discarded in favor of Western models.
 Growing environmental awareness has led to opposition against established
development strategies, particularly when they involve collaboration between the
state and multinational corporations in exploiting natural resources.

12.4 The National Water Conservation Policy (NWP 2002)

Revision Process:

 NWP 2002 replaced the 1987 national water policy after discussions initiated by the
government in the late 1990s.
 A draft was presented to the National Water Resources Council (NWRC) in July 2000,
but it failed to gain consensus among state governments.
 A group of ministers from both state and central governments held multiple
meetings to finalize the document, which was submitted to the NWRC on April 1,
2002.

Lack of Public Input:

 Public responses and discussions were neglected, reducing the process to internal
governmental activity.

Focus on Traditional Projects:

 NWP 2002 continued to prioritize traditional "projects," such as building big dams,
without addressing contemporary issues like water harvesting and community
management.
 Water harvesting and community management, widely discussed in media and
academic circles, were disregarded in the policy document.

Community Involvement:

 The Prime Minister highlighted the importance of community involvement in water

management, emphasizing participative and local approaches.
 However, the policy document failed to reflect this sentiment, with references to
"participation," "water users' associations," and "stakeholders" mainly in the context
of big projects.
 The mention of the community in the document's final paragraph was added after
the Prime Minister's speech but lacked clarity and genuine commitment to
community management.

Criticisms and Concerns:

 Activists like Rajendra Singh questioned the credibility of the policy document,
particularly its use of the term "asset," which suggested viewing water as a
commodity rather than a common resource.
 There have been significant protests against efforts to commodify water, reflecting
widespread resistance to the policies outlined in NWP 2002.

12.5 Struggles for 'Water Security'

State's Role Shift:

 The state's role has transitioned from provider to facilitator, aligning with the
interests of multinational corporations (MNCs) in the water sector.
 This shift has marginalized people's interests, leading to struggles for protecting
individuals' and communities' natural rights.

Civil Movements:

 Civil movements for water conservation exist in two forms:

o Cooperation between the state and civil society.
o Civil society initiatives for resource protection without state assistance.
 Example: Madhya Pradesh government's efforts to collaborate with civil society in
the Jal Abhishek Campaign for water conservation.

Strategies:

 Community-led initiatives focus on:

o Community-led initiatives with government facilitation.
o Rural awareness campaigns for water conservation.
o Establishment of village-level leadership and capacity building.
o Collaborative efforts between government and community for water
conservation activities.
 Emphasis on financial convergence and stakeholder contributions.

Non-Governmental Efforts:

 Some movements operate independently of state support, questioning the state's

role in neoliberal capitalism.
 Example: 'Rashtriya Jal Chetana Yatra' led by Rajendra Singh aimed at water
restoration without state aid, supported by NGOs.

Grassroots Impact:

 Initiatives like 'Pani Yatra' in Osmanabad, Maharashtra, focused on groundwater

preservation and rainwater harvesting without state assistance.
 Active involvement of NGOs and local communities in awareness campaigns and
practical solutions like desilting wells and rainwater harvesting.

National Water Awareness Campaign (Rashtriya Jal Chetana Yatra)

Objectives:

 Restore water resources.

 Promote conservation of water and other natural resources.
 Revive traditional water conservation practices.
 Raise awareness about the National Water Policy of 2002.
  Oppose water privatization and commercialization.

Campaign Details:

 Started in 2002, focusing on water-related issues across India.

 Featured prominent figures and covered multiple states.
 Discussed society's role in water conservation and criticized attempts to privatize
water.
 Highlighted women's participation and promoted national integration.
 Advocated for society's right to water and sustainable practices.

The Plachimada Campaign

Context:

 Resistance against multinational exploitation in Plachimada, Kerala, due to Coca-

Cola's water extraction.
 Local communities, mainly Adivasis, faced water shortages and health issues due to
Coke's operations.

Conflict Nature:

 Non-violent resistance against Coke by local people and civil society.

 Legal battles led by the Perumatty Gram Panchayat against Coke's groundwater
exploitation.
 Struggle against state-finance capital alliance supporting Coke, emphasizing
investment over community welfare.
 International attention attracted through protests, conferences, and support from
global civil society.

Impact:

 Highlighted the conflict between governments and communities.

 Showcased non-violent protest methods and community resilience.
 Brought attention to issues of water privatization and corporate control.
 Active involvement of local administration and civil society distinguished the
movement.

