University of Benghazi Mathematics II General Department

Following Calculus (10th Edition) by Howard Anton

Faculty of Science Week 2 Mr. Hani Almajbry

Rolle’s Theorem - Mean-Value Theorem

We will begin with a special case of the Mean-Value Theorem, called Rolle’s Theorem, in honor of the mathematician
Michel Rolle. This theorem states the geometrically obvious fact that if the graph of a differentiable function intersects
the x-axis at two places, 𝑎 and 𝑏, then somewhere between 𝑎 and 𝑏 there must be at least one place where the tangent
line is horizontal (look at next Figure). The precise statement of the theorem is as follows.

Rolle’s Theorem

Let 𝑓 be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:

1. 𝑓 is continues is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
2. 𝑓 is differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
3. 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
Then there is a number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.

1
 Rolle’s Theorem says that a differentiable curve has at least one horizontal tangent between any two points where it crosses a
horizontal line. It may have just one (a), or it may have more (b).

Example:
4 1
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 𝑥 satisfies Rolle`s theorem on the interval [4 , 4]. If so, find 𝑐

Solution
1 1
1. We know that of 𝐷𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑅 − {0} and 0 ∉ [4 , 4], so 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the closed interval [4 , 4].
4 1
2. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥 2, so 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable on the open interval (4 , 4).
1 1 4 4
3. Now 𝑓 (4) = 4 (4) + 1 = 1 + 16 = 17 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(4) = 4(4) + 4 = 16 + 1 = 17, so 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏).
4

1
Then there is a number 𝑐 in (4 , 4) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
4 4 4
4− 2
= 4 − 2 = 0 → 4 = 2 → 4𝑐 2 = 4 → 𝑐 2 = 1 → 𝑐 = ±1
𝑥 𝑐 𝑐
Remember that
1 1
1 ∈ (4 , 4), but −1 ∉ (4 , 4)

So, 𝑐 = 1
Example:
2𝜋
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 satisfies Rolle`s theorem on the interval [0, ]. If so, find 𝑐
3

Solution
2𝜋
1. We know that of 𝐷𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑅 , so 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the closed interval [0, ].
3
2𝜋
2. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = √3 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥, so 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable on the open interval (0, ).
3

3. 𝑓(0) = √3 sin(0) + cos(0) = √3(0) + 1 = 1 and

2
 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 √3 1 3 1 2
𝑓( ) = √3 sin ( ) + cos ( ) = √3 ( ) − = − = = 1
3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
So, 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏).
sin 𝑐
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = √3 cos 𝑐 − sin 𝑐 = 0 → √3 cos 𝑐 = sin 𝑐 → √3 = → tan 𝑐 = √3
cos 𝑐
𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝑐 = tan−1 √3 → 𝑐 = ∈ (0, )
3 3
Example:
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5 satisfies Rolle`s theorem on the interval [0,3]. If so, find 𝑐
Solution
1. We know that 𝑓(𝑥) is polynomial, so 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the closed interval [0,3].
2. 𝑓(𝑥) is polynomial, so 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable on the open interval (0,3).
3. 𝑓(0) = (0)2 − 8(0) + 5 = 5 and 𝑓(3) = (3)2 − 8(3) + 5 = 9 − 24 + 5 = −10.
So, 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏).
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) doesn`t satisfy Rolle`s theorem.
Example:
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 satisfies Rolle`s theorem on [1,3], find the value of 𝑎.
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 satisfies Rolle`s theorem, then
𝑓(1) = 𝑓(3)
𝑎(1)2 − 5(1) = 𝑎(3)2 − 5(3)
𝑎 − 5 = 9𝑎 − 15 → 9𝑎 − 𝑎 = −5 + 15
10 5
8𝑎 = 10 → 𝑎 = → ∴𝑎=
8 4
Exercise
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies Rolle`s theorem on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. If so, find 𝑐.
𝑓(𝑥) Interval [𝑎, 𝑏] Satisfies or not Value of 𝑐

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 11 [0,4] Satisfies 𝑐 = 2 ∈ [0,4]

2. 4 [−1,1] Does`t satisfy -

𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 0≤𝑥≤1 Satisfies 𝑐 = 0.5

3
 Mean-Value Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem, which was first stated by Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is a slanted version of Rolle’s Theorem.
The Mean Value Theorem guarantees that there is a point where the tangent line is parallel to the secant joining 𝐴 and
𝐵.

