CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Project

A temperature controlled automatic switch controls appliances such as household

electric kettle, which is usually has a heating element which is mounted at the

bottom of a water tank through a heat conducting base. A conventional temperature

control system typically uses a bi-metal temperature sensor (also known as a

thermostat) to sense the temperature of the device, if it is used in electric kettle: the

temperature of the water inside the kettle is measured and the steam when the

water is boiled, and then cut off the electric power if the water temperature reaches

the bi-metal action temperature point or if sufficient amount of steam is detected.

Some modern temperature control switch uses more precise electronic temperature

sensors such as the NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) resistors

(thermistors), which are capable of sensing the temperature through a very wide

range of points instead of just one point. In some cases, the control systems of the

system is configured to take into account the temperature rising rate in addition to

the absolute temperature value so that the control precision is greatly improved.

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The idea behind the design and construction of this switch is to make available or

alternative means providing safety and accuracy demand for switching household

or industrial electrical appliances. This goes a long way in helping to curb the

problem frequently encountered as a result of fire outbreak, burning of food, and

inaccuracy found in measuring and maintaining temperature. That notwithstanding

it makes it possible to have other means of heating food without constant

temperature monitoring until when the required temperature will be achieved

thereby creating time for the operator to be engaged on other works while the

system is in operation.

Moreover, there are higher rate of fire accident cause by switching of devices. So

there is every need that other means of safety should be made available for

constant running of our electric equipments and gadgets and also to provide

comfort to man. Hence, with the help of a Thermistor, which has come to solve the

problem of fire accident and inaccuracy found in temperature measurement in

Nigeria, a steady running and operation of our electric equipments and gadgets is

guaranteed.

1.2 Objective of the Study

The objective of this work is to design a device which will automatically control or

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switch ON and OFF electrical appliances by sensing the temperature of the

environment or the device which it is controlling without the help of the user.

1.3 Significance of the Project

Temperature controlled switch typically uses a temperature sensor (also known as

a thermistor) to sense the temperature and then cut off the electric power if the

temperature reaches the action temperature point. The temperature sensors, NTC

(Negative Temperature Coefficient) resistors (thermistor), which is capable of

sensing the water temperature through a very wide range of points.

1.4 Application of the Project

Outside the culinary world, temperature control switch is used for a number of

purposes.

Furnace: A furnace can be used either to provide heat to a building or used to melt

substances such as glass or metal for further processing. A blast furnace is a

particular type of furnace generally associated with metal smelting (particularly

steel manufacture) using refined coke or similar hot-burning substance as a fuel,

with air pumped in under pressure to increase the temperature of the fire.

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kiln: A kiln is a high-temperature temperature control electric kettles used in

manufacturing to convert mineral feedstock (in the form of clay or calcium or

aluminum rocks) into a glassier, more solid form. In the case of ceramic kilns, a

shaped clay object is the final result, while cement kilns produce a substance called

clinker that is crushed to make the final cement product.

Autoclave: An autoclave is an kettle-like device with features similar to a pressure

cooker that allows the heating of aqueous solutions to higher temperatures than

water's boiling point in order to sterilize the contents of the autoclave.

Industrial electric kettle: Industrial temperature control electric kettles are

similar to their culinary equivalents and are used for a number of different

applications that do not require the high temperatures of a kiln or furnace.

1.5 Scope of the Project

Temperature controlled switch include a relay, power supply and a sensor for

sensing the temperature of the environment or device, and a control unit being

configured to collect data during the operation of the circuits. The control unit is

also configured to execute a predetermined program and calculate a cut-off

temperature based on the data and a predetermined target temperature. The control

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unit is further configured to turn off the electric power provided to the controlled

appliances through a relay, when the temperature of the sensor is equal to or

greater than the calculated cut-off temperature.

1.7 Limitation of the Project

Though temperature controlled switch is designed to controlled appliances, but

when the sensor is directly exposed to liquid (water) can damaged the sensor

thereby causing the system to malfunctioning.

1.8 Methodology

To achieve the aim and objectives of this work, the following are the steps

involved:

i. Study of the previous work on the project so as to improve it efficiency.

ii. Draw a block diagram.

iii. Test for continuity of components and devices,

iv. Design of the device was carried out.

v. Studying of various component used in circuit.