12.6 Social Awareness

Emergence of Awareness:

 Movements like those discussed exemplify a growing awareness among common

people about threats to their livelihood and survival.
 Years of state-driven development failed to ensure nature-friendly progress, leading
to environmental degradation and displacement of traditional communities.
Impact of Movements:

 Movements empower deprived sections to assert their rights, fostering a new

democratic culture.
 True democracy emerges from grassroots initiatives, participation, and
empowerment rather than top-down imposition.
 Social movements arise due to dissatisfaction with state-led development
approaches, leading to societal change independent of state support.

Changing Role of the State:

 The state's role has shifted from a provider to a facilitator for global finance capital,
often neglecting the interests of common people.
 Civil society movements intensify in response to threats posed by this neoliberal
shift.

Protection of Local Means:

 Movements aim to safeguard local cultures, knowledge systems, and languages from
the homogenizing effects of globalization.
 Efforts to strengthen local governance institutions, like Panchayati Raj, foster
democratic practices at the grassroots level.

Unit 13
Civil Rights Movement in The United States

13.1 Introduction to Civil Rights

Influence of Mahatma Gandhi:

 Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent resistance methods, like non-cooperation and civil

disobedience, have influenced civil rights movements globally.
 Martin Luther King, Jr., a prominent leader in the US civil rights movement, drew
inspiration from Gandhi's teachings.

Understanding Civil Rights:

 Civil rights entail equal protection under the law and access to public services for all
individuals in society.
 They are distinct from civil liberties, which encompass personal freedoms protected
from government infringement.
Differentiating Civil Rights and Civil Liberties:

 Civil liberties pertain to personal freedoms like speech and expression, safeguarded
from government interference.
 Civil rights focus on ensuring equal treatment for individuals or groups, regardless of
race, religion, etc., by both government and private entities to some extent.

Aims and Objectives:

 Gain an understanding of the concept and significance of civil rights.

 Explore the US Civil Rights Movement.
 Examine the roles of various communities in advocating for rights.

13.3 Black Civil Rights Movements

Background:

 Following the Brown decision by the Supreme Court, African American leaders
initiated a political movement to advocate for the civil rights of their community.
 Martin Luther King, Jr., a prominent figure, organized peaceful marches and
demonstrations in Alabama to address socio-economic disparities and civil rights
issues facing African Americans.

Challenges Faced:

 These movements encountered significant obstacles and resistance, often met with
harsh suppression tactics.

Birmingham March, 1963:

 In a notable incident, King organized a march in Birmingham, Alabama, where

demonstrators, including King, were attacked by the police with dogs, cattle prods,
and fire hoses.
 The televised brutality of this event garnered nationwide attention, rallying support
for the African American cause and eliciting sympathy from many white Americans.

March on Washington, 1963:

 Following the Birmingham incident, King and other leaders organized the historic
"March on Washington" for jobs, freedom, and African American rights, drawing
approximately a quarter of a million participants.
 King delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech, envisioning a nation where
individuals are judged by their character, not their skin color.
Legislative Achievements:

 Despite opposition, the US Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, granting
African Americans and other minorities equal access to public facilities and
prohibiting racial discrimination in employment.
 However, the enactment of laws did not immediately eradicate discrimination or
dispel racial prejudice.

Continued Challenges:

 Southern states devised tactics to undermine federal Civil Rights Acts, such as
Virginia establishing a commission to cover legal expenses for white citizens accused
of civil rights violations.
 These actions prompted the federal government, under President Lyndon B.
Johnson's leadership, to enact further measures, culminating in the Voting Rights Act
of 1965, which abolished racial barriers in elections.

13.4 Consequences of Civil Rights Movements

Native Americans:

 Historically, Native Americans faced displacement and marginalization by European

settlers.
 The civil rights movements of the 1960s inspired Native American activism for self-
determination and treaty rights.
 The American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in 1968 to advocate for Native
American rights and provide assistance to marginalized communities.
 Despite legislative efforts, such as the Indian Bill of Rights in 1968, challenges persist,
but awareness and government response have increased.

Hispanic and Asian Americans:

 The civil rights movements of the 1960s influenced the rights of Hispanic and Asian
Americans.
 The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act granted citizenship to illegal
immigrants who could provide proof of residency for five years.
 However, cultural and language barriers, as well as discrimination, persisted, leading
to movements like the Official English Movement.
 The 1965 Immigration Act balanced immigration quotas, benefiting Asian Americans,
but discrimination continued, albeit gradually declining through legal measures and
court rulings.

