Mughal India Part-II

Chapters for Module V

Satish Chandra
13. Consolidation of the Mughal Empire Age of Akbar
16. Economic and Social Life under the Mughals
19. Climax and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire—II

NCERT VII
4. The Mughal Empire
 Agrarian Structure
• Zamindars in Mughal India were socially a heterogeneous group

• Can be classified the zamindars into three categories –

autonomous chieftains, intermediaries and primary zamindars.’

• The zamindars as a class were also divided on caste/clan/tribe

lines

• From the economic standpoint, however, the most important

section of the village population comprised the cultivators who are
collectively referred to as raiyat.
• The peasant proprietors were termed khwud-kashta and those cultivators who did not have lands of
their own were known as muzarian. The khwud-kashta formed majority among the peasants.

• The muzarian were, as a category of cultivators less privileged than the khwud kashta and were
occasionally dependent on the village money lender, zamindar and headman for bullocks, ploughs
and seeds, etc.

• Less numerous than the khwud-kashta were pahis who were essentially migratory cultivators. They
could be either residents of neighbouring villages or those who had deserted their original villages.

• Apart from the khwud-kashta, pahi and muzarian, a section of the peasants comprised share
croppers and halis or majure who had overlapping positions and fluctuating rights.

• The dividing line between the muzarian and halis was the possession of ploughs and oxen. There are
references to peasants who sank to the status of mujur or hali due to the loss of agricultural assets.
 Mansabdari System
• Tool of Consolidation

• The term mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a grading system
used by the Mughals to fix (1) rank, (2) salary and (3) military responsibilities. Rank and salary were determined by a
numerical value called zat.

• The lowest rank was 10, and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.

• At first there was only one rank (mansab). From the fortieth year (1594-95), the ranks were divided into two—zat and
sawar. The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.

• The word zat means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also the salary due to him.

• The sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.

• Chehra and Dagh System

• In Akbar’s reign these jagirs were carefully assessed so that their revenues were roughly
equal to the salary of the mansabdar. By Aurangzeb’s reign this was no longer the case
and the actual revenue collected was often less than the granted sum.

• Persons holding ranks below 500 zat were called mansabdars, those from 500 to below
2500 were called amirs, and those holding ranks of 2500 and above were called amir-i-
umda or umda-i-azam.

• Jagirs and Jagirdars

• Under Jahangir and Shah-Jahan, the rank was further subdivided into du-aspah sih-aspah
system (literally, trooper with 2 or 3 horses) which implied that a mansabdar holding this
rank had to maintain and was paid for double the quota of troopers indicated by his sawar
rank.
 Rajput Policy
Babur
• Babur had no planned policy towards the Rajputs. He had to fight against Rana Sanga of
Mewar and Medini Rai of Chanderi because this was necessary for the establishment and
safety of his empire in India.
• However, he married Humayun with one Rajput princess and employed Rajputs in the army.
Thus, he neither tried to befriend Rajputs nor regarded them as his permanent enemies.
Humayun
• Humayun continued the policy of his father regarding the Rajputs.
Sher Shah
• Sher Shah desired to bring Rajput rulers under his suzerainty. In 1544 A.D., he attacked
Marwar and succeeded in capturing larger part of it. Ranthambhor was also captured by
him while the rulers of Mewar and Jaipur accepted his suzerainty without fighting. He also
captured Kalinjar just before his death.
• He, thus, succeeded in his objective. One primary cause of his success was that he did not
try to annex the kingdoms of Rajput rulers. Those who accepted his suzerainty were left
masters of their kingdoms.
Akbar

• Akbar was the first Mughal emperor who pursued a planned policy towards the
Rajputs.

• He desired to bring under his rule as much territory of India as could be possible.
Therefore, it was necessary to bring the Rajput rulers under his suzerainty.

• Akbar was impressed by the chivalry, faithfulness, dareness, fighting skill, etc. of
the Rajputs. He preferred to befriend them instead of turning them as his
enemies. He wanted dependable allies from among the Indian people instead of
depending on foreigners.

• The revolt of the Afghans and his relatives, the Mirzas, during early period of his
rule, further convinced him of this necessity.
He followed the following principles regarding Rajput rulers:

Those Rajput rulers

who either accepted
his sovereignty or
entered into
He captured strong Those Rajput rulers
matrimonial relations
forts of the Rajputs like who opposed him,
with him voluntarily
the forts of Chittor, were attacked and
were left masters of
Merta, Ranthambhor, efforts were made to
their kingdoms. They
Kalinjar etc. This force them to accept
were given high offices
weakened the power his sovereignty. The
in the state and there
of the Rajputs to offer case of Mewar was the
was no interference in
him resistance. best example of it.
their administration.
They were, however,
asked to pay annual
tribute to the emperor.
 In 1562 A.D., the fort of
Merta was captured which Among the rulers who
was under Jaimal, a voluntarily accepted the
feudatory chief of the ruler The same year, Raja Ram sovereignty of Akbar was
of Mewar. In 1568 A.D., Chandra voluntarily Raja Bharmal of Amer
Chittor was snatched away surrendered the fort of (Jaipur). He met Akbar in
from Mewar and, in 1569 Kalinjar to Akbar. 1562 A.D., accepted his
A.D., Raja Surjan Rai was sovereignty and married his
forced to surrender the fort daughter to him.
of Ranthambhor.