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vi. Construction of the circuit was carried out. The construction of this project

includes the placing of components on Vero boards, soldering and

connection of components,

vii. Finally, the whole device was cased and final test was carried out.

1.9 Project Organisation

The work is organized as follows: chapter one discuses the introductory part of the

work, chapter two presents the literature review of the study, chapter three

describes the methods applied, chapter four discusses the results of the work,

chapter five summarizes the research outcomes and the recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Temperature Control

As the name implies, a temperature controller is an instrument used to control

temperatures, mainly without extensive operator involvement. A controller in a

temperature control system will accept a temperature sensor such as a

thermocouple or RTD as input and compare the actual temperature to the desired

control temperature, or set point. It will then provide an output to a control element

A good example would be an application where the controller takes an input from

a temperature sensor and has an output that is connected to a control element such

as a heater or fan. The controller is usually just one part of a temperature control

system, and the whole system should be analyzed and considered in selecting the

proper controller.

2.2 Review of Different Types of Temperature Controllers and their Working

Principle

There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, proportional and PID. Depending

upon the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or

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another to control the process.

On/Off Control

An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output
from the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will
switch the output only when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating
control, the output is on when the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above
setpoint. Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change the output state, the
process temperature will be cycling continually, going from below setpoint to
above, and back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to prevent
damage to contactors and valves, an on-off differential, or "hysteresis," is added to
the controller operations. This differential requires that the temperature exceed
setpoint by a certain amount before the output will turn off or on again. On-off
differential prevents the output from "chattering" or making fast, continual
switches if the cycling above and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly. On-off
control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in systems which
cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of
the system is so great that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a
temperature alarm. One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a limit
controller. This controller uses a latching relay, which must be manually reset, and
is used to shut down a process when a certain temperature is reached.

Proportional Control

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Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with on-off

control. A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the

heater as the temperature approaches set point. This has the effect of slowing down

the heater so that it will not overshoot the set point, but will approach the set point

and maintain a stable temperature. This proportioning action can be accomplished

by turning the output on and off for short time intervals. This "time proportioning"

varies the ratio of "on" time to "off" time to control the temperature. The

proportioning action occurs within a "proportional band" around the set point

temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions as an on-off unit, with the

output either fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band). However,

within the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of the measurement

difference from the set point. At the set point (the midpoint of the proportional

band), the output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time are equal. if

the temperature is further from the set point, the on- and off-times vary in

proportion to the temperature difference. If the temperature is below set point, the

output will be on longer; if the temperature is too high, the output will be off

longer [6].

PID Control

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The third controller type provides proportional with integral and derivative control,

or PID. This controller combines proportional control with two additional

adjustments, which helps the unit automatically compensate for changes in the

system. These adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in time-based

units; they are also referred to by their reciprocals, RESET and RATE,

respectively. The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be individually

adjusted or "tuned" to a particular system using trial and error. It provides the most

accurate and stable control of the three controller types, and is best used in systems

which have a relatively small mass, those which react quickly to changes in the

energy added to the process. It is recommended in systems where the load changes

often and the controller is expected to compensate automatically due to frequent

changes in setpoint, the amount of energy available, or the mass to be controlled.

2.3 Review of Major Component’s Description

2.3.1 Description of Resistor

It is a component that opposes the flow of current through it. A pure resistor

possesses only resistance, no capacitor or inductance, but all practical resistors

possess some small amount of capacitance or inductance. Usually these are

sufficiently small to be negligible.

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They are constructed from a mixture of carbon of the materials in proportions that

give the required amount of resistance. They can be connected on series, parallel or

the combination of the both.

They can also be connected to protect devices such as transistor and diode against

excess current.

Resistor can be fixed or variable. It is measured in ohms.

Fig.1.0. showing the circuit symbol of a resistor

TYPES OF RESISTOR

 variable resistor

 rheostat resistor

 potentiometer resistor

 fixed resistor

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Table 1.0: A table showing the resistor colour code

COLOUR FIRST SECOND THIRD TOLERANCE

BAND BAND BAND
BLACK _ 0 X10
BROWN 1 0 ±1%
RED 2 00 ±2%
ORANGE 3 000
YELLOW 4 0000
GREEN 5 00000
BLUE 6 000000
VIOLET 7 0000000
GREY 8 00000000
WHITE 9 000000000
GOLD _ _ X0.1 ±5%
SILIVER _ _ X0.01 ±10%

2.3.2 Description of Capacitor

Function

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits

because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth

varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter

circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC

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(constant) signals.