Women:

 Women's rights movements date back to the 19th century, initially aligned with anti-
slavery efforts.
  Constitutional amendments, like the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, granted
women the right to vote, but discrimination persisted.
 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and subsequent legislation addressed gender
discrimination in employment, education, and credit.
 Despite progress, gender inequality remains in areas like political representation and
pay parity.
 The abortion rights movement, supported by the Democratic Party, led to landmark
Supreme Court decisions affirming women's reproductive rights in Roe v Wade
(1973) and Planned Parenthood v Casey (1992).

Rights of Homosexuals:

 The gay rights movement gained momentum after the Stonewall Riots in 1969,
advocating for equal rights and social acceptance.
 Psychological associations removed homosexuality from lists of mental disorders,
and states began banning discrimination based on sexual orientation.
 Policies like "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" allowed gay individuals to serve in the military
with restrictions.
 States began legalizing same-sex unions and marriages, though faced opposition
from conservatives and religious groups.
 Despite progress, divisive debates and political polarization persist over issues like
same-sex marriage and adoption rights.

Unit 14
Greenpeace Movements in Europe

14.1 Introduction to Greenpeace

 Origin and Purpose:

o Founded in 1969 during a campaign against US nuclear weapons testing in
Alaska.
o Advocates nonviolent direct action for environmental protection.
o Combines philosophical, strategic, scientific, political, and media elements for
effective activism.

 Distinct Approach:
o Greenpeace stands out for its confrontational tactics and refusal to
compromise on critical environmental issues.
o Unlike traditional conservation groups, it engages in direct action to influence
corporate and government behavior.

 Global Scope:
o Addresses issues of global significance.
o While not a local membership organization, it collaborates with communities
worldwide to promote environmental activism.

 Non-violent Commitment:
 o Embraces non-violence and avoids property-damaging tactics.
o Advocates for stringent laws to protect human health and the environment.

Aims and Objectives:

After studying this unit, you'll grasp:

 The mission and philosophy guiding the Greenpeace Movement.

 The approach of its non-violent campaigns.
 Its achievements, criticisms, and relevance in the contemporary era.

14.2 Origin and Mission of Greenpeace

Origin:

 Founding and Naming:

o Founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, in 1971, originally known as the
Greenpeace Foundation.
o Co-founders include Irving Stowe, Paul Coté, Jim Bohlen, and Bill Darnell, who
coined the name "Greenpeace" by combining "green" and "peace."
 Early Campaign:
o Originated from the anti-war and environmental movements protesting US
nuclear testing at Amchitka Island, Alaska, in 1969.
o Initial plan involved sailing a boat to Amchitka, but it was turned back by the
US military.
o Despite the setback, this campaign marked the first use of the name
"Greenpeace."

Mission:

 Global Campaigning Organization:

o Greenpeace is an independent global organization dedicated to
environmental protection and peace.
 Key Objectives:

1. Addressing Climate Change:

 Advocates for an energy revolution to combat climate change.
2. Protecting Oceans:
 Works to challenge harmful fishing practices and establish marine
reserves.
3. Preserving Ancient Forests:
 Focuses on safeguarding remaining ancient forests vital for
biodiversity and communities.
4. Advocating for Peace and Disarmament:
 Calls for reducing reliance on finite resources and eliminating nuclear
weapons.
5. Promoting Toxic-Free Future:
 Pushes for safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals in products and

manufacturing.
6. Supporting Sustainable Agriculture:
 Encourages socially and ecologically responsible farming practices.

Conclusion:

 Greenpeace's origins lie in nonviolent environmental activism, evolving into a global

force for change.
 Through direct action, lobbying, and research, it aims to protect the environment,
promote peace, and shape a sustainable future.

14.3 Early Days and Steady Growth of Greenpeace

14.3.1 Early Days

 Origins and Influences:

o Greenpeace emerged from the Quaker tradition of "bearing witness" and
protest voyages like the Phoenix and the Golden Rule against US nuclear
tests.
o In September 1971, Greenpeace sailed to the Amchitka test zone from
Vancouver, gaining significant media attention despite the cancellation of the
first nuclear explosion protest.
o In 1972, the yacht Vega, renamed Greenpeace III, protested French
atmospheric nuclear testing in French Polynesia, organized by the New
Zealand Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CNDNZ).
o The yacht Fri led international protests against atmospheric nuclear tests at
Mururoa in French Polynesia in 1973, furthering anti-nuclear movements in
New Zealand and Australia.

