INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

TOPICS
•The Photoelectric Effect
• The Compton Effect
• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves
• The Quantum Particle
• The Double-Slit Expt. Revisited
• The Uncertainty Principle

Text Book
1. PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics (6th ed)
By Serway & Jewett

2. CONCEPTS of MODERN PHYSICS (6th ed)

By Arthur Beiser
1
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

•What is Photoelectric Effect

•Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
•Experimental Observations
•Classical Predictions
•Clash between Classical predictions
& Observed Experimental results
• Einstein’s model of the Photoelectric Effect
• Explanation for the observed features of PE
•Summary
What is Photoelectric Effect?
Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
T – Evacuated glass/
quartz tube
E – Emitter Plate/
Photosensitive material
/Cathode
C – Collector Plate / Anode
V – Voltmeter
A - Ammeter

3
Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
When plate E is illuminated
by light of suitable
frequency, electrons are
emitted from E and a current
is detected in A.
At large values of V , the I reaches a
maximum value;
all the electrons emitted from E are
collected at C, and the current cannot
increase further.

the maximum I increases as the

intensity of the incident light increases,
because more electrons are ejected by
the higher-intensity light.
4
 When V is negative—that is, when the
battery in the circuit is reversed to
make plate E positive and plate C
negative—the current drops because
many of the photoelectrons emitted
from E are repelled by the now
negative plate C.

In this situation, only those

photoelectrons having a kinetic energy
greater than e|V| reach plate C,
where e is the magnitude of the
charge on the electron.

When V is equal to or more negative than Vs, where Vs

is the stopping potential, no photoelectrons reach C and the
current is zero.
5
 Dependence of photoelectron Kinetic Energy on light Intensity
Classical Prediction:
If light is really a wave, if one shines light of any fixed wavelength,
at sufficient intensity on the emitter surface, electrons should absorb
energy continuously from the em waves and electrons should be
ejected.
As the intensity of light is increased (made it brighter and hence
classically, a more energetic wave), kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons should increase.

Experimental Result:
Photocurrent produced Vs potential
difference applied graph shows that
maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons is independent of
the intensity of light
Kmax = e Vs
 Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of
photoelectrons
Classical Prediction:
Measurable/ larger time interval between incidence of
light and ejection of photoelectrons.

Experimental Result:

Electrons are emitted from the surface of the

emitter almost instantaneously.
 Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency
Classical Prediction:

Ejection of photoelectron should not depend on

light frequency, as long as the light intensity is
high enough
Experimental Result:

No electrons are emitted if the incident light

frequency falls below some cutoff frequency (fc).
 Dependence of the photo electron KE on light frequency
Classical Prediction:

Photoelectron kinetic energy should not depend

upon the frequency of the incident light.

Experimental Result:

Maximum kinetic
energy of the
photoelectrons
increases with
increasing light
frequency.
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s Interpretation of em radiation

(A new theory of light)
Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy packets
(light quanta called photons now).

The energy E, per packet depends on frequency f.

E = hf.
More intense light corresponds to more photons, not
higher energy photons!!!!!!!!

Each photon of energy E moves in vacuum at the

speed of light c, where c = 3x 108 m/s. Each photon
carries a momentum p = E/C.
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect

A photon of the incident light gives all its energy

hf to a single electron (Absorption of energy by
the electrons is not a continuous process as
envisioned in the wave model) and Kmax = hf - 

 is called the work function of the metal. It is

the minimum energy with which an electron is
bound in the metal.
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

All the observed features of photoelectric effect could

be explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
(Kmax = hf - )
1. Equation shows that Kmax depends only on frequency
(f) of the incident light.
2. Almost instantaneous emission of photoelectrons due to
one -to –one interaction between photons and
electrons.
3. Ejection of electrons depends on light frequency (f)
since photons should have energy greater than the work
function  in order to eject an electron
4. The cutoff frequency fc is realted to  by fc =  /h.
If the incident frequency f is less than fc , no emission
of photoelectrons.
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein predicted that a graph of

the maximum kinetic energy Kmax
Vs frequency f would be a straight
line, given by the linear relation,
Kmax = hf - 

And indeed such a linear

relationship was observed.