Capacitance

This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means

that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.

However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

 µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

 n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF

 p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of

capacitor with different labeling systems!

There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised

and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

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Fig1.1: showing circuit symbol of polarised capacitor

Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way

round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by

heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached

to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end

(10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand

upright on the circuit board.

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed

with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V

for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic

capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor

with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a

sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

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Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like

electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a

large capacitance is needed in a small size.

Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and

polarity in full. However older ones use a colour-code system which has two

stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the

value in µF. The standard colour code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to

mean × 0.01 and white means × 0.1 so that values of less than 10µF can be shown.

A third colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V,

green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to

the right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the positive is to

the right'.

For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF

For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8µF

For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68µF

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

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Fig 1.2: showing the circuit symbol of an unpolarised capacitor.

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round.

They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type

(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.

It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are

many types of them and several different labeling systems!

Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so

you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.

Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:

For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

2.3.3 Description of Diode

Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit

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symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical

version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Forward Voltage Drop

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a

person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small

voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about

0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop

of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so

they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).

Reverse Voltage

When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real

diodes leak a very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most

circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the

forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually

50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in

the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

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Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small
currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In
addition there are LEDs (which have their own page)
and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).

Connecting and soldering

Fig. 1.6 Diagram showing a diode and how to connect and solder.

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or

+ for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The

cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labeled with their code

in small print; you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal

diodes!

Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small

unless you are using a germanium diode in which case you should use a heat sink

clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip

can be used as a heat sink.

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Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for

soldering them.

Testing diodes

You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check

that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test

a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large

current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they

are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.

General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have

a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.

Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V
and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the
audio signal from the weak radio signal. For general use, where the size of the

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forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are
less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have a lower resistance when
conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse voltage is
applied.

Bridge rectifiers

Fig.1.7 showing several ways of connecting diodes to make rectifier convert AC to

DC. There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC

to DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages

containing the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum

current and maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two

DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled .

The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC.

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Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.

2.3.4 DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFORMER

Basic Transformer - The basic transformer is an electrical device that transfers

alternating-current energy from one circuit to another circuit by magnetic coupling

of the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. This is accomplished

through mutual inductance (M). The coefficient of coupling (K) of a transformer is

dependent upon the size and shape of the coils, their relative positions, and the

characteristic of the core between the two coils. An ideal transformer is one where

all the magnetic lines of flux produced by the primary cut the entire secondary. The

higher the K of the transformer, the higher is the transfer of the energy.

The voltage applied to the primary winding causes current to flow in the primary.

This current generates a magnetic field, generating a counter emf (cemf) which has

the opposite phase to that of the applied voltage. The magnetic field generated by

the current in the primary also cuts the secondary winding and induces a voltage in

this winding.

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Transformer Construction - A Transformer consists of two coils of insulated

wire wound on a core. The primary winding is usually wound onto a form, and

then wrapped with an insulating material such as paper or cloth. The secondary

winding is then wound on top of the primary and both windings are wrapped with

insulating material. The windings are then fitted onto the core of the transformer.

Cores come in various shapes and materials. The most common materials are air,

soft iron, and laminated steel.

The most common types of transformers are the shell-core and the hollow-core

types. The type and shape of the core is dependent on the intended use of the

transformer and the voltage applied to the current in the primary winding.

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Exciting Current - When voltage is applied to the primary of a transformer,

exciting current flows in the primary.

The current causes a magnetic field to be set up around both the primary and the

secondary windings. The moving flux causes a voltage to be induced into the

secondary winding, countering the effects of the counter emf in the primary.

Phase - When the secondary winding is connected to a load, causing current to

flow in the secondary, the magnetic field decreases momentarily. The primary then

draws more current, restoring the magnetic field to almost its original magnitude.

The phase of the current flowing in the secondary circuit is dependent upon the

phase of the voltage impressed across the primary and the direction of the winding

of the secondary.

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If the secondary were wound in the same direction as the primary, the phase would

be the same. If wound opposite to the primary, the phase would be reversed.

This is shown on a schematic drawing by the use of phasing dots. The dots mean

that the leads of the primary and secondary have the same phase. The lack of

phasing dots on a schematic means a phase reversal.

Turns Ratio - The TURNS RATIO of a transformer is the ratio of the number of

turns of wire in the primary winding to the number of turns in the secondary

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winding. When the turns ratio is stated, the number representing turns on the

primary is always stated first. For example, a 1:2 turns ratio means the secondary

has twice the number of turns as the primary. In this example, the voltage across

the secondary is two times the voltage applied to the primary.

Power and Current Ratios - The power and current ratios of a transformer are

dependent on the fact that power delivered to the secondary is always equal to the

power delivered to the primary minus the losses of the transformer. This will

always be true, regardless of the number of secondary windings. Using the law of

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power and current, it can be stated that current through the transformer is the

inverse of the voltage or turns ratio, with power remaining the same or less,

regardless of the number of secondaries.

Voltage Ratio

The voltage of the windings in a transformer is directly proportional to the

number of turns on the coils. This relationship is expressed in Equation.

VP /VS NP/ NS

Where

VP = voltage on primary coil

VS = voltage on secondary coil

NP = number of turns on the primary coil

NS = number of turns on the secondary coil

The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is known as the voltage

ratio (VR).

As mentioned previously, the ratio of primary turns of wire to secondary turns of

wire is known as the turns ratio (TR). By substituting into the Equation (above),

we find that the voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio.

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VR = TR A voltage ratio of 1:5 means that for each volt on the primary,

there will be 5 volts on the secondary. If the secondary voltage of a

transformer is greater than the primary voltage, the transformer is referred to

as a "step-up" transformer. A ratio of 5:1 means that for every 5 volts on the

primary, there will only be 1 volt on the secondary. When secondary voltage is

less than primary voltage, the transformer is referred to as a "step-down"

transformer. Figure 2

Example 1: A transformer (Figure 2) reduces voltage from 120 volts in the

primary to 6 volts in the secondary.

If the primary winding has 300 turns and the secondary has 15 turns, find

the voltage and turns ratio.

Solution:

VR =VP /VS =120/ 60= 20/ 1= 20:1

TR= NP /NS =300/ 15 = 20/ 1=

20:1

Rev.

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2.3.5 DESCRIPTION OF TRANSISTOR

It is a device consisting of three region doped semiconductor material (Base,

Collector and Emitter) that amplifies and also switch signals.

Function

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small

output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high

current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to

a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or

fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.

Types of transistor

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Fig. 1.9 showing the two types of transistor circuit symbols.
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit

symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the

transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to

make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how

to use NPN transistors.

The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).

These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much

help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current

gain.

Testing a transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If

you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it.

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1. Testing with a multimeter

Fig.2.0: Testing an NPN Transistor.

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair

of leads for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue

multimeter to a low resistance range.

Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

 The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one

way only.

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 The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one

way only.

 The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are

reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

2.3.6. DESCRIPTION OF LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

Function

LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

Connecting and soldering

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or

+ for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The

cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs.

If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an

official identification method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but

the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for

soldering most LED

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 Testing an LED

Fig 2.1 showing the testing of LED.

Never connect LED directly to a battery or power supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through

and burn it out.

LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick

testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is

12V or less.

Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

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Colours of LEDs

LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and

white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours.

The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the

colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in

uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as

'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard

type) or transparent.

Tri-colour LEDs

The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in

one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and

green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green

LEDs are on.

The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths

of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs, the

outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit

separately, or both together to give the third colour

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Bi-colour LEDs

A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one

backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be

lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.

Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The 'standard' LED has

a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type for

general use, but 3mm round LEDs are also popular.

Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install on

boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to

hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes.

Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.

As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing

angle. This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have

a viewing angle of 60° but others have a narrow beam of 30° or less.

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Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to

limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will

burn out almost instantly.

The resistor value, R is given by:

R = (VS - VL) / I

VS = supply voltage

VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)

I = LED current (e.g. 10mA = 0.01A, or 20mA = 0.02A)

Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and

convert the current to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in

ohms ( ).

To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0.001A.

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value

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which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you

may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase

battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright.

For example

If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a

current I = 20mA = 0.020A,

R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which

is greater).

Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law

Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)

I = the current through the resistor. So,

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Fig.2.2 showing the connection of LED in series.

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect
them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same
current as just one LED.

All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all

the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V

for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To

work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this

for VL.

Example;

Calculations:

A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least

3 × 2V + 2V = 8V, so a 9V battery would be ideal.

VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up).

If the supply voltage VS is 12V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,

Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (12 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200 ,

so choose R = 4000 (the nearest standard value which is greater).

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2.3.7. THERMISTOR

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with

temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of

thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,

temperature sensors, self-resetting over current protectors, and self-regulating

heating elements.

Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material

used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure

metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger

temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a

limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C.

TYPES OF THERMISTOR

A NTC thermistor is one in which the zero-power resistance decreases with an

increase in temperature. A PTC thermistor is one in which the zero-power

resistance increases with an increase in temperature.

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In this project, positive temperature coefficient PTC is used and the symbol is as

below-

2.3.8. INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

As the name implies, integrated circuits composed of other electronics components

such as transistor, capacitor, resistor etc. And they are inbuilt to perform a specific

task in a circuit. In this project, an op-amp which has two inputs and one output

which also called a comparator was used because of its ability to compare two

input voltages to give out one output voltage.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL CIRCUITS

The diagram below shows the block diagram of a temperature control circuits

Error signal

set point Temperature Switching Electrical

controller circuit appliances
(ref. input)

Feedback element

The feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional

relationship between the feedback signal and the controlled output.

The reference point is an external signal applied to the summing point of the

control system to cause the plant to produce a specified action. This signal

represents the desired value of a controlled variable and is also called the “set-

point.”

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The controlled output is the quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled.

This signal represents the controlled variable.

The feedback signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing

point and algebraically added to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating

signal.

3.2 SECTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM

3.2.1 Comparator Section

In this section, the voltage comparator used is Lm 741 op-amp which has two

inputs and one output. An op-amp has two designs; inverting and non-inverting,

design is used.

In non inverting comparator, when Vref exceeds Vin, the output switches from low

to high. Resistors connected to pin 2 and 3 act as voltage divider that supply a

range of voltages to both input the op-amp. The transistor will turn the relay ON

when the output of the op-amp goes high.

3.2.2 SWITCHING (RELAY) SECTION

In the switching section, a 30A relay was used, which is triggered whenever the

output of the voltage comparator goes high and the transistor is also energized then

powered the relay which controls the circuits through its contacts.

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The neutral line of the circuits was connected to neutral line of the main source

while the positive line of the circuits is connected to the pole (P) and normally

opens (N/C) contact of the relay.

The relay was rated above the circuits rating in order for the relay to handle the

heater current.

3.2.3 POWER SUPPLY SECTION

A regulated 12V power supply was designed for this project. A 230VAC/24VDC

transformer was used to power the circuit and 3300uf/35V capacity was also used.

3.2.4 SENSOR

A positive coefficient type, which increases in its resistance with increase in

temperature, was used. From the circuit, when the temperature increases, resistance

of the thermistor rises thereby keeping the voltage at the pin 3 of the comparator

low thereby keeping the output low.

3.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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3.4 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The circuit is a thermistor triggered switch with adjustable threshold. It triggers

with cold temperatures so may be used as a temperature switch.

The thermistor used has a resistance of 15k at 25°C and 45k at 0° Celsius. The

100k pot allows this circuit to trigger over a wide range of temperatures.

If using a different thermistor then the control should match the new thermistor at

its highest resistance, or be higher in value. The op-amp in this circuit is the

ubiquitous 741. It may be catalogued as LM741, CA741 etc, all types will work. In

this circuit it is used as a comparator. The non-inverting input (pin 3) is biased to

half the supply voltage. The inverting input is connected to the junction of the

thermistor and potentiometer. The control is adjusted so that the circuit is on when

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 the thermistor is at the required temperature range. Once the thermistor is outside

the temperature range its resistance alters and the op-amp output changes from

near full supply to around 1 or 2 volts dc. There is insufficient voltage to turn on

the transistor and the relay will not energizes.

A slight amount of hysteresis is provided by inclusion of the 270k resistor. This

prevents rapid switching of the circuit when the temperature is near to the

switching threshold.

3.5 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

230 VAC

This is the unit that provides the internal electronic circuitry with the d.c. energy

that needs to function. The d. c. power supply used in this project work is the

v
conventional d.c. power supply. This being the most convenient and economical

d.c. source. The domestic a.c. supply from PHCN is converted to d.c. voltage, this

d.c. voltage is what is used to power the circuit. The conversion off the alternating

voltage from the a.c. mains into d.c. voltage is the function of the d.c. power

supply circuit stage. The d.c. power supply consists of a transformer, a rectifier and

filter capacitor.