14.3.2 Growing Area of Influence

 Diversification of Activities:
o Greenpeace expanded its focus beyond direct action to include scientific
inquiry and political action.
o Addressed various environmental issues such as toxic waste shipment, acid
rain, seal pup and kangaroo slaughter, nuclear weapons, whaling, driftnet
fishing, and ocean pollution.
 Membership and Expansion:
o By 1976, Greenpeace had 8,000 active members with branches worldwide.
o In 1980, Boston alone had 25,000 contributors, and numerous actions were
undertaken globally.
o By 1991, Greenpeace had offices in 23 countries, reflecting its international
reach and influence.
 Challenges and Adaptations:
o In the mid-1990s, declining membership and financial concerns led to the
closure of several local offices, prompting organizational adjustments.
Conclusion:

 Greenpeace's early days were marked by bold protest voyages and nonviolent direct
actions against nuclear testing.
 Over time, it diversified its activities and expanded its global influence, addressing
various environmental issues and mobilizing a significant membership base
worldwide.

14.4 Other Campaigns by Greenpeace

14.4.1 Early Campaigns

 Anti-Whaling Campaign (1975):

o Influenced by activists like Paul Spong, Farley Mowat, and Robert Hunter,
Greenpeace confronted Soviet whalers near Mendocino, California.
o Campaign utilized direct actions and scientific research to oppose whaling
practices, gaining significant media attention.
 Baby Seal Slaughter Protest (1976):
o Targeted Norwegian ships engaged in killing baby seals for fur trade in
Newfoundland.
o Greenpeace established base camps and used helicopters for logistics,
receiving support from actress Brigitte Bardot.
 International Reach and Impact:
o Greenpeace's confrontational tactics and impactful imagery led to the
adoption of its name by over 20 groups across North America, Europe, New
Zealand, and Australia.
o The organization expanded its focus to encompass various environmental
issues, such as anti-whaling campaigns, saving Newfoundland harp seals,
Antarctica preservation, and stopping ocean dumping of radioactive waste.

14.4.2 Effective Strategies

 Combining Direct Action with Advocacy:

o Greenpeace combined direct actions with legal and scientific lobbying efforts,
influencing decisions at the International Whaling Commission and other
regulatory bodies.
 Visibility and Media Attention:
o Utilized skillful photography and dramatic actions to capture media attention
and raise awareness on environmental issues.
 Innovative Protest Techniques:
o Employed tactics like physical obstruction of harmful activities, scaling
smokestacks to block emissions, and exposing hidden aspects of debates to
the public.
 International Networking:
o Established connections between different levels of environmental issues
worldwide, collaborating with local organizations to address problems like
toxic waste dumping in Africa.
14.4.3 Anti-Nuclear Campaigns

 Rainbow Warrior Incident (1985):

o French Government agents bombed and sank the Rainbow Warrior in
Auckland harbor during a protest against French nuclear testing.
o Despite the loss of life and ship, the incident garnered global attention,
significantly increasing Greenpeace's membership and support.

Conclusion:

 Greenpeace's campaigns, ranging from anti-whaling efforts to protests against

nuclear testing, have been marked by bold actions, effective strategies, and
international collaborations, leading to tangible impacts on environmental policies
and public awareness.

14.6 Greenpeace in the 21st Century

14.6 Activism and Impact

 Opposing Emissions Trading Suggestion (2007):

o Greenpeace disagreed with UNFCCC head Yvo de Boer's proposal to allow
rich nations to pay developing countries to cut emissions, arguing it wouldn't
effectively reduce emissions.
 Anti-Nuclear Energy Stand (2007):
o Greenpeace Southeast Asia opposed the Philippine Department of Energy's
nuclear energy plan, citing risks like accidents and environmental damage.
 Direct Actions and Protests:
o Activists climbed a British Airways plane at Heathrow Airport to protest
against plans for a third runway.
o Blocked coal shipments in the Philippines to oppose the expansion of coal
power plants.
o Dropped boulders into the North Sea to halt trawling, facing criticism from
fishermen.
o Activists who damaged a power plant chimney in the UK were declared "not
guilty" due to climate change concerns.

14.6.1 Criticism and Adjustments

 Balancing Environmental and Social Concerns:

o Criticisms include neglecting social or economic impacts in pursuit of
environmental goals.
o Example: In the mid-1980s, Greenpeace's "zero kill" stance on baby harp
seals in Canada ignored the livelihood and cultural significance of seal
hunting for indigenous communities.
o Adjustments were made to support subsistence hunts while opposing large-
scale commercial hunts.
 Learning from Criticism:
 o Greenpeace faced backlash from unions for not considering job loss
implications in a campaign against toxic waste dumping.
o Over time, Greenpeace worked with unions and gained their trust and
support for subsequent campaigns.

14.6.2 Notable Achievements

 Environmental Policy Impact:

o Secured bans on hazardous waste trade, prevented oil rig disposal, and
achieved moratoriums on genetically engineered crops and toxic waste
dumping at sea.
o Advocated for international agreements to protect Antarctica, halt toxic
waste burning at sea, and ban commercial whaling.

