Science 2

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction.
• Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new
substances.
• Example: When a magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen, it gets converted to magnesium
oxide.
• The equation for the above reaction would be:
• Magnesium + Oxygen (Reactants) → Magnesium oxide (Product)
BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• The total mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical reaction has to
be equal to the total mass of the elements present in the reactants.
• In other words, the number of atoms of each element remains the same, before and
after a chemical reaction. Hence, we need to balance a skeletal chemical equation.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
COMBINATION REACTION
• A combination reaction refers to a chemical reaction where multiple reactants combine to
form a single product. Example: Formation of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) by the
reaction of calcium oxide with water.
• A slaked lime solution is used for whitewashing walls. Over time, calcium hydroxide in the
solution reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide to create a layer of calcium carbonate on the
walls.
o This process takes a few days and gives the walls a glossy appearance. Interestingly,
marble also has the chemical formula CaCO3.
Exothermic Reactions
• Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products are called
exothermic chemical reactions.
• Examples of exothermic reactions are:
o Formation of slaked lime by the reaction of calcium oxide with water.
o Burning of natural gas
o Respiration is an exothermic process
o The decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is also an example of an
exothermic reaction.
DECOMPOSITION REACTION
• In this reaction a single reactant breaks down to give simpler products.
• Example: The decomposition of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
through heating is a significant reaction utilized in industries.
o Calcium oxide, also known as quicklime, finds various applications, including cement
production.
• Silver chloride turns grey in sunlight because it undergoes decomposition. When exposed to
sunlight, silver chloride breaks down into silver and chlorine due to the effect of light.
DISPLACEMENT REACTION
• A displacement reaction is one wherein the atom or a set of atoms is displaced by another
atom in a molecule.
• Example: When iron is added to a copper sulphate solution, it displaces the copper metal.
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1
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
• The terms oxidation and reduction can be defined in terms of the adding or removing oxygen
to a compound.
• If a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is oxidised. If a substance
loses oxygen or gains hydrogen during a reaction, it is reduced.
• Example: The black substance, copper(II) oxide, forms on the surface of copper powder due
to the addition of oxygen. Oxygen reacts with copper to create copper oxide, resulting in the
formation of the black coating.
EFFECTS OF OXIDATION REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

CORROSION
• When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture, acids, etc. it is said to
corrode and this process is called corrosion.
• Example: Iron articles are shiny when new, but get coated with a reddish brown
powder (rusting of iron) when left for some time. The black coating on silver and the
green coating on copper.
• Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects made
of metals, especially those of iron.
RANCIDITY
• When fats and oils are oxidised, they become rancid and their smell and taste change.
• Usually substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to foods containing fats
and oil.
• Keeping food in air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation.
• Chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with gas such as nitrogen to prevent the chips
from getting oxidized.
QUESTION
1. Which one of the following is the cause for Corrosion of metals and Rancidity of food?
(a) Oxidation Reaction
(b) Decomposition Reaction
(c) Phosphorylation
(d) Methylation
Answer: A
❑❑❑

2
Acids, Bases and Salts
INTRODUCTION
• Sour and bitter tastes of food are due to acids and bases, respectively, present in them.
• Acids are sour in taste and change the color of blue litmus to red.
• Bases are bitter and change the color of the red litmus to blue.
• Litmus is a natural indicator, turmeric is another such indicator.
ACID-BASE INDICATORS
• Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the
division Thallophyta, and is commonly used as an indicator. When the litmus solution is
neither acidic nor basic, its color is purple.
• There are many other natural materials like red cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals
of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium, which indicate the presence
of acid or base in a solution.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
ACIDS AND BASES IN THE LABORATORY

• Olfactory Indicator: There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media.
These are called olfactory indicators.
o Onion: Paste or juice of onion loses its smell when added to the base. It does not
change its smell with acid.
o Vanilla: The smell of vanilla vanishes with the base, but its smell does not vanish with
an acid.
REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METALS

• Acids give hydrogen gas along with respective salt when they react with a metal.
o Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
• Hydrogen gas and zinc chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal.
• Hydrogen gas and sodium sulphate are formed when sulphuric acid reacts with sodium metal.
REACTION OF BASES WITH METALS

• Bases react with metal to evolve hydrogen Gas. Also, note that all metals do not react with
bases.
• The metal must be more reactive than the metals present in the base for the reaction to
take place.
o Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
REACTION OF METAL CARBONATES AND METAL HYDROGEN CARBONATES WITH ACIDS

• Acids react with Metal Carbonates and Metal Hydrogen Carbonates to form Salt, Carbon
dioxide and water.

3
• Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
REACTION OF ACIDS AND BASES WITH EACH OTHER

• Neutralisation Reaction: A neutralization reaction is a chemical process in which an acid and
a base react in precise proportions to produce salt and water as the resulting products. This
type of reaction involves the combination of hydrogen ions (H+) from the acid and hydroxide
ions (OH–) from the base, resulting in the formation of water. Typically, neutralization
reactions are categorized as acid-base neutralization reactions.
• In general, a neutralization reaction can be written as: Base + Acid → Salt + Water
REACTION OF METALLIC OXIDES WITH ACIDS

• Metallic oxides are basic in nature- they react with dilute acids to form water and salt.
• Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature- When non-metallic oxides mix with water; it forms
an acid that dissociates to give hydrogen ions.
COMMON FEATURES BETWEEN ALL ACIDS AND ALL BASES

• All acids have H ions in common. All acids produce H ions
+ +
• Acids produce H ions in solution which are responsible for their acidic properties.
+
• All bases have OH (hydroxyl ions) in common. All bases produce OH ions
- -
ACID OR A BASE IN A WATER SOLUTION

• Acids give hydronium ion (H3O+) or H+ (aq) ion in water
• Bases generate hydroxide (OH– ) ions in water.
• Alkalis: Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
Note:
All bases do not dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water. They are soapy to
touch, bitter and corrosive. Never taste or touch them as they may cause harm.
STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASE SOLUTIONS

• The strength of an acid or base can be estimated using a universal indicator.
• Universal indicator: It is a mixture of several indicators. The universal indicator shows
different colors at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a solution.
PH SCALE
• The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power.
• On the pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
• pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a
solution.
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.
• If the value of ph is equal to 7 → neutral solution
• If the value of pH is less than 7 → acidic solution
• If the value of pH is more than 7 → basic solution

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IMPORTANCE OF PH IN EVERYDAY LIFE DAY
• Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
• When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
• pH in our digestive system: Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the
digestion of food without harming the stomach. During indigestion the stomach produces
too much acid and this causes pain and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases
called antacids. Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a mild base, is often used for
this purpose.
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel, made up of
calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form of calcium phosphate) is the hardest substance
in the body.
o Calcium hydroxyapatite does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in
the mouth is below 5.5.
o Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food
particles remaining in the mouth after eating.
o Using toothpastes, which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can neutralise
the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
• Self defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare: Bee-sting leaves an acid
which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like baking soda on the stung area
gives relief. Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning pain.
• Nettle is a herbaceous plant which grows in the wild. Its leaves have stinging hair, which
cause painful stings when touched accidentally. This is due to the methanoic acid secreted
by them.