The incoming a.c. voltage levels are adjusted to provide a level compatible with

the demand of the attached circuitry. For this project, the 230v-ac input will be

transformed to 12v-ac level.

The lowered ac level is converted to a pulsed dc level which has varying amplitude

but it is one of polarity current direction. This is done in the project by the four

diodes bridge rectifier.

The pulsed dc voltage from the rectifier output is smoothed out to a constant dc

level by the capacitor (low pass filter).The filtered dc voltage from the capacitor is

what is fed directly to the internal electronic circuitry.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND TESTING

In building this project, the following procedures were properly considered,

I. Purposing of the entire materials / Components needed

ii. Resistance check of the components bought with the help of ohmmeter

before making the necessary connection with the components

iii. Drafting out a schematic diagram or how to arrange the materials /

components.

iv. Testing the completed system to see if the design works and

v. Finally, implementation of design of the project.

Having procured all the materials, I processed into the arrangement of the

components into the Vero board, proper soldering of the components then

followed. The components were all soldered into the board after which it was

correctly confirmed done.

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4.1 CASING AND PACKAGING

The casing of this project comprises of metallic housing, two of it been welded

together. Then after that, a case was got where the entire circuit was mounted

follow by other external components such as indicators, switch, temperature

adjuster and sensor connector were

4.2 ASSEMBLING OF SECTIONS

Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections of

this system, the assembling into the casing followed. The sections were properly

laid out and assembled into the casing where the general coupling and linkages into

the peripheral devices took place.

Finally; the mains lead, temperature adjuster, switch and sensor were carefully

brought out from the internal part of the casing through the holes made on the body

of the casing, the input cable was connected to a 13 amps plug outlet mounted on

the body of the casing where mains terminals will be connected to.

4.3 TESTING OF SYSTEM OPERATION

In this stage, the system was due for testing and operation. The system operation

was tested where all its required performance was maintained.

First; an AC lamp was connected to the relay normal open (N/O) contact, then was

v
powered through the switch of the device. After which a heating element was

brought near the sensor of the system which was allowed to heat the sensor for

some minutes, say 100oC. Then temperature adjuster was adjusted which was seen

triggering the lamp when the set-point of the device was reached. When the

heating element was removed, after few seconds the temperature that subjected to

the sensor will drop about 4°C, and due to that drop in temperature that will cause

the relay to trigger again causing the appliance to go back to ON state. All this

things is regulated and carried out by the thermistor.

4.4 INSTALLATION OF THE COMPLETED DESIGN

This project could be used effectively to ON and OFF appliances, the system has a

15amp socket attached on the body of the casing through which the loads are

connected to the system. It also has one switch connected in such a way as to

manually control the system during operation.

Two indicator lights are also connected whose function are mainly to indicate the

presence of voltage into the system and the second LED indicates when the

setpoint was reached.

After the installation of the switch and indicators, the circuit was firmly coupled on

the body of the casing with its transformer properly guided using bolts and nut to

v
achieve equilibrium of the system.

4.5 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED

As we all know that every engineering work goes with one or more problem,

which enhances research and probably technological advancement to engineers

while endeavoring to resolve such problem. Therefore, the project on discussion

suffers some noticeable drawback, which includes:

i. Mechanical problem: we found it difficult to weld the heating element with

the kettle. But after the effort was made, our aim was later achieved.

ii. Temperature setting: we found it difficult to select the right potentiometer

that will be used to control such temperature range.

4.6 COST ANALYSIS

The expenditure made in purchasing all the components / materials and quantity

used in building this project is tabulated as show below

v
 MATERIAL DESCRIPTION QTY UNITY TOTAL

COMPONENT PRICE (N) PRICE (N)