And this work won Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1921

 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Application of photoelectric effect

Photomultiplier tube
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Summary

Einstein successfully extended Plank’s quantum hypothesis to

explain photoelectric effect.

In Einstein’s model, light is viewed as a stream of particles, or

photons, each having energy E = hf , where h is Plank’s
constant and f is the frequency.

The maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the ejected photoelectron is

Kmax = hf - 

where  is the work function of the photocathode.

BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: P-SE 40.2 The Quantized Oscillator

A 2.0- kg block is attached to a spring that has a force

constant of k = 25 N/m. The spring is stretched 0.40 m
from its equilibrium position and released.

A. Find the total energy of the system and the frequency of

oscillation according to classical calculations.

B. Assuming that the energy is quantized, find the quantum

number n for the system oscillating with this amplitude.

C. Suppose the oscillator makes a transition from the n =

5.4 x 1033 state to the state corresponding to n = 5.4 x 1033
-1. By how much does the energy of the oscillator change n
this one-quantum change.
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-1 The human eye is most

sensitive to 560 nm light. What is the temperature of a
black body that would radiate most intensely at this
wavelength?
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-3 A blackbody at 7500 K

consists of an opening of diameter 0.050 mm, looking
into an oven. Find the number of photons per second
escaping the hole and having wavelengths between 500
nm and 501 nm.
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-5 The radius of our Sun is 6.96 x

108 m, and its total power output s 3.77 x 1026 W. (a)
Assuming that the Sun’s surface emits as a black body,
calculate its surface temperature. (b) Using the result,
find max for the Sun.
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-7 Calculate the energy

in electron volts, of a photon whose
frequency is (a) 620 THz, (b) 3.10 GHz, (c)
46.0 MHz. (d) Determine the corresponding
wavelengths for these photons and state the
classification of each on the electromagnetic
spectrum.
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-9. An FM radio

transmitter has a power output of 150 kW
and operates at a frequency of 99.7 MHz.
How many photons per second does the
transmitter emit?
 Surface Temperature of Stars
A) What are the surface temperatures of the above stars?
B)What are the radiant intensities of these stars?
C)The radius ‘r’ of the Sun is 7.0 x 108 m and that of Betelgeuse
is over 500 times larger or 4.0 x 1011 m. What is the total
radiated power output ( i.e., Luminosity L ) of these stars ?

Star
m
Sirius 240 nm

Sun 500 nm

Betelgeuse 850 nm
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SJ: P-SE 40.3 The Photoelectric Effect for Sodium

A sodium surface is illuminated with light having a
wavelength of 300 nm. The work function for sodium
metal is 2.46 eV. Find
A. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons and
B. The cutoff wavelength for sodium.
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SJ: Section 40.2 P-13. Molybdenum has a work

function of 4.2eV. (a) Find the cut off wavelength
and cut off frequency for the photoelectric effect. (b)
What is the stopping potential if the incident light
has wavelength of 180 nm?
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SJ: Section 40.2 P-14. Electrons are ejected

from a metallic surface with speeds up to 4.60 x 105 m/s
when light with a wavelength of 625 nm is used. (a)
What is the work function of the surface? (b) What is the
cut-off frequency for this surface?
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SJ: Section 40.2 P-16. The stopping potential for

photoelectrons released from a metal is 1.48 V larger
compared to that in another metal. If the threshold
frequency for the first metal is 40.0 % smaller than
for the second metal, determine the work function
for each metal.
 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SJ: Section 40.2 P-17. Two light sources are used in

a photoelectric experiment to determine the work
function for a metal surface. When green light from a
mercury lamp ( = 546.1 nm) is used, a stopping
potential of 0.376 V reduces the photocurrent to
zero. (a) Based on this what is the work function of
this metal? (b) What stopping potential would be
observed when using the yellow light from a helium
discharge tube ( = 587.5 nm)?
 One milli– watt of light of wavelength 4560Angstrom
is incident on a Cesium surface. Calculate the
photoelectric current liberated assuming a quantum
efficiency of 0.5%. Planck’s constant = 6.626 X 10-34 J
s. Work function for Cesium = 1.93 eV

E n.hc P.t. 1103  456109  0.5

Power (P)   , or n    1 .14699 1016
 1.15  1016

t t. h.c 6.6261034  3 108

Photoelectric current  1.15 1016 1.6 1019  1.835103 A  1.835mA
 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
QUESTIONS
1. Explain (a) Stefan’s law (b) Wien’s displacement law (c)
Rayleigh-Jeans law. [1 EACH]
2. Sketch schematically the graph of wavelength vs intensity of
radiation from a blackbody. [1]
3. Explain Planck’s radiation law. [2]
4. Write the assumptions made in Planck’s hypothesis of blackbody
radiation. [2]
5. Explain photoelectric effect. [1]
6. What are the observations in the experiment on photoelectric
effect? [5]
7. What are the classical predictions about the photoelectric effect?
[3]
8. Explain Einstein’s photoelectric equation. [2]
 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
QUESTIONS
10.Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment
explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation? [2]
11.Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference
to the photoelectric effect: (a) photoelectric current vs
applied voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic
electron vs frequency of incident light. [1EACH]
 THE COMPTON EFFECT

•Introduction
•What is Compton Effect
•Schematic diagram of Compton’s apparatus
•Experimental Observations
•Classical Predictions
•Explanation for Compton Effect
• Derivation of the Compton Shift Equation.
•Summary
 THE COMPTON EFFECT : General Information

A relativistic particle is a particle which moves with a relativistic

speed; that is, a speed comparable to the speed of light (v˜c)
The total energy ‘E’ relativistic particle is given by

E  p c m c
2 2 2 2 4

Here p and m are the momentum and mass of the particle:

c is the speed of light.

But, photon mass m=0,

So, the relativistic energy of a photon: E2=p2c2
When a subatomic particle like electron travels with a
speed comparable with the speed of light (v~c):

Its relativistic energy :

Ee2=pe2c2+m2c4
Where
pe=  mv (Relativistic momentum of electron)
1
Where Lorentz factor γ 
v 2

1 -
c 2

v = speed of the electron & c = speed of light in vacuum,

m is the mass of the electron. 33
NOTE: A non relativistic particle (Newtonian
Mechanics) is a particle which moves with a speed very
small compared to the speed of light (v<<c).

For non relativistic particle: =1. γ

1
v2
So, p=mv 1- 2
c

Newtonian definition of momentum is

valid at low speeds !!!!! 34

 SUMMARY OF PHOTON PROPERTIES

Relation between particle and wave properties of light

Energy, frequency, and wavelength, E = hf = hc / 

Also we have relation between momentum and wavelength of a

photon as follows

For photon (light), m = 0,  E= pc . Also c =  f

E hf h
p = = =
c λf λ
35
 Compton effect

According to Classical predictions:

em waves incident on electrons should:
Have radiation pressure
That should cause the electrons to accelerate in the direction of

propagation of the waves.

Set the electrons oscillating

Oscillating electrons should reradiate in all directions

Oscillating electrons should emit in the same frequency or in a

slightly different frequency depending upon the amount of
energy absorbed from the em waves
 Compton Effect (1923)

A.H.Compton gave direct confirmation of the

existence of the particle nature of electromagnetic
waves.
Compton Effect (1923)

when a monochromatic beam of a high frequency radiation such as

X-rays, gamma rays is scattered by a free charged particle (usually
an electron), the scattered radiation (scattering of X-rays from electrons)
contains two components:
(a) one having high wavelength λ’ (or low frequency or low energy) known
as modified radiation.

(b) the other having the same wavelength as the original λ0 one known as
unmodified radiation.

The is change in wavelength of the scattered high energy

electromagnetic radiation is called Compton Effect
 Compton shift
Contrary to the classical predictions where X-rays are treated as
waves, in Compton experiment, at a given angle, only one
frequency for scattered radiation is seen.
 THE COMPTON EFFECT

Experimental Observations-I
λ0 - wavelength of the incident radiation
λ’ - wavelength of the scattered radiation.
From the experimental observation it was found that
The difference (λ’-λ0), which indicates the enhancement in
the scattered wavelength, is called Compton shift.
Compton shift (Δλ) is independent of the wavelength of the
incident radiation.

Compton shift
 THE COMPTON EFFECT

Experimental Observations- II

Δλ depends only on the scattering angle θ as the

scattering angle is increased Δλ also increases.
Scattered x-ray intensity versus wavelength for
Compton scattering at  = 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135°.

Δλ is maximum for θ=1800 & Δλ =0 for θ=00

 Experimental Observations-II
Δλ is independent of the nature of the scatterer as it is same
for all scatterer. Compton made measurement by replacing
graphite with other materials, and found that λ’ is
independent of the target material.

At fixed θ, Δλ = λ’ - λ0 is constant

The separation between λ0 and λ’ as a function of θ is INDEPENDENT of the

material (which confirms that it is scattering by electrons and not nuclei).
 THE COMPTON EFFECT

Compton could explain the experimental result by taking a “billiard

ball” type collisions between particles of light (X-ray photons) and
electrons in the material.
The incident X-ray photon with energy (E0=hc/λ0), when collides with
the electron, it gives some of its energy to
(a) the electron which recoils with a velocity (v) in the direction
making an angle (φ) with the direction of the incident photon.
and remaining energy to
(b) the photon with reduced energy (E’=hc/λ’) scattered in the
direction θ with the original direction.
 Conservation of Energy
Let’s start by considering conservation of energy, just as we did for the photoelectric
effect:
E before collision = E after collision Energy of the
Energy of the Scattered photon
Incident photon
hfo + mc 2 = hf ‘ + Ee
electron moving with velocity v, including
rest mass, as Ee2 = (pec)2 + (mc2)2
electron’s rest
mass energy
which gives:
 Reason for the λo peak

(1) λC = 2.43 pm for an electron and

less for particles with large rest mass.
The maximum wavelength change
in Compton effect is 4.86 pm.
(2) The eqn. shows that at scattered angle the scattered wavelength shows
the initial un-scattered wavelength (λo ). This is because in deriving the equation
it was assumed that the scattering particle is able to move freely, which is reasonable
since many of the electrons in matter are only loosely bound to their parent atom.
The tightly bound electrons when struck by a photon, the entire atom recoils
instead of the single electron. So in this case the mass m in the equation is to be
replaced by the mass of the entire atom, which is 10000 times greater than the
mass of the electrons. Hence the resultant reduced Compton shift (λ’ - λo).
 THE COMPTON EFFECT
Summary

X-rays are scattered at various angles by electrons in a target. In

such a scattering, a shift in wavelength is observed for the
scattered X-rays and the phenomenon is known as Compton Effect.

Classical physics does not predict the correct behaviour in this effect.
If x-ray is treated as a photon, conservation of energy and linear
momentum applied to the photon-electron collisions yields for the
Compton shift.

where me is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light, and 

is the scattering angle.
X-rays of wavelength 10.0 pm are scattered from a target.
(a) Find the wavelength of the X-rays scattered through 45⁰.
(b) Find the maximum wavelength present in the
scattered x-rays.
(c) Find the maximum Kinetic energy of the recoil electrons.
SJ: Section 40.3 P-23. A 0.00160 nm
photon (incident photon) scatters from a free
electron. For what photon scattering angle
does the recoiling electron have kinetic
energy equal to the energy of the scattered
photon?
SJ: Section 40.3 P-21 Calculate the energy and
momentum of a photon of wavelength 700 nm.
SJ: P-SE 40.4 Compton scattering at 45°
X-rays of wavelength 0 = 0.20 nm are scattered from a block of
material. The scattered X-rays are observed at an angle of 45° to
the incident beam. Calculate their wavelength.
What if we move the detector so that scattered x-rays are detected
at an angle larger than 45°? Does the wavelength of the scattered
x-rays increase or decrease as the angle  increase?
1. Explain the experiment on Compton effect. [5]

2. Explain Compton effect. [2]

3. Derive the Compton shift equation. [5]

 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Photons and Electromagnetic Waves

Evidence for wave-nature of light

• Diffraction
• Interference

Evidence for particle-nature of light

• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect

•This means true nature of light is not describable in

terms of any single classical picture.