14.6.3 Linking Environmental and Social Issues

 Connecting Environmental and Social Justice:

o Greenpeace highlights the intersection of social and environmental issues in
global industrial practices.
o Example: Protested against oil drilling in Nigeria, addressing both
environmental damage and human rights abuses.
o Supported demands for compensation and environmental reparations in
cases like the Bhopal gas leak.
 Advocacy Against GE Corn (2002):
o Greenpeace opposed the US government's offer of genetically engineered
corn to Zambia during a hunger epidemic, advocating for non-GE food aid
instead.
 Future Challenges:
o Balancing environmental campaigns within broader social, economic, and
geopolitical contexts poses ongoing challenges for Greenpeace.
o Maintaining focus on environmental mission while navigating complex global
issues remains a priority.

Unit 15
Anti-Apartheid Movements in South Africa

15.1 Introduction to Apartheid in South Africa

 Unique Discrimination: South Africa stood alone in officially discriminating against

its citizens based on race or skin color, a policy known as apartheid.
 Duration: This system lasted nearly 90 years, with apartheid itself spanning four and
a half decades from 1948 to 1994.
  Support and Opposition: Major Western nations supported South Africa due to their
economic interests, while dissenters faced imprisonment or even death.
 UN Involvement: The United Nations recognized and condemned racial
discrimination in South Africa since 1946, although its actions were primarily moral
and aimed at shaping international opinion.
 Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM): This movement, both inside and outside South
Africa, played a crucial role in dismantling apartheid, culminating in its abolition in
1994.

Aims and Objectives

This unit aims to provide understanding on:

 Nature of Apartheid: The meaning, manifestations, and legal framework of

apartheid in South Africa.
 Gandhi's Influence: Mahatma Gandhi's contributions to laying the groundwork for
the AAM in South Africa.
 UN Involvement: The United Nations' role and efforts to address apartheid in South
Africa.
 AAM Strategies: The impact and strategies employed by the Anti-Apartheid
Movement.
 ANC Resistance: The resistance efforts of the African National Congress (ANC), its
leaders, and supporters against the apartheid regime.

15.2 Understanding the Apartheid System

Definition of Apartheid:

 Apartheid, an Afrikaans term meaning "apart-hood," refers to racial segregation

enforced by South Africa's National Party, which came into power in 1948.
 Recognized as a crime against humanity by the UN, apartheid encompasses various
inhumane acts aimed at maintaining racial dominance and oppressing certain racial
groups.

Pre-1948 Laws:

 Before apartheid's official institution in 1948, South Africa had numerous

discriminatory laws, including Pass Laws restricting movement for blacks, and
legislation denying blacks political representation and land ownership.
 These laws laid the groundwork for apartheid by segregating residential areas and
limiting economic opportunities based on race.

Institutionalization of Apartheid:

 With the ascent of the National Party in 1948, apartheid became entrenched
through legislative measures.
 The Population Registration Act (1950) classified individuals by race, determining
their rights, residence, and job opportunities accordingly.
  The Group Areas Act (1950) enforced residential segregation, reserving the majority
of land for whites.
 Laws like the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) and Immorality Act (1950)
criminalized interracial relationships.
 Separate Amenities Act (1953) institutionalized racial segregation in public facilities,
from beaches to hospitals.
 The Suppression of Communism Act (1950) targeted political dissent, banning
opposition parties and gatherings.
 Education was segregated under the Bantu Education Act (1953), preparing black
students for menial labor.
 Legislation like the Bantu Authorities Act (1951) created separate governance
structures for blacks, paving the way for nominally independent homelands.
 The Black Homeland Citizenship Act (1970) revoked black South Africans' citizenship,
relegating them to autonomous territories.
 Forced removals and resettlements displaced millions to designated areas,
separating families and communities.

Impact on Society:

 Interracial contact was discouraged in sports, and strict pass laws restricted black
movement, separating families and hindering employment opportunities.
 Discriminatory laws targeted women, with pass requirements eventually imposed on
them, exacerbating familial separation.

Conclusion

 Apartheid's systematic discrimination and segregation had profound social,

economic, and psychological impacts, perpetuating racial inequality and injustice in
South Africa.

15.3 Gandhi's Contribution to the Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)

Establishment of Anti-Discrimination Movement:

 Gandhi laid the foundation for the Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM) in South Africa
by establishing the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to combat colonial and racial
discrimination.
 When the South African government proposed a law to disenfranchise Indians,
Gandhi mobilized opposition, leading to a successful petition that prevented the
law's passage.