5
Some naturally occurring acid
Natural source Acid Natural source Acid

Vinegar Acetic acid Sour milk (Curd) Lactic acid
Orange Citric acid Lemon Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid Ant sting Methanoic acid
Tomato Oxalic acid Nettle sting Methanoic acid
MORE ABOUT SALTS
PH OF SALTS
• Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral with a pH value of 7. On the other hand,
salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with pH value less than 7 and those of a strong
base and weak acid are basic in nature, with pH value more than 7.
CHEMICALS FROM COMMON SALT

• Salt formed by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution is called
sodium chloride. This is the salt that you use in food.
• Rock salt: Deposits of solid salt are also found in several parts of the world. These large crystals
are often brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt.
COMMON SALT — A RAW MATERIAL FOR CHEMICALS

• The common sal is an important raw material for various materials of daily use, such as sodium
hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder and many more.
• Sodium hydroxide: When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called the
chlor-alkali process because of the products formed– chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium
hydroxide.
• Bleaching powder: Chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride
(brine). This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder
is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2 ]. Bleaching powder is
represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex. Bleaching powder is
used –
• for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in
paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry;
• as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries; and
• to make drinking water free from germs.
• Baking soda: The baking soda is commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras,
etc. Sometimes it is added for faster cooking. The chemical name of the compound is sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ). It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw
materials. Baking soda is used:

6
• For making baking powder, this is a mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid. Carbon dioxide produced
during the reaction can cause bread or cake to rise making them soft and spongy.
• Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it
neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
• It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
• Washing soda: Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is Na2CO3
.10H2O (washing soda). Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda;
recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt. Washing soda
is used as:
• Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
• It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
• Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
• It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
CRYSTALS OF SALTS
• The presence of water molecules within the crystal structure of certain salts is known as water
of crystallization. When these hydrated salts are heated, the water of crystallization is driven
off, resulting in the salt becoming anhydrous and often changing color.
Examples:
• Copper sulfate (CuSO4 . 5H2O) contains five water molecules within its crystal structure. When
heated, these water molecules are removed, and the salt turns white. However, when the
anhydrous salt is exposed to moisture, it can reabsorb water molecules and regain its original
blue color.
• Another example is sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3 . 10H2O), which has ten water
molecules as part of its crystal structure. This salt is indeed "wet" due to the water of
crystallization.
• Gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O) is another salt that contains water of crystallization. It has two water
molecules within its crystal structure. On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules
and becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate ( CaSO4. ½ H2O). This is called Plaster of paris,
the substance which doctors use as plaster for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
o Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum once again
giving a hard solid mass.
o Plaster of Paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces
smooth.
QUESTIONS
1. Consider the following statements:
1. During indigestion the stomach produces milk of magnesia and this causes pain and
irritation.
2. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is higher than 9.
3. Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation.
How many of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. Only one
b. Only two
c. Only three
d. All three

7
Answer: A
2. Consider the following pairs:

Natural source Acid
1. Curd ─ Lactic acid
2. Tomato ─ Methanoic acid
3. Orange ─ Citric acid
How many of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
a. Only one pair
b. Only two pairs
c. Only three pairs
d. All three pairs
Answer: B
3. Which of the following are possible applications of Bleaching powder?
1. Textile industry
2. Paper factories
3. Chemical industries
4. Purifying Water
How many of the options given above is/are correct?
a. Only one
b. Only two
c. Only three
d. All four
Answer: D

8
Acids, Bases and Salts
INTRODUCTION
• Sour and bitter tastes of food are due to acids and bases, respectively, present in them.
• Acids are sour in taste and change the color of blue litmus to red.
• Bases are bitter and change the color of the red litmus to blue.
• Litmus is a natural indicator, turmeric is another such indicator.
ACID-BASE INDICATORS
• Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the
division Thallophyta, and is commonly used as an indicator. When the litmus solution is
neither acidic nor basic, its color is purple.
• There are many other natural materials like red cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals
of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium, which indicate the presence
of acid or base in a solution.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
ACIDS AND BASES IN THE LABORATORY

• Olfactory Indicator: There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media.
These are called olfactory indicators.
o Onion: Paste or juice of onion loses its smell when added to the base. It does not
change its smell with acid.
o Vanilla: The smell of vanilla vanishes with the base, but its smell does not vanish with
an acid.
REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METALS

• Acids give hydrogen gas along with respective salt when they react with a metal.
o Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
• Hydrogen gas and zinc chloride are formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal.
• Hydrogen gas and sodium sulphate are formed when sulphuric acid reacts with sodium metal.
REACTION OF BASES WITH METALS

• Bases react with metal to evolve hydrogen Gas. Also, note that all metals do not react with
bases.
• The metal must be more reactive than the metals present in the base for the reaction to
take place.
o Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
REACTION OF METAL CARBONATES AND METAL HYDROGEN CARBONATES WITH ACIDS

• Acids react with Metal Carbonates and Metal Hydrogen Carbonates to form Salt, Carbon
dioxide and water.
• Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

9
REACTION OF ACIDS AND BASES WITH EACH OTHER
• Neutralisation Reaction: A neutralization reaction is a chemical process in which an acid and
a base react in precise proportions to produce salt and water as the resulting products. This
type of reaction involves the combination of hydrogen ions (H+) from the acid and hydroxide
ions (OH–) from the base, resulting in the formation of water. Typically, neutralization
reactions are categorized as acid-base neutralization reactions.
• In general, a neutralization reaction can be written as: Base + Acid → Salt + Water
REACTION OF METALLIC OXIDES WITH ACIDS

• Metallic oxides are basic in nature- they react with dilute acids to form water and salt.
• Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature- When non-metallic oxides mix with water; it forms
an acid that dissociates to give hydrogen ions.
COMMON FEATURES BETWEEN ALL ACIDS AND ALL BASES