58
 MATTER WAVES De Broglie
In 1923 Prince Louis de Broglie postulated that
an electrons or any other material particle must
exhibit wave like properties in addition to particle
properties

Waves associated with a material particle is 1929,

called matter waves Nobel Prize

h Planck’s constant
  h  6.6 3  1 0  34 Js
de Broglie wavelength p
and

f = E Energy of the particle

h
frequency of the particle
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

p = momentum of the particle,

h h p = m v for a non-relativistic particle
λ= = m = mass of the particle
p mv V = velocity of the particle

The electron accelerated through a potential

difference of V has a non relativistic kinetic energy
1
K  mv eV
2
2 m = mass, v = velocity

p=mv = 2me V
h h h h
λ= =  
p mv 2mK 2meV
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: P-SE 40.5 The wavelength of an Electron

Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength for an electron
moving at 1.0 x 107 m/s.

SJ: P-SE 40.6 The Wavelength of a Rock

A rock of mass 50 g is thrown with a speed of 40
m/s. What is its de Broglie wavelength?
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: P-SE 40.7 An Accelerated Charged Particle

A particle of charge q and mass m has been accelerated from
rest to a nonrelativistic speed through a potential difference of
V. Find an expression for its de Broglie wavelength.

SJ: Section 40.5 P-35 (a) An electron has a kinetic

energy of 3.0 eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find
the wavelength of a photon having the same energy.
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Davisson -Germer experiment

&

Electron Diffraction pattern

These two experiments confirmed de- Broglie relationship p = h /.

Subsequently it was found that atomic beams, and beams of

neutrons, also exhibit diffraction when reflected from regular
crystals. Thus de Broglie's formula seems to apply to any kind of
matter.
 Davisson-Germer experiment (1927)
Proof of existence of Matter waves
Scatters beam of electrons from a
Ni crystal.

Davisson G.P. Thomson

1937 : Nobel prize.
 A beam of electrons from a heated filament is accelerated through a
potential difference V.
 The collimated beam of electrons strikes a single crystal of nickel.
 Electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms in the crystal.
 The electron intensity is measured by a detector which can be
moved to any angle  relative to the incident beam.

The kink for 54 V

electrons gives the
strong existence of
electron waves, since a
strong diffraction peak
is observed at ɸ =50⁰

The crystal surface acts like a diffraction grating with spacing d

 • Bragg’s equation:

For Nickel crystal:

d=0.91Å; θ=65⁰; n=1
Å
Å
• De Broglie formula:

Since electron KE is 54 eV (small compared with its rest energy mc2=0.51 MeV );
we can write pe=  mv = mv ( as  =1)
Find the angle of incidence of electrons of energy 100 eV on the lattice planes
of a metal crystal so that a strong Bragg reflection of the first order occurs.

{given d=2.15 Angstrom}

 Electron Diffraction pattern-Experiment

Double –slit experiment with electrons (1989)

 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

• What is a Quantum Particle?

• How to represent a quantum particle?

• Wave packet
•Phase velocity
•Group velocity

•Uncertainty Principle
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

What is a Quantum Particle?

Quantum particle is a model by which microscopic
particles ( atomic dimension) having dual nature
are represented.

To represent a quantum particle, we have to combine

the essential features of both an ideal particle and
an ideal wave.

70
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

What is a Quantum Particle?

Quantum particle is a model by which microscopic
particles ( atomic dimension) having dual nature
are represented.

A moving microscopic particle (Quantum particle) is

associated with:
a wave packet/wavegroup
rather than
a single wave.
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

An essential feature of a particle is that it is

localized in space.

An ideal wave is infinitely long (unlocalized)

as shown in figure below.

72
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Now to build a localized entity from an infinitely

long wave, waves of same amplitude, but slightly
different frequencies are superposed.

74
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

If we add up large number of waves in a similar way,

the small localized region of space where
constructive interference takes place is called a
wavepacket, which represents a particle.

75
A moving microscopic particle (Quantum particle) is
associated with:
a wave packet/wavegroup
rather than
a single wave.
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Mathematical Representation of a wave packet

superposition of two waves of equal amplitude, but with slightly

different frequencies, f1 & f2 and wavelengths, traveling in the
same direction are considered. The waves are written as

(
y = A cos k 1x - ω 1 t
1
) and (
y 2 = A cos k 2 x - ω 2 t )
The resultant wave is, y = y1 + y 2

[ ( Δk Δω
y = 2A cos x -
2 2
t )] ( cos
k1 +k2
2
x-
ω1 + ω2
2
t )
Amplitude varies with t and x
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2.

The resulting wave oscillates with the average

frequency, and its amplitude envelope (in square
brackets, shown by the blue dotted curve in figure)
varies according to the difference frequency.
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

The envelope can travel through space with a different speed than
the individual waves. This speed is called the group speed or the
speed of the wave packet (the group of waves)

The group speed, υg =

(Δω 2) =
Δω
(Δk 2) Δk
For a superposition of large number of waves to form a wave packet,
this ratio is

dω
υg =
dk
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

A realistic wave (one of finite extent in space) is characterized by

two different speeds. The phase speed, the speed with which
wave crest moves, which is given by

& the group speed, the speed with which the envelope (energy)
moves. This is given by

In general these two speeds are not the same.

 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Relation between group speed and phase speed

ω
we have, υphase = = f λ
k
i.e., ω = k υphase = k υp

dω d ( kvp ) dυp
But υg = = =k + υp
dk dk dk
Substituting for k in terms of , we get
dυ p
g = p – 
dλ
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Relation between group speed and particle speed

E 2π 2π 2π p
ω = 2π f = 2π and k= = =
h λ hp h
2π
dω dE dE
vg = = h =
dk 2π dp
dp
h
For a classical particle moving with speed u, the kinetic energy E is
given by
1 2 p2 2 p dp dE p
E = mu = and dE = or = = u
2 2m 2m dp m
dω dE
i.e., υg = = = v, the particle velocity
dk dp
 THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

ie., we should identify the group speed with the

particle speed, speed with which the energy
moves.

To represent a realistic wave packet, confined to a finite

region in space, we need the superposition of large
number of harmonic waves with a range of k values.
Summary of the Quantum theory
&
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
• same light beam that can eject photoelectrons
from a metal (meaning that the beam consists
of photons)
• can also be diffracted by a grating (meaning
that the beam is a wave).
• In other words, the particle model and the
wave model of light complement
each other.
 the principle of complementarity
____________________________
The dual nature of matter and radiation is an accepted fact.

the principle of complementarity: states that wave

and particle models of either matter or radiation
compliment each other.
 Louis de Broglie’s hypothesis
____________________________

A particle with momentum p has a matter

wave associated with it, whose wavelength is
given by

h
 
p
The connecting link – Planck’s constant
_______________________________
Dual Nature

Radiation E  h
h
Matter 
p
Why isn’t the wave nature of matter more
apparent to us…?
___________________________________

 34
h  6 . 6 x10 J.s
Planck’s constant is so small that we don’t
observe the wave behaviour of ordinary objects
– their de Broglie wavelengths could be many
orders of magnitude smaller than the size of a
nucleus!
 • A wave packet is localized – a good representation for
a particle!
• A wave packet is a group of waves with slightly
different wavelengths interfering with one another in
a way that the amplitude of the group (envelope) is
non-zero only in the neighbourhood of the particle
• If several waves of different wavelengths
(frequencies) and phases are superposed
together, one would get a resultant which is a
localized wave packet
• The velocities of the individual waves which superpose
to produce the wave packet representing the particle are
different - the wave packet as a whole has a different
velocity from the waves that comprise it
• Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the wave
propagates in space
• Group velocity: The rate at which the envelope of the
wave packet propagates
The spread of wave packet in wavelength depends on
the required degree of localization in space – the central
wavelength is given by

h
 
p

The uncertainty principle is confirmed by experiment,

and is a direct consequence of the de Broglie’s hypothesis
 For a particle represented by a single wavelength
wave existing throughout space,  is precisely
known, and according to de- Broglie hypothesis, its
p is also known accurately. But the position (x) of
the particle becomes uncertain.
This means  = 0, p =0; but x = 

In contrast, if a particle whose

momentum is uncertain
(combination/ a range of
wavelengths are taken to form
a wavepacket ), so that x is
small, but  is large.
If x =0, , & thereby p = 
 h
   , we have the following
p

x 

x
 ? x : large |∆p small
x : small |∆p large
 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Quantum theory predicts that, it is fundamentally impossible to

make simultaneous measurements of a particle’s position &
momentum with infinite accuracy. This is known as
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The uncertainties arise from
the quantum structure of matter.

In short ( x ) ( px) ≥ h / 4

Also ( E ) ( t) ≥ h / 4

These uncertainties are inherent in the physical world

and have nothing to do with the skill of the observer or
with quality of the experimental equipment
Why isn’t the uncertainty principle apparent to
us in our ordinary experience…?
Planck’s constant, again!!
___________________________________
h h  6 .6 x10  34
J.s
 x p x 
4
Planck’s constant is so small that the
uncertainties implied by the principle are also
too small to be observed. They are only
significant in the domain of microscopic
systems
1. Explain the wave properties of the particles.
[2]
2. Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically. [2]
3. Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.
[1+1]
4. Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the
particle speed. [2]
5. Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. [1]
6. Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and
momentum (b) energy and time. [1]
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: P-SE 40.5 The wavelength of an Electron

Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength for an electron
moving at 1.0 x 107 m/s.

SJ: P-SE 40.6 The Wavelength of a Rock

A rock of mass 50 g is thrown with a speed of 40
m/s. What is its de Broglie wavelength?
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: P-SE 40.7 An Accelerated Charged Particle

A particle of charge q and mass m has been accelerated from
rest to a nonrelativistic speed through a potential difference of
V. Find an expression for its de Broglie wavelength.

SJ: Section 40.5 P-35 (a) An electron has a kinetic

energy of 3.0 eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find
the wavelength of a photon having the same energy.
 PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: Section 40.5 P-38

In the Davisson-Germer
experiment, 54.0 eV electrons
were diffracted from a nickel
lattice. If the first maximum in
the diffraction pattern was
observed at = 50.0°, what was
the lattice spacing a between
the vertical rows of atoms in
the figure?
SJ: Section 40.6 P-43 Consider a freely moving
quantum particle with mass m and speed u. Its energy
is E= K= mu2/2. Determine the phase speed of the
quantum wave representing the particle and show that
it is different from the speed at which the particle
transports mass and energy.
 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

SJ: Section 40.7 P-46 Electrons are incident on a pair

of narrow slits 0.060 m apart. The ‘bright bands’ in
the interference pattern are separated by 0.40 mm on
a ‘screen’ 20.0 cm from the slits. Determine the
potential difference through which the electrons were
accelerated to give this pattern.
 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

SJ: P-SE 40.8 Locating an electron

The speed of an electron is measured to be 5.00 x

103 m/s to an accuracy of 0.0030%. Find the
minimum uncertainty in determining the position of
this electron.

SJ: P-SE 40.9 The Line Width of Atomic Emissions

The lifetime of an excited atom is given as 1.0 x 10-8 s. Using
the uncertainty principle, compute the line width f produced
by this finite lifetime?
 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

SJ: Section 40.8 P-51 Use the uncertainty principle to

show that if an electron were confined inside an
atomic nucleus of diameter 2x 10-15 m, it would
have to be moving relativistically, while a proton
confined to the same nucleus can be moving
nonrelativistically.

SJ: Section 40.8 P-52 Find the minimum kinetic

energy of a proton confined within a nucleus having
a diameter of 1.0 x 10-15 m.
 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

SJ: Section 40.8 P-52 Find the minimum kinetic

energy of a proton confined within a nucleus having
a diameter of 1.0 x 10-15 m.
Calculate the uncertainty in the velocity of an electron
which is confined to a box of length 10 Angstrom.
A typical atomic nucleus is about 5.0 x 1015 m in radius. Use the uncertainty
principle to place a lower limit on the energy an electron must have if it is to
be part of a nucleus.
Hydrogen atom is 5.3 x 10-11 m in radius . Use the uncertainty principle to
estimate the minimum energy an electron can have in this atom.
Find the angle of incidence of electrons of energy 100 eV on the lattice planes
of a metal crystal so that a strong Bragg reflection of the first order occurs.

{given d=2.15 Angstrom}