Transformer 12v – 220v 1 500 500

transistor Tip 41 170 170

13A plug 1 100 100

Resistors 470Ω 3 10 30

1k resistor 1 10 10

1k resistor 1 10 10

10k resistor 2 10 20

50kΩ variable 1 10 10

resistor

50kpot 1 50 50

Thermistor 230Ω/°C 1 300 300

Relay 30A 1 300 300

Microphone plug Male and female 2 50 100

and socket

Capacitors 2200uf/35 volts 1 50 50

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 22uf 1 20 20

Light emitting red and green 2 20 40

diode

Diodes 1N4001 40 200

Integrated circuit Lm741 1 160 160

Connecting leads - - - 150

Connecting wires 3 yards 20 60

Cable 16mm 2 yards 120 240

switch 1 40 40

Digital = 680 680

multimeter

Vero board 1 150 150

Bread Board 1 500 500

Casing 1 1000 1000

Heating element 2200w 1 1500 1500

Screws 12 5 60

Soldering iron 60 1 250 250

transport 3000 3000

v
 Total

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The course of undergoing this project has disclosed numerous important things

about a temperature control heating system with power electronic. Ranging from

its economic importance and recommendation based on the use of this temperature

control heating system. Hence with the successful design and construction of this

project, a more efficient way of ensuring continuous availability of temperature

record is provided even in the absence of the operator. This provides the possibility

that is can still put on his/her appliance in the absence of the user.

5.2 Recommendation

This project is designed to be used in our homes and industries where the need for

accurate temperature and safety is needed. And should be used and maintain by a

qualified personnel.

v
 REFERENCE

Jennifer Viegas Mammoths roasted in prehistoric barbecue pit. MSNBC. (6 March

2009). Retrieved on 2011-11-23.

History Of The Indus Civilization. Historyworld.net. Retrieved on 2011-11-23.

Dales, George (1974). "Excavations at Balakot, Pakistan, 1973". Journal of Field

Archaeology (Boston University) 1 (1–2): 3–22 [10].

Dering, Phil (1999). "Earth-Oven Plant Processing in Archaic Period Economies: An

Example from a Semi-Arid Savannah in South Central North America".
American Antiquity 64 (4): 659–674.

Roper, Frances. "Chilean Baking-Oven." Antiquity Publications. Great Britain: 1937.

355–356.

Sopoliga, Miroslav. "Oven and Hearth in Ukrainian Dwellings of Eastern Slovakia."

Acta Ethnografica Academiae Scientiarium Hungaricae. Budapest: 1982. 315–
355

Silltoe, Paul. "The Earth Oven: An Alternative to the Barbecue from the Highlands of
Papua New Guinea." The Anthropologists'Cook Book: 1997. 224–231.

Roger Curtis. "Peruvian or Polynesian: The Stone-Lined Earth Oven of Easter

Island." New Zealand Archaeological Association Newsletter. 22, no.3: 1979.
92–96.

Bauhoff, Gunter. "History of Cast-Iron Oven Plate." Offa Bd. 40: 1983. 191–197.

Peter James; Nick Thorpe; I. J. Thorpe (31 October 1995). Ancient inventions.
Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 302–. ISBN 978-0-345-40102-1. Retrieved 23
November 2011.

v
 ABSTRACT

This project is titled design and construction of a temperature control automatic

v
switch. It is designed to control electric appliances such as electric kettle, oven,

incubator, or lamp through the variation of temperature ranges (0°C -100°C)

which must be set by the user or operator. And this can be achieved by the use of

temperature sensor known as THERMISTOR. This thermistor is a temperature

control device with a high or low resistance value which can go high or low when

the temperature is increased or reduced depending on the type. In this project, is

used as a set temperature. And this device is design in such a way that when the

100°C set temperature of the device is reached, the relay of the device will

automatically triggered and will maintain this stage until when the temperature of

the sensor is dropped 97°C, and then it will return normally open stage in order to

maintain that 100°C. And this automatic feature is controlled by a high current

relay, and the two LED used are for power and temperature indication.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title Page

Approval Page

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Table of Content

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 objective of the project

1.2 significance of the project

1.3 application of the project

1.4 scope of the project

1.5 limitation of the project

1.6 methodology

v
1.7 project organisation

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of temperature controller

2.2 Review of different types of temperature controller and their working

principle

2.3 Major Component’s Description

2.3.1 Resistors

2.3.2 Diodes

2.3.3 Capacitors

2.3.4 Transformers

2.3.5 Transistor

2.3.6 Integrated Circuit

2.3.7 Thermistor

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Sectional Description of the System

3.1 Comparator Section

3.2 Switching (relay) Section

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3.3 Power supply

3.4 sensor

3.5 circuit operation

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Construction Procedure and Testing