• All acids have H ions in common. All acids produce H ions
+ +
• Acids produce H ions in solution which are responsible for their acidic properties.
+
• All bases have OH (hydroxyl ions) in common. All bases produce OH ions
- -
ACID OR A BASE IN A WATER SOLUTION

• Acids give hydronium ion (H3O+) or H+ (aq) ion in water
• Bases generate hydroxide (OH– ) ions in water.
• Alkalis: Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
Note:
All bases do not dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water. They are soapy to touch,
bitter and corrosive. Never taste or touch them as they may cause harm.
STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASE SOLUTIONS

• The strength of an acid or base can be estimated using a universal indicator.
• Universal indicator: It is a mixture of several indicators. The universal indicator shows
different colors at different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a solution.
PH SCALE
• The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power.
• On the pH scale we can measure pH generally from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline).
• pH should be thought of simply as a number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of a
solution.
• Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.
• If the value of ph is equal to 7 → neutral solution
• If the value of pH is less than 7 → acidic solution
• If the value of pH is more than 7 → basic solution

10
IMPORTANCE OF PH IN EVERYDAY LIFE DAY
• Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
• When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
• pH in our digestive system: Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the
digestion of food without harming the stomach. During indigestion the stomach produces
too much acid and this causes pain and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases
called antacids. Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a mild base, is often used for
this purpose.
• Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth enamel, made up of
calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline form of calcium phosphate) is the hardest substance
in the body.
o Calcium hydroxyapatite does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in
the mouth is below 5.5.
o Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food
particles remaining in the mouth after eating.
o Using toothpastes, which are generally basic, for cleaning the teeth can neutralise
the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
• Self defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare: Bee-sting leaves an acid
which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like baking soda on the stung area
gives relief. Stinging hair of nettle leaves inject methanoic acid causing burning pain.
• Nettle is a herbaceous plant which grows in the wild. Its leaves have stinging hair, which
cause painful stings when touched accidentally. This is due to the methanoic acid secreted
by them.

11
Some naturally occurring acid
Natural source Acid Natural source Acid

Vinegar Acetic acid Sour milk (Curd) Lactic acid
Orange Citric acid Lemon Citric acid
Tamarind Tartaric acid Ant sting Methanoic acid
Tomato Oxalic acid Nettle sting Methanoic acid
MORE ABOUT SALTS
PH OF SALTS
• Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral with a pH value of 7. On the other hand,
salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with pH value less than 7 and those of a strong
base and weak acid are basic in nature, with pH value more than 7.
CHEMICALS FROM COMMON SALT

• Salt formed by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solution is called
sodium chloride. This is the salt that you use in food.
• Rock salt: Deposits of solid salt are also found in several parts of the world. These large crystals
are often brown due to impurities. This is called rock salt.
COMMON SALT — A RAW MATERIAL FOR CHEMICALS

• The common sal is an important raw material for various materials of daily use, such as sodium
hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder and many more.
• Sodium hydroxide: When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride (called brine), it decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. The process is called the
chlor-alkali process because of the products formed– chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium
hydroxide.
• Bleaching powder: Chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride
(brine). This chlorine gas is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder
is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2 ]. Bleaching powder is
represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is quite complex. Bleaching powder is
used –
• for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in
paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry;
• as an oxidising agent in many chemical industries; and
• to make drinking water free from germs.
• Baking soda: The baking soda is commonly used in the kitchen for making tasty crispy pakoras,
etc. Sometimes it is added for faster cooking. The chemical name of the compound is sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3 ). It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw
materials. Baking soda is used:

12
• For making baking powder, this is a mixture of baking soda (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) and a mild edible acid such as tartaric acid. Carbon dioxide produced
during the reaction can cause bread or cake to rise making them soft and spongy.
• Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also an ingredient in antacids. Being alkaline, it
neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.
• It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.
• Washing soda: Another chemical that can be obtained from sodium chloride is Na2CO3
.10H2O (washing soda). Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda;
recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt. Washing soda
is used as:
• Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap and paper industries.
• It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
• Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
• It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
CRYSTALS OF SALTS
• The presence of water molecules within the crystal structure of certain salts is known as water
of crystallization. When these hydrated salts are heated, the water of crystallization is driven
off, resulting in the salt becoming anhydrous and often changing color.
Examples:
• Copper sulfate (CuSO4 . 5H2O) contains five water molecules within its crystal structure. When
heated, these water molecules are removed, and the salt turns white. However, when the
anhydrous salt is exposed to moisture, it can reabsorb water molecules and regain its original
blue color.
• Another example is sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3 . 10H2O), which has ten water
molecules as part of its crystal structure. This salt is indeed "wet" due to the water of
crystallization.
• Gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O) is another salt that contains water of crystallization. It has two water
molecules within its crystal structure. On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water molecules
and becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate ( CaSO4. ½ H2O). This is called Plaster of paris,
the substance which doctors use as plaster for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
o Plaster of Paris is a white powder and on mixing with water, it changes to gypsum once again
giving a hard solid mass.
o Plaster of Paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration and for making surfaces
smooth.
QUESTIONS
1. During indigestion the stomach produces milk of magnesia and this causes pain and irritation.
2. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is higher than 9.
3. Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation.
How many of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All three
Answer: A

13
Natural source Acid
1. Curd ─ Lactic acid
2. Tomato ─ Methanoic acid
3. Orange ─ Citric acid
How many of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) Only one pair
(b) Only two pairs
(c) Only three pairs
(d) All three pairs
Answer: B
3. Which of the following are possible applications of Bleaching powder?
1. Textile industry
2. Paper factories
3. Chemical industries
4. Purifying Water
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four
Answer: D

14
METALS AND NON-METALS
INTRODUCTION
• Elements can be classified as metals and non-metals on the basis of their properties.
• Examples:
o Metals: Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu)
o Non-metals: Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
METALS
• Hardness: Metals are generally hard; the hardness varies from metal to metal.
• Lustrous: Metals have shining surfaces.
• Malleability: Metals can be beaten into thin sheets, this property is called malleability.
• Ductility: The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.
o Gold is the most ductile metal (a wire of about 2 km in length can be drawn from one
gram of gold)
• Conductors: Metals are good conductors of heat and have high melting points.
o The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
o Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
o Metals are also good conductors of electricity
• Sonorous: The metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to be sonorous.
• Density: Generally has high density and high melting point, Except Sodium and Potassium.
• Oxides: Most metals, give rise to basic oxides.
• Exceptions:
o All metals except mercury exist as solids at room temperature.
o Metals have high melting points but gallium and caesium have very low melting
points. These two metals will melt if you keep them on your palm,
o Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be cut with a
knife. They have low densities and low melting points.
NON-METALS
• There are very few non-metals as compared to metals. Some of the examples of non-metals
are carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
• Either solids or gases: The non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is a
liquid.
• Oxides: Most non-metals produce acidic oxides when dissolve in water.
• Physical properties: Non-Metals cannot be beaten into thin sheets.
• Non-metals are not ductile.
• Poor conductors of electricity and heat.
• Non-metals are not lustrous
• Exceptions:
• Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.
• Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each form is called an
allotrope. Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the hardest natural substance
known and has a very high melting and boiling point. Graphite, another
allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of electricity.