Geometrically, the Mean Value Theorem says that somewhere between 𝑎 and 𝑏 the curve has at least one tangent parallel to
the secant joining 𝐴 and 𝐵.

The Mean Value Theorem

Suppose 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on the interval’s interior (𝑎, 𝑏). Then
there is at least one point 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) at which
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎
Example
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 satisfies the mean-value theorem on the interval [−2,4].
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 is polynomial, so it is continuous over a closed interval [−2,4] and differentiable on the interval’s
interior (−2,4). Then
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 + 1 = −8 + 1 = −7
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(4) = (4)3 + 1 = 64 + 1 = 65
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 65 − (−7) 65 + 7 72
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = = = = = 12
𝑏−𝑎 4 − (−2) 4+2 6
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 → 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2 = 12 → 𝑐 2 = 4
∴ 𝑐 = ±2
𝑐 = −2 ∉ (−2,4)
∴𝑐=2

4
Example:
Determine all the numbers 𝑐 which satisfy the conclusions of the Mean Value Theorem for the following function.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 on the interval [−1,2]
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 is polynomial, so it is continuous over a closed interval [−1,2] and differentiable on the
interval’s interior (−1,2). Then
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 2(−1)2 − (−1) = −1 + 2 + 1 = 2
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 2(2)2 − (2) = 8 + 8 − 2 = 14
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 14 − 2 14 − 2 12
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = = = = =4
𝑏−𝑎 2 − (−1) 2+1 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1 → 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2 + 4𝑐 − 1
3𝑐 2 + 4𝑐 − 1 = 4 → 3𝑐 2 + 4𝑐 − 1 − 4 = 0
3𝑐 2 + 4𝑐 − 5 = 0 → 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑏 = 4 , 𝑑 = −5
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑑 −4 ± √16 + 60 −4 ± √76
𝑐1,2 = = =
2𝑎 2(3) 6
−4+√76 −4−√76
∴𝑐= = 0.7863 ∈ (−1,2) or 𝑐 = = −2.1196 ∉ (−1,2)
6 6

So
−4 + √76
𝑐= = 0.7863
6
Exercise
Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies mean-value theorem on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. If so, find 𝑐.
𝑓(𝑥) Interval [𝑎, 𝑏] Satisfies or not Value of 𝑐

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 [0,1] Satisfies 1

𝑐= ∈ [0,1]
√3

2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 [2,5] Satisfies 7

𝑐=
2

3. 2 [0,1] Satisfies 8
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 𝑐=
27

5
 L’Hopital’s Rule

Theorem (L’Hôpital’s Rule for thes Form 𝟎/𝟎)

Suppose that 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions on an open interval containing 𝑥 = 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑥 = 𝑎,
and that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓′(𝑥)
If lim [𝑔′(𝑥)] exists, or if this limit is +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞, then
𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
lim [ ] = lim [ ]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′(𝑥)

Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit as 𝑥 → 𝑎− , 𝑥 → 𝑎 + , 𝑥 → +∞ or as 𝑥 → −∞.

Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule
Step 1. Check that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) is an indeterminate form of type 0/0.
Step 2. Differentiate 𝑓 and 𝑔 separately.
Step 3. Find the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥). If this limit is finite, +∞, or −∞, then it is equal
to the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥).
Example
Find the limit of the following
𝑥 2 −4 4−4 0
1) lim = 2−2 = 0
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

Solution
𝑥2 − 4 2𝑥
lim = lim = lim 2𝑥 = 2 × 2 = 4
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥→2 1 𝑥→2
𝑒 𝑥 −1 𝑒 0 −1 1−1 0
2) lim sin 𝑥 = = =0
𝑥→0 sin 0 0

Solution

𝑒𝑥 − 1 𝑒𝑥 𝑒0 1
lim = lim = = = 1
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 cos 0 1
sin 𝑥 sin 0 0
3) lim = =0
𝑥→0 𝑥 3 (0)3

Solution
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 0 1
lim 3
= lim = = = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥 2 3(0)2 0

6
 𝜋
1−sin 𝑥 1−sin 1−1 0
4) lim𝜋 = 𝜋
2
= =0
𝑥→ cos 𝑥 cos 0
2 2

Solution
𝜋
1 − sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 2 0
lim𝜋 = lim𝜋 = 𝜋 = = 0
𝑥→ cos 𝑥 𝑥→ − sin 𝑥 − sin −1
2 2 2
tan−1 (2𝑥) tan−1 (0) 0
5) lim = =0
𝑥→0 3𝑥 3×0

Solution
2
tan−1 (2𝑥) 2 2 2 2
lim = lim 1 + 4𝑥 = lim = =
𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝑥→0 3 𝑥→0 3(1 + 4𝑥 )
2 3(1 + 4(0) )
2 3
sin 𝑚𝑥 0
6) lim sin 𝑛𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0

Solution
sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑚 cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑚 cos 0 𝑚 × 1 𝑚
lim = lim = = =
𝑥→0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑛 cos 0 𝑛×1 𝑛
tan 𝑥 tan 0 0
7) lim 𝑥+sin 𝑥 = 0+sin 0 = 0
𝑥→0

Solution
tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 0 1 1
lim = lim = = =
𝑥→0 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 + cos 𝑥 1 + cos 0 1 + 1 2
6𝑥 −2𝑥 60 −20 1−1 0
8) lim = = =0
𝑥→0 𝑥 0 0

Solution
6𝑥 − 2𝑥 6𝑥 𝑙𝑛6 − 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛2 6
lim = lim = 60 𝑙𝑛6 − 20 𝑙𝑛2 = 𝑙𝑛6 − 𝑙𝑛2 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛3
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1 2
3𝑥+cos 𝑥−1 3(0)+cos 0−1 0+1−1 0
9) lim 𝑥 3 +sin(2𝑥) = (0)3 +sin(0)
= 0+0
=0
𝑥→0

Solution
3𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 1 3 − sin 𝑥 3 − sin 0 3−0 3
lim 3
= lim 2 = 2
= =
𝑥→0 𝑥 + sin(2𝑥) 𝑥→0 3𝑥 + 2 cos(2𝑥) 3(0) + 2 cos(0) 0 + 2 × 1 2
Theorem (L’Hôpital’s Rule for the Form ∞/∞)
Suppose that 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions on an open interval containing 𝑥 = 𝑎, except possibly at 𝑥 = 𝑎,
and that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓′(𝑥)
If lim [𝑔′(𝑥)] exists, or if this limit is +∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞, then
𝑥→𝑎

7
 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
lim [ ] = lim [ ]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′(𝑥)

Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit as 𝑥 → 𝑎− , 𝑥 → 𝑎 + , 𝑥 → +∞ or as 𝑥 → −∞.

Example
Find the limit of the following
𝑙𝑛𝑥 ∞
1) lim+ csc 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→0

Solution
1
𝑥 ∞
lim+ =
𝑥→0 − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 ∞
We will apply L’Hôpital’s Rule again, but we will simplify
1
𝑥 −1 −1 sin 𝑥
= = sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = − tan 𝑥
− csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 𝑥
sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
= − lim+ tan 𝑥 = − lim+ lim tan 𝑥 = −(1)(0) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0+
𝑥 ∞
2) lim =∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑒 𝑥

Solution
𝑥 1 1 1
lim = lim = = = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒∞ ∞

𝑙𝑛(1+𝑒 𝑥 ) ∞
3) lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥

Solution
𝑥
𝑒
𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 = lim 1 𝑒
𝑥
1 𝑒∞ ∞
lim = lim 𝑥
= ∞
=
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 𝑥→∞ 5 𝑥→∞ 5 1 + 𝑒 51 + 𝑒 ∞
We apply L’Hôpital’s Rule again, we get
1 𝑒𝑥 1 𝑒𝑥 1 1
= lim = lim = lim 1 =
5 𝑥→∞ 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 5 𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥 5 𝑥→∞ 5
Indeterminate form of type 𝟎 ⋅ ∞
0 ∞
Thus far we have discussed indeterminate forms of type 0 and ∞. However, these are not the only possibilities, in
general, the limit of an expression that has one of the forms
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥), , 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) , 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)

8
Example:
Evaluate
1) lim+ 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution
lim 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 0𝑙𝑛0 = 0 × ∞
𝑥→0+
𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑙𝑛0 ∞
lim+ 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑥 = lim+ → = =
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 1 1 ∞
𝑥 0
Now we apply L’Hôpital’s rule
1
𝑙𝑛𝑥 1
lim+ = 𝑥 = lim+ − × 𝑥 2 = − lim+ 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0 1 −1 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑥 𝑥2
2) lim𝜋(1 − tan 𝑥) sec 2𝑥
𝑥→
4

Solution
𝜋 𝜋 1
lim𝜋(1 − tan 𝑥) sec 2𝑥 = (1 − tan ) sec 2 × = (1 − 1) 𝜋 = 0∙∞
𝑥→ 4 4 cos 2
4

𝜋
(1 − tan 𝑥) (1 − tan 4) 0
lim𝜋(1 − tan 𝑥) sec 2𝑥 = lim𝜋 = 𝜋 =
𝑥→ 𝑥→ cos 2𝑥 cos 0
4 4 2
Now we apply L’Hôpital’s rule
𝜋 𝜋 2
(1 − tan 𝑥) −𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 4 (√2) 2
lim𝜋 = lim𝜋 = 𝜋 = 𝜋 = = =1
𝑥→ cos 2𝑥 𝑥→ −2 sin 2𝑥 2 sin 2 × 4 2 sin 2 2(1) 2
4 4

Indeterminate forms of type ∞ − ∞

Example:
Evaluate
1 1
1) lim+ (𝑥 − sin 𝑥)
𝑥→0

Solution
1 1 1 1
lim+ ( − )= − =∞−∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 0 sin 0
sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 0 − 0 0
lim+ ( )= =
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 0 sin 0 0
Now we apply L’Hôpital’s rule
sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 1 cos 0 − 1 1−1 0
lim+ ( ) = lim+ ( )= = =
𝑥→0 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 0 × cos 0 + sin 0 0 + 0 0
Now we apply L’Hôpital’s rule again
9
 cos 𝑥 − 1 − sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
lim+ ( ) = lim+ ( ) = lim+ ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 𝑥→0 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 𝑥→0 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥
− sin 0 0
= = =0
−(0) sin 0 + 2 cos 0 2
Indeterminate forms of type 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝟏∞
Example:
1) lim+ (sin 𝑥)tan 𝑥 = (0)0
𝑥→0

Solution
Let 𝑦 = (sin 𝑥)tan 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 sin 𝑥
𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(sin 𝑥)tan 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = tan 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑙𝑛𝑦 =
cot 𝑥
cos 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 sin 𝑥
lim (sin 𝑥)tan 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = lim+ = lim+ sin 𝑥2
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 cot 𝑥 𝑥→0 −𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥

cos 𝑥 1 cos 𝑥
= lim+ × = lim+ × −𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = − lim+ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = −(1)(0) = 0
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
So
𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑒 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 1
∴ lim+(sin 𝑥)tan 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0
1
2) lim(1 + sin 𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution
1 1
lim(1 + sin 𝑥)𝑥 = (1 + 0)0 = 1∞
𝑥→0
1
Let 𝑦 = (1 + sin 𝑥) , and taking the natural logarithm of both sides:
𝑥