Satyagraha as a Tool of Resistance:

 Gandhi initiated the Satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) movement in 1906 to oppose

legislation requiring Asians to register.
 Thousands boycotted registration, leading to arrests and overcrowded jails.
  Despite an initial agreement with Prime Minister General Smuts to repeal the
registration law, Smuts reneged, prompting Gandhi to escalate protests by
encouraging Indians to burn their registration passes.
 The climax of Gandhi's Satyagraha came in 1913 with a march of 5,000 coal mine
workers in Natal, sparking mass strikes and protests among Indian workers and
women.

Legacy and Continued Resistance:

 Gandhi's departure from South Africa in 1915 left behind a legacy of resistance,
including the Phoenix Settlement, Natal Indian Congress, Transvaal Indian Congress,
and the ideology of Satyagraha.
 Gandhi's son, Manilal, continued the struggle, leading protests against discriminatory
laws in 1946.
 The Satyagraha campaign lasted two years, involving mass rallies, picketing, and
squatting on "whites-only" land, resulting in around 2,000 arrests.
 While initially confined to the Indian community, the protests inspired solidarity
among blacks, challenging the perception of Indians as collaborators with the white
oppressors.

Conclusion

 Gandhi's leadership and adoption of Satyagraha laid the groundwork for the AAM,
inspiring mass resistance against racial discrimination in South Africa and fostering
solidarity among oppressed communities.

15.4 Role, Impact, and Strategies of the Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM)

1. Nature and Significance:

 The AAM stands as one of the first successful global social movements of the 20th
century, gaining unprecedented international support.
 Unlike previous movements, such as national liberation and Marxism, the AAM
uniquely garnered widespread backing across continents, including individuals,
governments, and organizations.

2. Core Objectives:

 The AAM encompassed two main objectives: internal resistance within South Africa
to destabilize the apartheid regime, and external campaigns for political, economic,
and cultural sanctions against the regime.

3. Phases of the AAM:

 First Phase (1950s-1960s): Characterized by nonviolent direct-action tactics led by

organizations like the ANC, SACP, INC, and PAC. Mass civil-disobedience campaigns
and strikes aimed to challenge apartheid laws.
  Second Phase (1960s-1970s): Responding to government crackdowns, the
movement shifted underground and abroad, launching armed resistance with
support from African nations and the African Union (formerly OAU).
 Third Phase (1980s): Marked by massive internal resistance, including strikes,
boycotts, and sabotage, with simultaneous international pressure through sanctions.

4. Impact and Results:

 International sanctions, coupled with internal strife, led to the collapse of the
apartheid state.
 Key legislative pillars of apartheid were repealed, leading to the release of Nelson
Mandela and eventual democratic elections in 1994, where Mandela became
President.

5. Role of ANC and African Leaders:

 The ANC played a central role in the AAM, transitioning from peaceful protests to
armed resistance in response to government repression.
 Other influential figures included Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Stephen Biko,
Desmond Tutu, Joe Slovo, and Nelson Mandela, each contributing significantly to the
movement's leadership and ideology.

6. Global Contributions and Achievements:

 Internationally, the AAM achieved milestones such as the expulsion of South Africa
from the Commonwealth, exclusion from Olympic sports, and UN-imposed
sanctions.
 Grassroots efforts, such as boycotts of South African goods, demonstrated
widespread global solidarity with the anti-apartheid cause.

7. Enduring Legacy:

 The AAM left a lasting legacy of international solidarity and grassroots activism,
setting a precedent for future global social justice movements.

15.5 The Role of the United Nations in Combating Apartheid

1. UN Engagement:

 Since its inception, the United Nations has focused extensively on South Africa's
apartheid policy, with both the General Assembly and Security Council adopting over
500 resolutions/recommendations on the matter.

2. Early Complaints:

 India raised concerns about human rights violations in South Africa as early as 1946,
particularly regarding discrimination against people of Indian origin.
  Initially, South Africa and some Western Powers argued that human rights issues
were solely within national jurisdiction, beyond UN interference.

3. UN Resolutions and Actions:

 The General Assembly regularly urged South Africa to alter its policies and
recommended retaliatory actions by member states.
 Various measures were proposed, including diplomatic, economic, and arms
embargoes, as well as expulsion from the UN.

4. Security Council Involvement:

 The Security Council first addressed apartheid after the Sharpeville incident in 1960,
highlighting the potential threat to international peace and security.
 While some resolutions called for sweeping sanctions, actual implementation was
hindered by Western powers' reluctance and continued clandestine arms trade.

5. Impact on South Africa:

 Despite initial resistance, UN actions had a cumulative effect, prompting South

Africa's withdrawal from several international organizations and the Commonwealth.
 Important human rights conventions targeting racial discrimination were adopted by
the UN.

6. Challenges and Double Standards:

 Double standards among member states, driven by national interests and economic
ties, hindered unified action against apartheid.
 Western investments in South Africa, especially by the UK, USA, and other major
powers, complicated efforts for effective sanctions.

7. Conclusion:

 While UN impact faced challenges due to political interests and economic ties, its
sustained pressure played a significant role in keeping the issue of apartheid on the
global agenda.
 Sanctions imposed by the UN influenced the apartheid regime economically and
politically, ultimately contributing to negotiations for a "new South Africa" and the
end of apartheid in 1994.

Unit 16
Solidarity Movement in Poland

16.1 Introduction to Poland's History and Solidarity Movement

1. Ancient Nation:
  Poland traces its origins back to the 10th century, experiencing a golden age in the
16th century.

2. Partition and Occupation:

 Between 1772 and 1795, Poland was partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria,
losing its independence.
 Poland regained independence in 1918 but was invaded and occupied by Germany
and the Soviet Union during World War II.

3. Communist Era:

 After World War II, Poland became a Soviet satellite state, although its government
was relatively tolerant and progressive.
 Labour unrest in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union
"Solidarity," which grew into a political force by 1990.

4. Solidarity Movement:

 Solidarity was the first non-communist trade union in a communist country,

constituting a broad anti-communist social movement.
 Despite government attempts to suppress it, including martial law in the early 1980s,
Solidarity persisted and eventually forced negotiations with the government.

5. Roundtable Talks and Elections:

 The Roundtable Talks between the government and Solidarity-led opposition led to
semi-free elections in 1989.
 A Solidarity-led coalition government was formed, and in December, Lech Walesa
was elected as President of Poland.

Aims and Objectives

After studying this unit, you'll understand:

 The non-violent Solidarity Movement in Poland.

 The involvement of different classes in this movement.
 The factors leading to the fall of Communism in Poland.

16.2 History of the Solidarity Movement in Poland

1. Background:

 The Solidarity movement in Poland was a significant development during the Cold
War era in Eastern Europe.
 It didn't start in 1980 but was part of a series of movements dating back to 1956,
with major uprisings in 1970 and 1976.
2. Origins of Unrest:

 The 1956 uprising in Poznan, where at least 75 people died, marked the beginning of
social and intellectual unrest in Poland.
 This period saw a slow relaxation of policies and censorship, leading to a sense of
change among the population.

3. Role of Polish Intelligentsia:

 The Polish intelligentsia, comprising educated individuals, played a crucial role in the
movements.
 Originating in the 19th century, this group faced repression during World War II but
re-emerged in the 1950s and '60s.

4. Events Leading to Uprisings:

 The 1970 protests were triggered by unexpected price increases, leading to riots and
strikes in cities like Gdansk and Gdynia.
 Prime Minister Gomulka's use of force against workers led to his downfall, paving
the way for new leadership.

5. Influence of Workers' Power:

 Despite challenges, workers' strikes in 1970 and 1976 demonstrated their growing
influence and demand for better conditions.
 The intelligentsia missed opportunities to unite with workers, but the movements
laid the groundwork for future change.

6. Solidarity's Impact:

 Solidarity's emergence in the 1980s built on these earlier movements, leading to

significant political changes in Poland.
 The movements highlighted the power of collective action and the desire for reform
within socialist structures.

16.3 The Solidarity Movement

1. Polish Intelligentsia's Role:

 Despite appearing absent, the Polish intelligentsia was present but felt somewhat
superior to the workers, leading to a social split.
 A shift occurred when intellectuals formed groups advocating workers' rights and
civil liberties, challenging the communist regime.

2. Emergence of Solidarity:

 In August 1980, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk initiated a strike led by Lech
Walesa to demand reinstatement of a fired worker and better living conditions.
  Solidarity was founded as a broad anti-communist movement, advocating non-
violence and representing diverse social groups.

3. Underground Phase:

 Solidarity evolved into an umbrella organization opposing the communist regime and
calling for political and economic reforms.
 After martial law was imposed in 1981, Solidarity operated underground, losing
cohesion due to disagreements but ultimately prevailing.

4. Negotiations and Legalization:

 Negotiations with the government led to Solidarity's legalization in 1989 and its
participation in free elections.
 Solidarity's electoral success marked a significant shift in Polish politics, leading to
the formation of a Solidarity-led government.

