UNIT V

1)A step counter is a digital modular counter, constructed from stepping units which serve a sequence steppers for asynchronous
sequential fluid power controls. A basic stepping unit is built from a signal output MEMORY valve and a pre-switched AND valve
with two inputs. Achieving an output signal from the stepping unit requires
Steps involved
Step 1: Draw the position step diagram.
Position step diagram is used to represent
movement of drive elements. In position step
diagram the X-axis represents steps thats is
the sequence of operation is divided into a
number of steps which are expressed as
1,2,3,4,etc. The Y-axis represents position and
is indicated as 0,1. The functional lines are
drawn in thick lines and they determine the
position of the driving unit. Any change of
position of a member has to start or stop at a
corner of the squares.
Step 2: From the position step diagram, the
number of stepping units are decided.
Step 3: Draw the cylinders and their memory
valves. Connect the memories to the
cylinders.
Step 4: Draw the step counters
Step 5: Draw the stepping units and valves
2) The Cascade method is simple to apply and results in reliable and easily understood the circuits.
STEPS INVOLVED
step 1: Each cylinder is given a code letter and their sequence is determined. For example A+, A-, B+, B- etc. '+' and '-' represent
extension and retraction in the cylinders respectively.
Step 2: The sequence is split into minimum number of groups. Care should be take to see that no letter os repeated within any
groups. Next the circuit is draw up using the following steps.
Step 3: Each group is assigned a pressure manifold line which must be pressurised only wode that particular group is active. So the
number of pressure lines equals thr number of groups.
Step 4: selecting the valves.
a) The limit valves are denoted as a0, a1, b0, b1 etc., where the suffix 0 corresponds to valves which are actuated at the end of
return stroke and the suffix 1 corresponds to valves which are actuated at the end
of forward stroke.
b) In order to pressurise the various manifold lines in the proper order, one or more
group charging valves or cascade valves are employed. The number of group
valves always equals the number of groups minus one.
c) For each cylinder, a pilot operated direction control valve is selected. The
number of cylinder acting valves equals the number of cylinders.
Step 5: The valves are connected as follows. The output of each limit valve is
connected to the pilot input corresponding to the next sequence step with one
exception.
ADVANTAGES:-
1) Circuit design, drawing and checking can be accomplished very quickly.
2) Fault diagnosis and trouble shooting are very simple.
3) Required task by each cylinder and their signal elements is fully ensured.
3) Design an electropneumatic circuit using cascade method for a following
sequence A+ B+ B- C- C+ A-, where A, B, & C stands for cylinders, (+) indicate
extension and (-) retraction of cylinders.
Solution :
Step 1: Given sequence: A+ B+ B- C- C+ A-
¿ ¿ ¿
Step 2: Grouping: A+ B+ I , B−C− II ,C + A− III ¿ ¿ ¿
Step 3: No. of pressure lines = No. of groups = 3
Step 4: (i) No. of pilot operated 4/2 DC valve = No. of cylinders = 3
(ii) No. of limit valves = 2 x No. of Cylinders = 2x3 =6
(iii) No. of Cascade valves= No. of Groups -1 = 3 – 1 = 2
Step 5: The cascade circuit and their valve conections for the sequence A+ B+ B- C- C+ A- is shown in the figure.
UNIT 1
1) Applications of pascal's law:
1) Bramah's Hydraulic Press was developed by applying the pascals law. In a hydraulic press, a small input force is applied
to generate a large output force.
WORKING : consider two oil containers both in cylindrical form and connected together contain some oil. Both the cylinders have
a piston having different diameters says D1 &. D2 respectively, where D1 is smaller than D2.
If a fprce F1 is applied to the small diameter piston, then this will produce an oil pressuren
P1 at the bottom of the piston1. Now the pressure is transmitted through the oil to the
large diameter piston2. Because the piston2 has a larger area, the pressure at the bottom of
the piston2 will be P2. Now this pressure P2 will push up the piston 2 to create an output
force F2.
According to pascal's law, P1=P2.
F1/A1 = F2/A2 or
F2/F1 = A2/A1
Where A1= Area of the smaller piston = pi/4 D1square, A2 = similarly.....
Since A2>A1, therefore F2 will be higher than F1.
2) Transmission of Displacement (Hydraulic jack)
3) Air to hydraulic pressure booster
2) LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES :
When liquid flows in a pipe, there will be some energy loss. This loss of energy may be classified as follows :
1. Major energy losses - this loss is due to friction
2. Minor energy losses -
These losses are due to:
(i) losses in valves and pipe fittings
(ii) sudden enlargement in pipe
(iii) bend in pipe
(iv) an obstruction in pipe
3) DARCY EQUATION :
The major energy losses that is the energy losses due to friction in the pipe can be calculated by using Darcy's equation. The darcy
equation for the loss of head due to friction in pipes, Hl =f (L/D) (v square /2g)
Where,Hl = loss of head due to friction in pipe(m)
F= friction factor
L= length in pipe (m)
D= inside diameter of the pipe(m)
V= average velocity of liquid (m/s)
G= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
The darcy equation holds good for both laminar and turbulent flow provided a proper valve of friction factor 'f' is evaluated.
4) FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW :
64
For laminar flow, the friction factor 'f' is function of Reynolds number only. f = ℜ

( )( )
2
64 L V
Sub equation 1 in Darrcy equation, Hl=
ℜ D 2g
5) FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN TURBULENT FLOW :
Unlike for laminar flow, the friction factor 'f' for turbulent flow is a function of Reynolds number as well as the relative roughness
of the pipe. The relative roughness is defined as the pipe inside surface roughness (c) divided by the inside diameter of the
pipe(D)
Relative roughness =c/D
Where, c = absolute roughness
LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS:
The loss of head is the various valves and fittings is given by
Hl = K (v square /2 g)
Where k = constant of proportionality called the 'K- factor'
The value of k factor depends on the type of valves and pipe fittings. If the loss of head Hl is known, it can be expressed into
equivalent pressure drop by
Triangle P =Hl * W oil
Where, W oil = weight density of oil flowing through valves and fittings

UNIT V
1)A step counter is a digital modular counter, constructed from stepping units which serve a sequence steppers for asynchronous
sequential fluid power controls. A basic stepping unit is built from a signal output MEMORY valve and a pre-switched AND valve
with two inputs. Achieving an output signal from the stepping unit requires
Steps involved
Step 1: Draw the position step diagram.
Position step diagram is used to represent
movement of drive elements. In position step
diagram the X-axis represents steps thats is
the sequence of operation is divided into a
number of steps which are expressed as
1,2,3,4,etc. The Y-axis represents position and
is indicated as 0,1. The functional lines are
drawn in thick lines and they determine the
position of the driving unit. Any change of
position of a member has to start or stop at a
corner of the squares.
Step 2: From the position step diagram, the
number of stepping units are decided.
Step 3: Draw the cylinders and their memory
valves. Connect the memories to the
cylinders.
Step 4: Draw the step counters
Step 5: Draw the stepping units and valves
2) The Cascade method is simple to apply and results in reliable and easily understood the circuits.
STEPS INVOLVED
step 1: Each cylinder is given a code letter and their sequence is determined. For example A+, A-, B+, B- etc. '+' and '-' represent
extension and retraction in the cylinders respectively.
Step 2: The sequence is split into minimum number of groups. Care should be take to see that no letter os repeated within any
groups. Next the circuit is draw up using the following steps.
Step 3: Each group is assigned a pressure manifold line which must be pressurised only wode that particular group is active. So the
number of pressure lines equals thr number of groups.
Step 4: selecting the valves.
a) The limit valves are denoted as a0, a1, b0, b1 etc., where the suffix 0 corresponds to valves which are actuated at the end of
return stroke and the suffix 1 corresponds to valves which are actuated at the end
of forward stroke.
b) In order to pressurise the various manifold lines in the proper order, one or more
group charging valves or cascade valves are employed. The number of group
valves always equals the number of groups minus one.
c) For each cylinder, a pilot operated direction control valve is selected. The
number of cylinder acting valves equals the number of cylinders.