1 1 𝑙𝑛(1 + sin 𝑥)
𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + sin 𝑥)𝑥 → 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + sin 𝑥) → 𝑙𝑛𝑦 =
𝑥 𝑥
𝑙𝑛(1 + sin 𝑥) 𝑙𝑛1 0
∴ lim 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = lim = =
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 0 0
Now we apply L’Hôpital’s rule
cos 𝑥
∴ lim 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = lim 1 + sin 𝑥 = lim cos 𝑥 = cos 0 = 1 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 1 𝑥→0 1 + sin 𝑥 1 + sin 0 1 + 0
∴ lim 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 1
𝑥→0

By taking the exponential function of both sides:

∴ lim 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑒 1 → lim 𝑦 = 𝑒
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

10
 1
∴ lim(1 + sin 𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥→0

Exercise
Evaluate
Limit Answer Limit Answer
1. sin 𝑥 ∞ 15. lim 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥 0
lim 𝑥→∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 3

2. cos 𝑥 1 16. lim √𝑥 sec 𝑥 0

lim 𝑥→0+
3𝜋
𝑥→ 𝑥 −
3𝜋
2
2
3. (𝑙𝑛𝑥)3 0 17. lim (cot 𝑥)sin 𝑥 1
lim 𝑥→0+
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2

4. tan 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 18. lim (−𝑙𝑛𝑥)𝑥 1

lim 𝑥→0−
𝑥→0 𝑥
5. 𝑙𝑛(𝑙𝑛𝑥) 0 19. 𝑒 4𝑥 − 1 0
lim lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑥 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥

6. 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 2 20. lim sec(7𝑥) cos(3𝑥) 3

lim 𝜋 −
𝑥→( )
𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 2 7
7. sin 𝑥 0 21. lim (𝑥 − 𝜋) cot 𝑥 1
lim 𝑥→𝜋
𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥

8. sin2 𝑥 1 22. 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 −1
lim lim
𝑥→0 tan(𝑥 2 ) 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 − 1

9. 𝑥 1 23. 𝑥−𝑎 𝑎
lim lim
𝑥→0 sin−1 (3𝑥) 3 𝑥→𝑎 𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛𝑎

10. sin10 𝑥 1 24. sec 𝑥 −∞

lim lim +
𝑥→0 sin(𝑥 10 ) 𝜋
𝑥→( )
𝑙𝑛 sec 𝑥
2

11. 2𝑥 − sin−1 𝑥 1 25. 1 − cos 𝜃 1

lim lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥 + tan−1 𝑥 3 𝜃→0 𝜃2 2
12. 𝑥 + sin 3𝑥 −2 26. lim (tan 𝑥)sin 2𝑥 1
lim 𝑥→
𝜋
𝑥→0 𝑥 − sin 3𝑥 2

13. tan 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 1 27. 2

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒4 4𝑒 4
lim lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3 2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2

14. 1 7
√𝑥 + 10 + 3𝑥 3 −
lim 30
𝑥→−1 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1

11
 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

In this section you will study a general procedure for deriving the power series for a function that are infinitely
differentiable, and we will see that some of the most important functions in calculus, such as 𝑒 𝑥 and sin 𝑥, can be
represented as power series.
Definition (Taylor and Maclaurin series)
If 𝑓 has derivatives of all orders at 𝑥0 , then we call the series
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (𝑥0 ) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥0 ) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥0 )
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

The Taylor series for 𝑓 about 𝑥 = 𝑥0 . In the special case where 𝑥0 = 0, this series becomes
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

In which case we call it the Maclaurin series for 𝑓.

Note that the nth Maclaurin and Taylor polynomials are the nth partial sums for the corresponding
Maclaurin and Taylor series.