15
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
• Magnesium burns in air with a dazzling white flame.
• Metal oxides: Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.
o Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
• For example, when copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper (II) oxide,
a black oxide.
• Amphoteric oxides: Metal oxides are basic in nature. But some metal oxides, such as
aluminium oxide, zinc oxide show both acidic as well as basic behaviour. Such metal oxides
which react with both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as
amphoteric oxides.
• Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but some of these dissolve in water to form alkalis.
Sodium oxide and potassium oxide dissolve in water to produce alkalis.
REACTIVITY OF METALS WITH OXYGEN

• Variable Reactivity: Different metals react with oxygen at different rates, displaying varying
degrees of reactivity.
• High Reactivity: Metals like potassium and sodium are highly reactive towards oxygen. They
can even catch fire when exposed to air. To prevent this, they are stored in kerosene oil.
• Formation of Oxide Layer: Some metals, including magnesium, aluminum, zinc, and lead,
develop a thin layer of oxide on their surfaces when exposed to air at ordinary
temperatures. This oxide layer acts as a protective barrier, preventing further oxidation of
the metal.
• Iron's Behavior: Iron doesn't catch fire on heating, but iron filings can burn vigorously in a
flame. This suggests that iron is not very reactive with oxygen at room temperature, but
finely divided iron particles can react more readily.
• Copper's Reaction: Copper does not burn in air, but when heated, it forms a black-colored
layer of copper(II) oxide on its surface. This process is a type of oxidation reaction.
• Non-reactivity of Silver and Gold: Silver and gold exhibit very low reactivity towards oxygen,
even at high temperatures. This makes them highly resistant to oxidation and tarnishing.
ANODISING
Anodising is a process to create a thick oxide layer on aluminum. Aluminum naturally forms a thin
oxide layer when exposed to air, providing some corrosion resistance. The oxide layer can be made
thicker to enhance corrosion resistance. In anodising, a clean aluminum article becomes the anode
and is electrolyzed with dilute sulfuric acid. Oxygen gas generated at the anode reacts with
aluminum, forming a thicker protective oxide layer. This oxide layer is easily dyeable, allowing for
attractive finishes on aluminum articles.
REACTION OF METALS WITH WATER

• Metals react with water, producing metal oxide and hydrogen gas.
• Some metal oxides are soluble in water, forming metal hydroxides.
• Potassium and sodium react violently with cold water, leading to immediate ignition of
hydrogen gas.
• Calcium's reaction with water is less violent, with evolved heat not sufficient to catch
hydrogen on fire.
• Calcium starts floating due to hydrogen bubbles sticking to its surface.

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• Magnesium reacts with hot water, forming magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen, and it also
floats due to hydrogen bubbles.
• Aluminium, iron, and zinc do not react with cold or hot water, but they react with steam to
form metal oxides and hydrogen.
• Metals like lead, copper, silver, and gold do not react with water at all.
METAL REACTIVITY WITH ACID

• Metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas.
• But, Hydrogen gas isn't evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. This is due to the
strong oxidizing nature of nitric acid (HNO3).
• HNO3 oxidizes any H2 formed to water and itself reduces to nitrogen oxides (N2O, NO,
NO2).
• Exception: Magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) react with very dilute HNO3, evolving H2
gas.
• Magnesium's reaction is the most exothermic and rapid, with the fastest bubble
formation.
• Reactivity Order and Observations:
• Reactivity order: Mg > Al > Zn > Fe
• Magnesium's reaction is the fastest and most exothermic.
• Copper (Cu) shows no bubble formation, and there's no temperature
change.
• This indicates that copper doesn't react with dilute HNO3.
Aqua Regia:
• Composition: Mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid (3:1
ratio).
• Properties: Highly corrosive and fuming liquid.
• Ability: Can dissolve gold and platinum, a unique property not achievable by either acid alone.
REACTION OF METALS WITH SOLUTIONS OF OTHER METAL SALTS

• Reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their compounds in solution/molten
form.
• Reactivity varies among metals; not all react with oxygen, water, or acids.
• Difficulty in ordering reactivity based on these reactions.
• Displacement reactions provide clearer evidence of metal reactivity.
• Example: If metal A displaces metal B from its solution:
• Metal A is more reactive than metal B.
• Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt solution of A + Metal B.

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REACTION OF METALS WITH NON-METALS
• Reactivity of elements is the tendency to attain a completely filled valence shell.
• Atoms of the metals lose electrons from their valence shell to form cation. Atoms of the non-
metals gain electrons in the valence shell to form an anion.
• Ionic compounds: The compounds formed in this manner by the transfer of electrons from a
metal to a non-metal are known as ionic compounds or electrovalent compounds.
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat hard because of the strong
force of attraction between the positive and negative ions. These compounds are generally
brittle and break into pieces when pressure is applied.
• Melting and Boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. This is
because a considerable amount of energy is required to break the strong inter-ionic
attraction.
• Solubility: Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble in water and insoluble in solvents
such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
• Conduction of Electricity: Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten and solution form
but not in solid state.
OCCURRENCE OF METALS
• Minerals: The elements or compounds which occur naturally in the earth’s crust are called
minerals.
• Ores: Minerals that contain very high percentage of particular metal and the metal can be
profitably extracted from it, such minerals are called ores.
EXTRACTION OF METALS
• Extraction methods depend on metal reactivity
• Reactivity series of metals guides the process.
• Less Reactive Metals
• Examples: gold, silver, platinum, copper. Occur in a free state.