5. Political Transition:

 The June 1989 parliamentary elections resulted in a defeat for the communist party,
paving the way for a Solidarity-led coalition government.
 By December, Tadeusz Mazowiecki became Poland's first non-communist Prime
Minister, and in January 1990, the Communist Party dissolved.

6. Post-Election Challenges:

 Despite success, divisions emerged within the parliamentary club over the role of
political parties in Poland's democratic transition.
 Intellectuals favored limited parties to build civil society, while others advocated for
the rapid formation of alternative parties.

16.4 Catholics, Conscience, and History

1. Papal Influence:

 The election of Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in 1978, a native of Krakow, and
his visit to Poland in 1979, ignited national pride, with Solidarity embodying this
sentiment.
 Catholic groups, heavily involved in Solidarity, envisioned a Poland marked by social
justice, aligning with secular intellectuals supporting workers' rights.

2. Intellectual Resistance:

 Figures like Leszek Kolakowski, a Catholic philosopher who had turned away from
Marxism due to the regime's repression, and Bronislaw Geremek, a historian, added
intellectual weight to Solidarity's cause.
  Solidarity's spiritual resistance undermined the morale of Communist believers in a
just social system, exposing the fractures within the Polish Communist Party.

3. Church and Soviet Domination:

 The Catholic Church in Poland became a voice for national resistance against Soviet
dominance, forging an uneasy coexistence with the Communist regime since 1956,
much to the annoyance of Soviet leaders.
 The Vatican, under Popes John XXIII and Paul VI, sought dialogue with Communists,
recognizing their internal contradictions, particularly the existence of a privileged
elite within workers' states.

4. International Support:

 Support from the Western world, including Polish emigrant communities in North
America and Western Europe, provided encouragement and financial assistance to
Solidarity.
 International media outlets such as the BBC, Voice of America, Radio Vatican, and
Deutsche Welle played crucial roles in disseminating information, especially during
periods of martial law when official channels were restricted.

16.5 Soviet Fissures

1. Internal Discord:

 The Soviet bloc wasn't unified; divisions existed even under Stalin, evident in the
Titoist schism and anti-Stalin opposition.
 Khrushchev's denouncement of Stalin in 1956 and the suppression of the Hungarian
uprising highlighted internal tensions within the bloc.

2. Reformist Movements:

 By the 1970s, Soviet leadership recognized the need for change due to challenges
like the Chinese schism and discontent within Eastern European parties.
 Technocratic reformers advocated rethinking authoritarianism and repression,
realizing that military force couldn't sustain the Soviet grip over increasingly resistant
nations like Poland.

3. Shape of the Struggle:

 Pope John Paul II's support, emphasizing solidarity with the marginalized, bolstered
Solidarity's moral standing.
 Western trade unions and governments supported Solidarity, viewing it as a buffer
against Soviet expansionism, preferring it to potential Soviet intervention.

4. Influence Abroad:
  Solidarity's survival in Poland marked a departure from the hard-line tactics of the
Communist regime, inspiring anti-communist movements across the Eastern bloc.
 The 1989 elections in Poland, where anti-communist candidates triumphed, sparked
a series of peaceful revolutions across Central and Eastern Europe, leading to the
collapse of the Eastern bloc and the Soviet Union.

16.6 Fall of Communism in Poland:

o The decline of communism in Poland brought unexpected challenges to

Solidarity, pushing it into uncharted political territory.
o Solidarity, as a political party, faced internal conflicts and a decrease in
popularity during this period.
o Lech Walesa, a prominent figure in Solidarity, chose to step down from his
Solidarity position and announced his candidacy for the presidency.
o In December 1990, Walesa won the presidential election, becoming Poland's
first president chosen by popular vote.
 Impact Beyond Poland:
o The 1990 elections in Poland, which favored anti-communist candidates,
triggered a series of peaceful revolutions across Central and Eastern Europe.
o In the Baltic region, movements like the Estonian Singing Revolution echoed
the call for freedom, inspiring similar movements in Lithuania and Latvia.
o Solidarity's example empowered oppressed people throughout the Eastern
Bloc to unite and demand independence.
 Dissolution of the USSR:
o By Christmas of 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed, leading to the
independence of former communist territories across Eurasia.
 Current Role of Solidarity:
o Presently, Solidarity's influence in Polish politics is limited, and it has reverted
to its traditional role as a trade union.
o Despite its diminished political stature, Solidarity boasts a membership
exceeding 1.1 million.
 Anniversary and Reflection:
o The summer of 2005 marked the 25th anniversary of the Solidarity
movement, commemorating its humble beginnings and celebrating its
transformative impact across Europe.