Example
Find the Taylor series at 𝑥0 = 1 and Maclaurin series for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑓 (𝑛) (1)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓(1) = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓 ′ (1) = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓 ′′ (1) = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓 (5) (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 𝑒 1 = 𝑒

Now
Taylor series at 𝑥0 is
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥0 ) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥0 )
𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
2! 𝑛!

12
 ∞
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 (𝑥 − 1)𝑛
𝑒 + 𝑒(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + (𝑥 − 1)4 + (𝑥 − 1)5 + ⋯ + 𝑒 ∑
2! 3! 4! 5! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

Maclaurin series is
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
∞
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 𝑥𝑛
1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑒 ∑
2! 3! 4! 5! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

Example
Find the Maclaurin series for
𝜋
1) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = in Tylor series.
2

Solution
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑛) (0)

𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 0 = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − cos 0 = −1

𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = cos 0 = 1

Maclaurin series is
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
∞
(0) 2 −1 3 (0) 4 1 5 𝑥3 𝑥5 (−1)𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛+1
0 + (1)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯ = 𝑥 − + +⋯+ ∑ +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5! 3! 5! (2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0

2) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥.
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑛) (0)

𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑓(0) = cos 0 = 1

13
 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = − sin 0 = 0

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = − cos 0 = −1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = sin 0 = 0

𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = cos 0 = 1

𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 𝑓 (5) (0) = − sin 0 = 0

Maclaurin series is
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
∞
(−1) 2 (0) 3 (1) 4 (0) 5 𝑥2 𝑥4 (−1)𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛
1 + (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ = 1 − + + ⋯+ ∑ +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5! 2! 4! (2𝑛)!
𝑛=0
1
3) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥

Solution

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑛) (0)

1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) = =1
1−𝑥 1−0

1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (0) = = 1!
(1 − 𝑥)2 (1 − 0)2

2 2! 2!
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = = 𝑓 ′′ (0) = = 2!
(1 − 𝑥) 3 (1 − 𝑥)3 (1 − 0)3

6 3! 3!
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = = 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = = 3!
(1 − 𝑥) 4 (1 − 𝑥)4 (1 − 0)4

24 4! 4!
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = = 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = = 4!
(1 − 𝑥) 5 (1 − 𝑥)5 (1 − 0)5

5! 5!
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (5) (0) = = 5!
(1 − 𝑥)6 (1 − 0)6

Maclaurin series is
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

14
 ∞
2! 3! 3 4! 4 5! 5
1 + (1)𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5 + ⋯ + ∑ 𝑥𝑛
2! 3! 4! 5! 𝑛=0

4) Find a Maclaurin polynomial of degree 4 for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 5𝑥 , Taylor series at 𝑥0 = 2

Solution
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑓 (𝑛) (1)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 5𝑥 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 = 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 10

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑒 5𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑒 0 = 5 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑒 10

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 25𝑒 5𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 25𝑒 0 = 25 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 25𝑒 10

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 125𝑒 5𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 125𝑒 0 = 125 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 125𝑒 10

𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 625𝑒 5𝑥 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 625𝑒 0 = 625 𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 625𝑒 10

Taylor series at 𝑥0 is
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥0 ) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥0 )
𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
2! 𝑛!
(5)2 𝑒 10 (5)3 𝑒 10 (5)4 𝑒 10 (5)5 𝑒 10
𝑒 10 + 5𝑒 10 (𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑥 − 2)3 + (𝑥 − 2)4 + (𝑥 − 2)5 + ⋯ +
2! 3! 4! 5!
∞
10
(5)𝑛 (𝑥 − 2)𝑛
𝑒 ∑
𝑛!
𝑛=0

Maclaurin series is
∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
𝑛! 2! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
∞
(5)2 2 (5)3 3 (5)4 4 (5)5 5 (5)𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
1 + 5𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯+ ∑
2! 3! 4! 5! 𝑛!
𝑛=0

15