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• Moderately Reactive Metals
• Examples: zinc, iron, lead. Found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides, sulphides
or carbonates.
• Highly Reactive Metals:
• Examples: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum. Not found
freely due to high reactivity.
• Ores and Oxygen: Oxygen abundance leads to many metal ores being oxides.
ENRICHMENT OF ORES
• Steps Involved in Extraction of Metals from Ores: Gangue → Roasting → Calcination →
Reduction
• Gangue: Ores are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as
soil, sand etc. called gangue.
• Roasting: The sulphide ores are converted into oxides by heating strongly in the
presence of excess air. This process is called roasting.
• Calcination: The carbonate ores are changed into oxides by heating strongly in
limited air. This process is called calcination.
• Reduction: Metal oxides are reduced to corresponding metals by using a
reducing agent like carbon.
REFINING OF METALS
• The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
• Electrolytic Refining: Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are refined
electrolytically. In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal
is made the cathode. A solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
CORROSION
• Corrosion refers to the deterioration of certain metals upon prolonged exposure to humid air.
This process can lead to various outcomes.
Examples:
• Silver Corrosion: Silver darkens upon air exposure due to its reaction with air, forming
a layer of silver sulphide.
• Copper Corrosion: Moist carbon dioxide in the air triggers copper to develop a green
layer of copper carbonate.
• Iron Corrosion: When iron is exposed to moist air, it gathers a brown, flaky coating
known as rust.
PREVENTION OF CORROSION
• Corrosion Prevention Methods: Techniques like painting; oiling, greasing, galvanizing,
chrome plating, anodizing, and alloying are used to prevent corrosion.
• Galvanization: Protects iron and steel by applying a zinc coating that corrodes sacrificially,
safeguarding the base metal.
• Alloying Enhancement: Alloying improves metal properties. For example, iron's weakness is
countered by adding carbon for strength or nickel and chromium for rust resistance, seen in
stainless steel.
• Amalgams: Alloys with mercury are known as amalgams, serving unique purposes.
• Alloys vs. Pure Metals: Alloys have lower electrical conductivity and melting points than pure
metals but offer customized attributes. For example, brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, and

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bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, are not good conductors of electricity whereas copper is
used for making electrical circuits. Solder, an alloy of lead and tin, has a low melting point
and is used for welding electrical wires together.
QUESTIONS
1. Consider the following statements with respect to metals:
1. Gold is not a ductile metal.
2. Silver is a bad conductor of heat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
1. Diamond is an allotrope of Carbon.
2. Mercury is a metal that is liquid at room temperature.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
3. Which of the following methods is suitable for preventing an iron frying pan from rusting?
1. Applying grease
2. Applying paint
3. Applying a coating of zinc
4. Chrome plating
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four
Answer: D

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CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
INTRODUCTION
• Carbon is a fundamental element in essential items like food, clothes, medicines, books, and
plastics due to its versatile bonding capabilities.
• Living structures (humans, animals, plants) are carbon-based, relying on its ability to create
complex organic molecules crucial for life.
• Carbon's presence in Earth's crust is minimal (0.02%) in minerals like carbonates, coal, and
petroleum; the atmosphere contains 0.03% carbon dioxide.
• Despite low abundance, carbon is vital due to its exceptional properties.
• Carbon's stable covalent bonds and diverse compounds are foundational in organic chemistry.
Compounds are of two types:
i.Organic Compounds
ii.Inorganic Compounds
BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

Carbon consistently participates in covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between two atoms.
This interaction, characterized by the shared electron pair, is referred to as a covalent bond.
• Carbon's Electron Configuration: Carbon has an atomic number of 6. Its electron distribution
across different electron shells can be examined. Specifically, the focus is on the number of
valence electrons in carbon.
• Carbon share its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of other
elements. The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outermost shells of both the atoms and lead
to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.
• Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms are
known as covalent bonds.
• Intermolecular forces in covalent compounds are weak, resulting in low melting and boiling
points.
• Covalent compounds generally do not conduct electricity since they lack charged particles.
Other molecules formed by the sharing of valence electrons

• Chlorine forms a diatomic molecule, Cl2, with a single covalent bond.
• Oxygen forms a double bond (O=O) by sharing two electrons to complete its octet.
• Nitrogen (N2) forms a triple bond (N≡N) by sharing three electron pairs.
• Ammonia (NH3) has a lone pair on nitrogen and forms single covalent bonds.
• Methane (CH4) has carbon forming four covalent bonds with hydrogen

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Allotropes of carbon
Diamond
• In diamond, carbon atoms are bonded to four other carbon atoms in a rigid 3D structure.
• Properties: Unique crystal lattice structure.
• Extremely hard, making it the hardest known substance.
• Poor conductor of electricity.
• Used in jewelry, cutting tools, and industrial applications.
Graphite
• In Graphite, carbon atoms are bonded to three other carbon atoms in a flat hexagonal
array.
• Properties: An excellent conductor of electricity due to delocalized electrons.
• Used in pencils, lubricants, batteries, and as a lubricant in various applications.
Fullerenes
• Here, carbon atoms are arranged in closed, hollow structures.

• C-60, the first identified fullerene, has a football-like shape.
• Named after Buckminster Fuller's geodesic dome design.
• Unique and versatile structures with potential applications in nanotechnology, medicine,
and electronics.
Synthetic Diamonds
• Diamonds can be created by subjecting pure carbon to high pressure and temperature.
• Synthetic diamonds have the same properties as natural diamonds.
• Used in industrial applications, electronics, and cutting tools.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

• Carbon forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons.
• Carbon compounds range from simple to complex, including those found in living beings.
• Vast diversity: Millions of known carbon compounds, outnumbering those of other elements
combined.
FACTORS ENABLING CARBON'S DIVERSITY

1. Catenation:
• It is carbon's ability to bond with other carbon atoms leading to large molecules.
• No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon
compounds.
• Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or eight
atoms, but these compounds are very reactive
2. Tetravalency:
• Carbon's valency of four enables it to bond with four carbon atoms or atoms of other
monovalent elements.
• It forms compounds with various elements like oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and
chlorine, leading to diverse properties in the resulting molecules.
• Bonds of larger atoms are weaker in comparison.

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Organic Compounds
• The two characteristic features seen in carbon, that is, tetravalency and catenation, put
together give rise to a large number of compounds.
• Many share non-carbon groups on various carbon chains.
• Organic compounds were initially thought to be exclusive to living systems due to a 'vital
force.' Friedrich Wöhler disproved this by synthesizing urea in 1828.
• But carbon compounds, except for carbides, oxides of carbon, carbonate and
hydrogencarbonate salts continue to be studied under organic chemistry.
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED CARBON COMPOUNDS
HYDROCARBONS
• Hydrocarbons compounds are composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
• Two main types: Saturated and Unsaturated.
1. Saturated Hydrocarbons
• Single bonds between carbon atoms.
• Example: Alkanes
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• Double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.
• Examples: Alkenes and Alkynes
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
• Homologous series are groups of compounds with the same functional group, substituting for
hydrogen in a carbon chain.
• Regardless of the carbon chain length, compounds in a homologous series share similar
chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

• Physical properties like melting and boiling points increase with increasing molecular mass in
a homologous series.
• Solubility in specific solvents also shows a similar gradation with increasing molecular mass.
• Chemical properties remain similar within a homologous series, determined by the functional
group.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
COMBUSTION
• Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the
release of heat and light. Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and
light on burning.
• Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon
compounds will give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
• Limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons
giving a sooty flame.

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• Home gas/kerosene stoves have air inlets for optimal oxygen-rich burning, producing
clean blue flames.
• Blackened cooking vessel bottoms indicate blocked air holes and fuel wastage.
• Coal and petroleum fuels contain nitrogen and sulphur, yielding sulphur and nitrogen oxides
upon combustion, significant environmental pollutants.
Why do substances burn with or without a flame?
Observe coal or wood burning: Wood or coal may start by glowing red and emitting heat without a
flame because flames occur from burning gaseous substances. The initial volatile substances
vaporize and ignite with a flame.
Luminous flame: Gaseous atoms glow when heated, producing distinct colors based on the
element. Heat a copper wire in a gas stove flame to see its characteristic color. Incomplete
combustion forms soot, which is carbon.
OXIDATION
• Carbon compounds are readily oxidized during combustion.
• Apart from complete combustion, oxidation reactions can also transform alcohols into
carboxylic acids.
• Some substances can introduce oxygen into other substances, and these are referred to as
oxidising agents.
• Alkaline potassium permanganate and acidified potassium dichromate are examples of
oxidising agents.
• They convert alcohols to acids by introducing oxygen into the starting material.
ADDITION REACTION
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions by adding hydrogen, using catalysts
like palladium or nickel.
• Catalysts accelerate reactions without undergoing changes themselves.
• Commonly used in hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a nickel catalyst.
• Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have saturated
carbon chains.
• Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are said to be harmful for health.
Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.
SUBSTITUTION REACTION
• Saturated hydrocarbons are unreactive; they remain inert to most reagents.
• Under sunlight, chlorine rapidly substitutes hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons.
• Substitution occurs as one type/group of atoms replaces another.
• Higher alkanes produce multiple products during this reaction.
SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS – ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID
PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL
• Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
• Commonly known as alcohol, a key component in alcoholic beverages.
• Used as a solvent in medicines like iodine tinctures, cough syrups, and tonics.
• Highly soluble in water in all proportions.
• Small amounts of diluted ethanol cause intoxication; pure ethanol can be fatally toxic.

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• Prolonged alcohol consumption leads to various health issues.
• Alcohols react with sodium, producing hydrogen gas.
• Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulfuric acid results in its dehydration.
• Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent, extracting water from ethanol.
PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID

• Ethanoic acid, also known as acetic acid, belongs to the carboxylic acid group.
• 5-8% acetic acid solution in water is vinegar, a common pickle preservative.
• Melting point is 290 K; in cold climates, it can freeze, earning the name "glacial acetic acid."
• Carboxylic acids are weak acids, unlike strong mineral acids like HCl.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol and an acid catalyst to form an ester. Esters often
possess pleasant odors and are used in perfumes and flavorings.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide, producing sodium ethanoate (sodium acetate)
and water.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates/hydrogen carbonates, producing sodium acetate,
carbon dioxide, and water. Sodium acetate is the common salt formed.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

• Most dirt is oily in nature, which does not dissolve in water.
• Soap molecules are sodium/potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
• The ionic-end of soap interacts with water while the carbon chain interacts with oil. The soap
molecules, thus form structures called micelles where one end of the molecules is towards
the oil droplet while the ionic-end faces outside.
• This forms an emulsion in water. The soap micelle thus helps in pulling out the dirt in
water and we can wash our clothes clean.
INTERACTION WITH HARD WATER

• Soap reacts with calcium, magnesium salts, causing difficulty in foam formation, scum
remains.
• Hence we need to use a larger amount of soap.
• Detergents are used to overcome soap's issue with hard water.
• Sodium salts of sulphonic acids, ammonium salts with chlorides or bromides, have
long hydrocarbon chains.
• Detergents' charged ends prevent insoluble precipitates with calcium, magnesium
ions in hard water.
• Detergents used in shampoos, clothes cleaning due to their water hardness tolerance.
DETERGENTS AS CLEANSING AGENTS

• Detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts.
• Long hydrocarbon chains; charged ends do not react with calcium/magnesium ions.
• Detergents effective in hard water, used in shampoos and clothes cleaning products.
QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following are allotropes of carbon?
1. Diamond
2. Graphite
3. Fullerenes

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4. Austentite
Select the correct code using the options given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1,2 and 3 only
(c) 2,3 and 4 only
(d) 1,2,3 and 4
Answer: B
1. When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to excite the central nervous
system.
2. Intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B

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LIFE PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
• Differentiating between living and non-living entities challenges us.
• Movement, growth, and breathing are often considered signs of life.
• Plant growth and color, animal respiration indicate life, but exceptions exist.
• Visible movement isn't the sole indicator for life; molecular movements are also crucial for
life.
• Viruses lack overt molecular movement, sparking debates on their status as living.
• Molecular movements sustain organized structures in living organisms.
• Living structures prone to environmental effects and breakdown over time.
• Constant repair and maintenance of structures essential for continued life.
• Molecular movement is vital for sustaining organized, living structures.
LIFE PROCESSES
• Living organisms maintain life processes even during rest or inactivity.
• Life processes demand energy obtained through nutrition.
• External energy sources, often carbon-based, are converted into usable energy and growth
components.
• Internal reactions, like oxidation-reduction, break down/build molecules for energy and
growth.
• Obtains oxygen for energy production and breaks down food.
• Multi-cellular organisms have specific tissues managing food and oxygen intake, requiring a
distribution system.
• Specialized tissues necessitate a transportation network for distributing nutrients and oxygen.
• Waste by-products from energy processes are removed via specialized excretory tissues.
• This organized process sustains complex life structures and enables adaptation to
environmental challenges.
NUTRITION
• Living organisms need energy for maintenance and growth, obtained from external sources
through nutrition.
• Autotrophic Nutrition: Autotrophs (e.g., plants, some bacteria) use simple inorganic sources
(CO2, H2O) and photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates for energy and storage. The
following events occur during this process –
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
• Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
• Heterotrophic Nutrition: Heterotrophs (e.g., animals, fungi) depend on complex substances,
breaking them down using enzymes for energy and growth.
• Organisms employ diverse strategies for food intake and utilization.
• Some organisms break down food externally, absorb nutrients (e.g., fungi).
• Others consume and internally break down food (based on body design).
• Some organisms derive nutrition from others without killing (parasites).
• Cuscuta, ticks, lice, leeches, and tapeworms utilize parasitic nutrition.
HOW DO ORGANISMS OBTAIN THEIR NUTRITION?

• Digestive systems differ due to diverse food and acquisition methods.
• In single-celled organisms, entire surface may absorb food.

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• Complexity leads to specialized parts for digestion.
• Amoeba uses extensions to take in food, forms food vacuole.
• Complex substances break down, simpler ones diffuse into cytoplasm.
• The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.
• Paramoecium has a specific food intake spot, aided by cilia movement.
o Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of
the cell.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Alimentary canal processes ingested food. Saliva begins digestion, enzymes break down
complex molecules.
• Stomach Digestion: The stomach mixes food with gastric juices, hydrochloric acid aids
digestion, and pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme.
• Small Intestine: Longest part, extensive coiling, complete digestion site for carbs, proteins,
fats.
• Liver's bile juice makes food alkaline, aids fat breakdown.
• Pancreatic juice contains trypsin (protein digestion) and lipase (fat digestion).
• Intestinal juice enzymes convert proteins to amino acids, complex carbs to glucose,
fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
• Villi in small intestine increase absorption surface, blood vessels distribute absorbed
nutrients to body cells
• Large Intestine: Large intestine absorbs water from unabsorbed food, waste removed via
anus, regulated by anal sphincter.
RESPIRATION
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• Food materials taken in during nutrition are used to provide energy for life processes.
• Glucose, a six-carbon molecule, is broken down into pyruvate during the first step of
respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm.
• Aerobic respiration (oxygen-dependent) takes place in mitochondria, breaking pyruvate into
carbon dioxide and water, releasing more energy.
• Anaerobic respiration (oxygen-independent) occurs in the absence of oxygen, converting
pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
• Lack of oxygen in muscle cells leads to pyruvate conversion to lactic acid, causing muscle
cramps.
• Energy released during cellular respiration synthesizes ATP, which fuels cellular activities.
• ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes.
• The energy released during the process of respiration is used to make an ATP
molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

• Plants exchange gases (CO2 and O2) through stomata.
• Large inter-cellular spaces ensure contact with air, allowing diffusion.
• CO2 elimination is major at night, while oxygen release is dominant during the day.
GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

• Terrestrial animals use atmospheric oxygen, aquatic animals use dissolved oxygen in water.
• Fishes breathe through gills, taking up dissolved oxygen into the blood.
• Terrestrial animals have specialized respiratory organs for gas exchange.

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HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• Air enters through nostrils, filtered by fine hairs and mucus.
• Air passes through the throat with cartilage rings to prevent collapse.
• Lungs contain alveoli, where gas exchange occurs between air and blood.
• Oxygen is absorbed into the blood, while carbon dioxide is released.
• Breathing cycle maintains residual air in the lungs for efficient gas exchange.
RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
• When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of
oxygen delivery to all parts of the body.
• In large animals, respiratory pigments transport oxygen.
• Hemoglobin is the respiratory pigment in humans, found in red blood cells.
• Carbon dioxide is mainly transported in dissolved form in the blood.
TRANSPORTATION
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEINGS

• Blood Composition: Blood is a fluid connective tissue consisting of plasma and cells
suspended within it.
• Plasma carries dissolved nutrients, waste materials, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogenous wastes.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen.
• Heart: The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.
• Chamber Separation: Different chambers of the heart prevent mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
• Because both oxygen and carbon dioxide have to be transported by the blood, the
heart has different chambers to prevent the oxygen-rich blood from mixing with
the blood containing carbon dioxide.
• The carbon dioxide-rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be
removed, and the oxygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the
heart.
• This oxygen-rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the body.
• Double Circulation: Mammals and birds have separate oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood streams for efficient oxygen supply.
• Blood Vessels: Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart, while veins return
deoxygenated blood to the heart.
• Capillaries: Tiny capillaries facilitate exchange of materials between blood and body tissues.
• Platelets: Platelets help in blood clotting to prevent leaks and maintain pressure.
• Lymph: Lymph, a colorless fluid, transports excess fluid and digested fats, draining into larger
veins.
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
• Plants absorb raw materials like nitrogen and minerals from the soil via roots.
• Plants use specialized vascular tissues - xylem and phloem - for transport.
o Xylem: Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to other plant parts.
▪ Evaporation from leaves creates a suction force pulling water up in the xylem.
The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is
known as transpiration.

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o Phloem: Phloem transports products of photosynthesis, amino acids, and other
substances. These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots,
fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
▪ This transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation.
▪ Phloem contains sieve tubes and companion cells that facilitate
translocation.
▪ Phloem transports materials based on plant's needs, such as sugar to growing
buds.
EXCRETION
EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEINGS

• Excretory System: In humans, excretion is performed by the excretory system, consisting of
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
• Kidneys filter waste products, like urea and uric acid, from the blood. They contain
nephrons, the filtration units, consisting of capillaries and Bowman's capsule.
• Nephrons filter blood, selectively reabsorbing substances like glucose, amino acids,
salts, and water.
• Urine produced in the kidneys flows through the ureters to the urinary bladder for
storage.
• Urine is expelled from the body through the urethra.
• Urination is under nervous control, allowing humans to regulate the process.
Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)
Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or restricted blood flow to
kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body,
which can even lead to death. In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial
kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis.
Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank filled
with dialysing fluid.
This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous wastes.
The
patient’s blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, the waste products from the
blood
pass into dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is pumped back into the patient.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
• Plants have distinct methods of excretion compared to animals.
• Plants handle oxygen and carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and respiration.
• Excess water is eliminated through transpiration.
• Plants store waste products in cellular vacuoles, fallen leaves, and in the form of resins and
gums in old xylem.
• Some waste substances are excreted into the soil around the plant.
QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is the excretory unit of a human kidney?
(a) Nephron
(b) Alveoli
(c) Pons
(d) Sertoli cells
Answer: A

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2. Low platelet count is often seen in patients who suffer from Dengue. Which of the following is the
major function performed by platelets in human beings?
(a) Transport of Oxygen
(b) Clotting of Blood
(c) Attack the antigen
(d) Produce antibodies
Answer: B

1. Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart to various organs of the body.
2. Arteries have walls which are one-cell thick and aid exchange of material between the blood
and surrounding cells.