4.1 Casing and Packaging

4.2 Assembling of Sections

4.3 Testing of System Operation

4.4 Installation of the Completed System

4.5 Problem Encountered

4.6 Cost Analysis

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendation

REFERENCE

v
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL
HEATING SYSTEM WITH POWER ELECTRONIC

BY

NNEBE NNAMDI DAVID FPOEENA20190

TOCHUKWU DIVINE FPOEENA20191
EZEH TOCHUKWU FPOEENA20192

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OKO
ANAMBRA STATE

JUNE, 2022

v
 TITLE PAGE

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL

HEATING SYSTEM WITH POWER ELECTRONIC

NNEBE NNAMDI DAVID FPOEENA20190

TOCHUKWU DIVINE FPOEENA20191
EZEH TOCHUKWU FPOEENA20192

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OKO,
ANAMBRA STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF THE

AWARD OF NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND) IN ELECTRICAL
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

JUNE, 2022

v
 DECLARATION

We the group 64 members declare that this research Project titled “

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL

HEATING SYSTEM WITH POWER ELECTRONIC” was carried out by

us and we will be responsible for any piece of information given in

the study.

Signature/Date----------------------------------
NNEBE NNAMDI DAVID
FPOEEHA20190

Signature/Date-----------------------------------
TOCHUKWU DIVINE
FPOEEHA20191

Signature/Date------------------------------------
EZEH TOCHUKWU
FPOEEHA20192

v
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project titled “DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPERATURE CONTROL HEATING SYSTEM

WITH POWER ELECTRONIC” has been approved by the Department

of Electrical Electronics Engineering, Federal Polytechnic Oko,

Anambra State in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award of National Diploma (ND).

__________________ ________________
Engr. Abdullahi Q. O Date
Supervisor

___________________ _________________
Engr. N. O Nwosu Date
Head of Department

___________________ _________________
Engr. Umeazokwere Anthony Date
Dean, SEES

___________________ _________________
External Examiner Date

v
 DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty for his infinite mercy upon
our life

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our profound gratitude to all those who in one

way or the other were of help to us in completing this work.

Firstly, we would acknowledge our supervisor Engr. Abdullahi Q. O

who took the pains and stress to read through this project, chapter

by chapter and made some corrections where necessary, of which

without his understanding and words of encouragement this work

would not have been successful.

We also acknowledge our HOD, Engr. N. O Nwosu and all the

lecturers of Electrical Electronic Engineering department who

imparted in us the knowledge which we used in transforming this

project to a fulfilled dream.

To our lovely parents, siblings and wonderful friends and course

mates, we say a big thanks to you all.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Cover page
Title i
Declaration ii
Approval iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgment v
Table of content vi
Abstract viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Objective of the Study 2
1.3 Statement of research Problem 3
1.4 Application of the project 3
1.5 Scope of the study 4
1.6 Limitation of the Study 5
1.7 Methodology 5
1.8 Project Organization 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of Temperature Control 7
2.2 Review of different types of temperature controllers 7
2.3 Review of Major Component Description 10
CHAPTER THREE: CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
3.1 Block Diagram of Temperature Control Circuit 40

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3.2 Sectional Description of the system 41
3.3 Circuit Diagram 43
3.4 Circuit Description 43
3.5 Power Supply unit 44
CHAPTER FOUR: CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
AND TESTING
4.1 Casing and Packaging 47
4.2 Assembling of Section 47
4.3 Testing of System Operation 47
4.4 Installation of the Completed design 48
4.5 Problem Encountered 49
4.6 Cost Analysis 49

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 39
5.2 Recommendation 40
References 41

v
 ABSTRACT

This project is titled design and construction of a temperature control heating

system with power electronic. It is designed to control electric appliances such as
electric kettle, oven, incubator, or lamp through the variation of temperature
ranges (0°C -100°C) which must be set by the user or operator. And this can be
achieved by the use of temperature sensor known as THERMISTOR. This
thermistor is a temperature control device with a high or low resistance value
which can go high or low when the temperature is increased or reduced depending
on the type. In this project, is used as a set temperature. And this device is design
in such a way that when the 100°C set temperature of the device is reached, the
relay of the device will automatically triggered and will maintain this stage until
when the temperature of the sensor is dropped 97°C, and then it will return
normally open stage in order to maintain that 100°C. And this automatic feature is
controlled by a high current relay, and the two LED used are for power and
temperature indication.

v
v