Step 5: The valves are connected as follows. The output of each limit valve is
connected to the pilot input corresponding to the next sequence step with one
exception.
ADVANTAGES:-
1) Circuit design, drawing and checking can be accomplished very quickly.
2) Fault diagnosis and trouble shooting are very simple.
3) Required task by each cylinder and their signal elements is fully ensured.
3) Design an electropneumatic circuit using cascade method for a following
sequence A+ B+ B- C- C+ A-, where A, B, & C stands for cylinders, (+) indicate
extension and (-) retraction of cylinders.
Solution :
Step 1: Given sequence: A+ B+ B- C- C+ A-
¿ ¿ ¿
Step 2: Grouping: A+ B+ I , B−C− II ,C + A− III ¿ ¿ ¿
Step 3: No. of pressure lines = No. of groups = 3
Step 4: (i) No. of pilot operated 4/2 DC valve = No. of cylinders = 3
(ii) No. of limit valves = 2 x No. of Cylinders = 2x3 =6
(iii) No. of Cascade valves= No. of Groups -1 = 3 – 1 = 2
Step 5: The cascade circuit and their valve conections for the sequence A+ B+ B- C- C+ A- is shown in the figure.
UNIT 1
1) Applications of pascal's law:
 1) Bramah's Hydraulic Press was developed by applying the pascals law. In a hydraulic press, a small input force is applied
to generate a large output force.
WORKING : consider two oil containers both in cylindrical form and connected together contain some oil. Both the cylinders have
a piston having different diameters says D1 &. D2 respectively, where D1 is smaller than D2.
If a fprce F1 is applied to the small diameter piston, then this will produce an oil pressuren
P1 at the bottom of the piston1. Now the pressure is transmitted through the oil to the
large diameter piston2. Because the piston2 has a larger area, the pressure at the bottom of
the piston2 will be P2. Now this pressure P2 will push up the piston 2 to create an output
force F2.
According to pascal's law, P1=P2.
F1/A1 = F2/A2 or
F2/F1 = A2/A1
Where A1= Area of the smaller piston = pi/4 D1square, A2 = similarly.....
Since A2>A1, therefore F2 will be higher than F1.
2) Transmission of Displacement (Hydraulic jack)
3) Air to hydraulic pressure booster
2) LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES :
When liquid flows in a pipe, there will be some energy loss. This loss of energy may be classified as follows :
1. Major energy losses - this loss is due to friction
2. Minor energy losses -
These losses are due to:
(i) losses in valves and pipe fittings
(ii) sudden enlargement in pipe
(iii) bend in pipe
(iv) an obstruction in pipe
3) DARCY EQUATION :
The major energy losses that is the energy losses due to friction in the pipe can be calculated by using Darcy's equation. The darcy
equation for the loss of head due to friction in pipes, Hl =f (L/D) (v square /2g)
Where,Hl = loss of head due to friction in pipe(m)
F= friction factor
L= length in pipe (m)
D= inside diameter of the pipe(m)
V= average velocity of liquid (m/s)
G= acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
The darcy equation holds good for both laminar and turbulent flow provided a proper valve of friction factor 'f' is evaluated.
4) FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN LAMINAR FLOW :
64
For laminar flow, the friction factor 'f' is function of Reynolds number only. f = ℜ

( )( )
2
64 L V
Sub equation 1 in Darrcy equation, Hl=
ℜ D 2g
5) FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN TURBULENT FLOW :
Unlike for laminar flow, the friction factor 'f' for turbulent flow is a function of Reynolds number as well as the relative roughness
of the pipe. The relative roughness is defined as the pipe inside surface roughness (c) divided by the inside diameter of the
pipe(D)
Relative roughness =c/D
Where, c = absolute roughness
LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS:
The loss of head is the various valves and fittings is given by
Hl = K (v square /2 g)
Where k = constant of proportionality called the 'K- factor'
The value of k factor depends on the type of valves and pipe fittings. If the loss of head Hl is known, it can be expressed into
equivalent pressure drop by
Triangle P =Hl * W oil
Where, W oil = weight density of oil flowing through valves and fittings