After the fall of the fort of

This very princess gave birth Chittor some Rajput states After the battle of Haldi
to prince Salim. Akbar gave like Bikaner and Jaisalmer Ghati some more Rajput
high mansabs to Raja voluntarily accepted the rulers like that of
Bharmal, his son, Bhagwan suzerainty of Akbar while Banswara, Bundi and
Das and his grandson, Man some of them entered into Orcha also accepted the
Singh. matrimonial alliances with suzerainty of Akbar.
him.
• Thus, most of the Rajput rulers submitted to Akbar without fighting, entered into his
service, became his loyal allies and some among them became his relatives as well.

• The only state which refused submission was Mewar. The ruling family of Mewar, the
Sisodiya was the most respected family among the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan.

• Due to the Rajput policy of Akbar, the Rajputs forgot their ideal of maintaining their
independent political existence and they gladly pooled up their strength with the Mughal
emperor. It was the greatest success of Akbar. It helped in expanding and strengthening
the Mughal empire.

• Akbar neither forced any Rajput ruler to enter into matrimonial alliance with him nor
asked their princesses to accept Islam before marrying them. Besides, he honoured his
wives, allowed them to follow their own religion, respected their Rajput relatives and gave
them high offices in the state.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan

• Both continued the policy of his father in the same manner. Theygave them all
due honour and befriended them though the number of the Rajputs on higher
posts went on decreasing.

Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb reversed the policy which was enunciated by Akbar and pursued by
Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
 Religious Policy

Akbar's attitude towards religion Ibadat khana (1575) It was

During this period the Emperor
and religious communities is established with the aim to have
established matrimonial relations
generally evaluated on the basis free discussion on various aspects
with the Rajputs, abolished the
of the measures which he took of Islamic theology. But the
pilgrimage tax, prohibited the
between 1560-65 and which Emperor got disillusioned the way
conversion of prisoners of war to
primarily affected the non-Muslim Muslim jurists used to quarrel over
Islam and abolished jiziya.
population of the Empire. questions of jurisprudence.

In the beginning only the Sunnis

were permitted to take part in the The discussions at Ibadat Khana
discussions. But, from September proved to be a turning point as
1578, the Emperor opened the they convinced Akbar that the
gates of Ibadat khana to the sufis, essence of faith lay in "internal
shi'as, Brahmins, Jains, Christians, conviction" based on 'reason'.
Jews, Parsis, etc.
 Religious Policy
Akbar's Tauhid-i Ilahi or Din-i-
Akbar made an attempt by
Illahi is another significant
proclaiming himself mujtahid This led to violent protests from
measure of this reign. In 1582,
and declaring himself as Imam- a section of the Mughal society,
this religious doctrine or cult
Adil, to claim the right to but Akbar succeeded ultimately
which combined mysticism,
interpret all legal questions on in curbing the predominance of
philosophy and nature worship
which there existed a difference the orthodox elements.
was propounded by Akbar which
of opinion among the ulema.
recognized no prophets.

Tauhid-i-illahi favoured peace and According to the Decree, Akbar

tolerance. Tauhid-i-illahi prohibits became the supreme arbiter in
Infallibility Decree (1579)-Akbar
lust, sensuality, slander and pride, civil and religious affairs. This
was in favour of weakening the
considering them sins. Piety, declaration was signed by
powers of the Ulemas/Mullahs.
prudence, abstinence and kindness leading divines. Akbar himself
He wanted to combine in himself
are the core virtues. The soul is began to read the Khutba
both political and spiritual
encouraged to purify itself through (earlier read by the Imam of the
powers.
yearning of God. It respects celibacy Mosque) from the pulpit of a
and forbade slaughter of animals. Fatehpuri Mosque.
 Akbar stopped the
He abolished Jizya —
practice of converting He abolished the
a tax levied on
the prisoners of war pilgrimage tax (1563)
Hindus (1564)
to Islam (1562)

He established the
He founded a new
Ibadat Khana or He issued Infallibility
religion called Din-i-
House of Worship Decree (1579)
Ilahi (1581)
(1575)

He forbade the killing

of animals on certain
days (1583)
 Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy
• Aurangzeb forbade the kalima (Islamic confession of faith) from being stamped on his coins
lest the holy words might be desecrated under foot or defiled by the non-believers.

• Nauroz (the New Year's Day of the Zoroastrian calendar) celebrations going on since his
predecessor's times were abolished.

• Old mosques, etc, neglected earlier, were ordered to be repaired, and imams and muezzins,
etc. were appointed on a regular salary.

• A Censor of Morals (Muhktasib) was appointed "to enforce the Prophet's Laws and put down
the practices forbidden by Him" (such as drinking spirits, use of bhang, gambling and
commercial sex).

• The ceremony of weighing the Emperor against gold and silver on his two birthdays (i.e.
according to the lunar and solar calendars) was stopped.
 Religious Policy
• In 1665, the Emperor instructed the governor of Gujarat that diwali and holi
should be celebrated outside the bazars of the city of Ahmedabad and its
parganas.

• The practice of jharokha darshan was discontinued after the eleventh year of
his reign.

• The Emperor took it to be unIslamic because the groups of the darshanias

regarded their sovereign as their earthly divinity (and therefore they did not eat
anything before they had the darshan of the Emperor).
 Decline
• Weak Successors

• Economic Bankruptcy

• Invasions

• The Jagirdari Crisis

• Rebellions and Agrarian Distress

• Religious Policy
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary