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TTT Diagram

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34 views4 pages

TTT Diagram

Uploaded by

ALBY
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

TTT diagram
The TTT diagram, or Time-Temperature-Transformation diagram, is an essential graphical tool
used in materials science, particularly for understanding the heat treatment of steels. This
diagram illustrates how different phases in a steel alloy form over time at various temperatures,
allowing engineers to predict and control the microstructure and, consequently, the mechanical
properties of the steel after cooling.

Temperature Axis (Y-Axis): Shows the temperature range from room temperature to the
austenitizing temperature.
Time Axis (X-Axis): Typically on a logarithmic scale, showing the time required for
transformations from fractions of a second to hours.
Critical Curves:

• Start and Finish Curves: Indicate the beginning and end of phase transformations
such as pearlite, bainite, and martensite.
• Nose: The point where the transformation rate is fastest, often around 500-600°C for
steel.

Phases:

1. Pearlite: Forms at higher temperatures and slower cooling rates, a mixture of ferrite
and cementite.
2. Bainite: Forms at intermediate temperatures, offering better toughness and strength
than pearlite.
3. Martensite: Forms at lower temperatures and high cooling rates, very hard and
brittle.

Applications:

• Used to design heat treatment processes to achieve desired mechanical properties.


• Helps in avoiding undesirable microstructures during cooling.
2. Austempering method
Austempering is a heat treatment process that involves quenching steel from the
austenitizing temperature to a temperature above the martensite start temperature and
holding it there until transformation is complete.

Steps:

• Austenitizing:
o Heat the steel to the austenitizing temperature (typically between 800-900°C).
o Ensure the steel is uniformly heated and transforms into austenite.
• Quenching:
o Rapidly cool the steel to an intermediate temperature (usually between 250°C and
400°C) using a salt bath or other mediums.
• Holding:
o Maintain the steel at this temperature to allow the formation of bainite, which
provides better toughness than martensite.
o The holding time depends on the desired properties and the composition of the
steel.
• Cooling:
o After bainite formation, cool the steel to room temperature at a controlled rate to
prevent unwanted transformations.

Advantages:

• Produces bainitic microstructure, enhancing toughness and reducing brittleness.


• Less distortion and residual stress compared to conventional quenching and tempering
processes.
• Improved fatigue strength and wear resistance.

Applications:

• Gears, springs, and other components requiring high strength and toughness.
• Tools and dies in manufacturing industries.
3. Copper production
Copper is extracted from its ores through several steps involving mining, concentrating,
smelting, and refining. The primary copper ore is chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂).

Steps:

1. Mining:
o Copper ore is extracted from open pits or underground mines.
o The ore typically contains only a small percentage of copper.
2. Crushing and Grinding:
o The ore is crushed and ground into a fine powder to increase the surface area
for the subsequent concentration process.
3. Concentration:
o The powdered ore is mixed with water and chemicals in a froth flotation
process.
o Air bubbles are introduced, causing copper-rich particles to attach and float to
the surface, where they are skimmed off.
4. Smelting:
o The concentrated ore is heated in a furnace, resulting in the formation of
molten copper sulfide (matte) and slag.
o The slag is removed, and the matte, containing about 60-70% copper,
undergoes further processing.
5. Converting:
o The matte is transferred to a converter, where air or oxygen is blown through
to oxidize the remaining sulfur and iron.
o This produces blister copper, which is about 98-99% pure.
6. Refining:
o Electrolytic refining is used to purify blister copper.
o Blister copper is cast into anodes and placed in an electrolytic cell with a
copper sulfate solution.
o A current is passed through, causing pure copper to deposit on the cathode
plates.
4. Copper alloys
Copper Alloys:

Copper alloys are metals made by combining copper with other elements to improve its
properties such as strength, corrosion resistance, and machinability.

Types and Properties:

1. Bronze (Copper and Tin):


o Composition: Typically 88% copper and 12% tin.
o Properties: Strong, corrosion-resistant, good fatigue resistance.
o Uses: Bearings, bushings, sculptures, and musical instruments.
2. Brass (Copper and Zinc):
o Composition: Varies, but commonly around 60-70% copper and 30-40% zinc.
o Properties: Good corrosion resistance, excellent machinability, aesthetic
appeal.
o Uses: Plumbing fittings, decorative items, musical instruments, and
ammunition casings.
3. Cupronickel (Copper and Nickel):
o Composition: Commonly 75-90% copper and 10-25% nickel.
o Properties: Exceptional resistance to corrosion in seawater, good thermal and
electrical conductivity.
o Uses: Marine hardware, coinage, desalination plants, and heat exchangers.
4. Beryllium Copper (Copper and Beryllium):
o Composition: Typically 97-98% copper and 1-2% beryllium.
o Properties: High strength, non-magnetic, non-sparking, excellent conductivity.
o Uses: Springs, electrical connectors, non-sparking tools, and aerospace
components.

Applications:

• Copper alloys are used in a wide range of applications due to their versatile
properties, including construction, electrical and electronic components, marine
environments, and decorative arts

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