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A

1. Amphibians have four-chambered hearts, and do not tolerate mixing of the oxygenated and
de-oxygenated blood streams.
2. Fishes have only two chambers to their hearts.
3. Blood pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1,2 and 3
Answer: B

1. The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial
organisms.
2. In human beings, the respiratory pigment is Troponin.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
6. Exercise can lead to muscle cramps. Which of the following is the cause for muscle cramps?
(a) Aerobic respiration
(b) Build up of lactic acid
(c) Build up of Calcium
(d) Decomposition of calcium
Answer: B

31
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
INTRODUCTION
• Living organisms universally respond to environmental changes.
• These changes, termed stimuli, encompass light, heat, cold, sound, smell, and touch.
• Plants and animals both exhibit responsiveness to stimuli, albeit with distinct methods.
• Two primary systems facilitate control and coordination in animals:
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
ANIMALS – NERVOUS SYSTEM
INFORMATION DETECTION BY NERVE CELLS

• Specialized tips of nerve cells detect environmental information.
• Receptors are situated in sense organs like the inner ear, nose, and tongue.
• Gustatory receptors sense taste, while olfactory receptors detect smell.
INFORMATION PROCESSING SEQUENCE

• Information is acquired at the dendritic tip of the nerve cell. A chemical reaction is triggered,
generating an electrical impulse.
• The impulse travels dendrite to the cell body, then along the axon. The end of the axon
initiates the release of chemicals.
• Chemicals cross synapses, sparking impulses in the next neuron's dendrite. The general
pattern of nervous impulse travel is outlined.
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
• Synapses facilitate impulses reaching muscle cells or glands.
• A network of nerve cells or neurons forms nervous tissue.
• Specialization for conducting information via electrical impulses.
WHAT HAPPENS IN REFLEX ACTIONS?

• Reflex actions are rapid and involuntary responses that occur in response to a specific stimulus.
They are designed to provide swift protection or adjustment to changes in the environment
without the need for conscious thought. Example: When you pull your hand back from the flame
reflexly.
o Touching flames is hazardous for animals, necessitating rapid response to avoid
harm.
o When faced with flames, one response is to consciously evaluate the pain and
potential burning, leading to the action of moving the hand away from the source of
heat.
o The time it takes to react depends on the thinking process, which involves the
transmission of nerve impulses.
o Thinking is a complex process that involves intricate interactions between numerous
nerve impulses and neurons.
o The brain's tissue responsible for thinking is composed of densely interconnected
neuron networks, facilitating information processing.
o The brain receives signals from various parts of the body through nerves, and it
sends instructions for muscle movement back through these nerves.

32
o Processing signals and initiating responses can take time, potentially leading to burns
if a quick reaction is not achieved.
o To expedite responses, a mechanism known as a reflex arc is employed. This involves
connecting nerves that detect a stimulus (such as heat) directly to nerves that control
muscles, bypassing the conscious thinking process.
▪ The most effective location for reflex arc connections is at the point where
input nerves meet output nerves.
▪ Reflex arcs have evolved in animals due to the relatively slow nature of the
brain's thinking process. Many animals lack complex neural networks for
elaborate thinking, making reflex arcs a valuable adaptation.
▪ Even with the development of sophisticated neural networks in some
animals, reflex arcs remain advantageous for swift responses, especially in
situations where immediate action is essential.
Human Nervous System
• The human nervous system comprises two primary components: the Central Nervous System
(CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) encompasses the Brain and the Spinal Cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is composed of two types of nerves:
• Cranial Nerves originate from the brain.
• Spinal Nerves emerge from the spinal cord.
HUMAN BRAIN
• THE BRAIN HAS THREE SUCH MAJOR PARTS OR REGIONS, NAMELY THE FORE-BRAIN, MID-
BRAIN AND HIND-BRAIN.
o Forebrain: Responsible for thinking, sensory perception, and decision-making.
Contains specialized regions for senses like hearing, smell, and sight. Also, includes
areas for associating sensory information and making decisions.
o Midbrain: Controls certain involuntary actions and reflexes, as well as relays sensory
and motor information between the forebrain and hindbrain.
o Hindbrain: Controls vital functions like heart rate, respiration, and digestion. Also
includes the cerebellum, which coordinates precise voluntary movements and
maintains balance.
▪ Activities like walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle, picking up a pencil are
possible due to a part of the hind-brain called the cerebellum. It is
responsible for precision of voluntary actions and maintaining the posture
and balance of the body
INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS
• Medulla (Hindbrain): Controls involuntary actions such as blood pressure, salivation, and
vomiting.
• Cerebellum (Hindbrain): Coordinates complex motor functions, maintains posture, balance,
and precision of voluntary movements.
PROTECTION OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

• Brain Protection
• The brain is shielded by a fluid-filled cushion that functions as a shock absorber.
• It is encased within the cranium, also known as the skull or brain box.
• Spinal Cord Protection

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• The spinal cord is enveloped by the vertebral column, commonly referred to as the
backbone.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
• Animals have a nervous system for controlling and coordinating the activities of the body. But
plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles.
• Mimosa family's 'touch-me-not' plant demonstrates rapid leaf folding upon touch.
• Plants show two movement types: touch-triggered and growth-based.
1. In the first kind, exemplified by the sensitive plant, leaves move in response to
touch despite the absence of nervous or muscle tissue. Communication of
touch information occurs via electrical-chemical means, with cells changing
shape due to altering water content rather than specialized proteins.
2. The second type of movement is due to growth. Tendrils of plants like peas
circle around objects upon touch, while directional growth influenced by
stimuli like light and gravity gives the appearance of movement.
• Tropic movements include phototropism (shoots bending towards light) and geotropism
(roots growing downwards).
• 'Hydrotropism' pertains to water-based directional growth, and 'chemotropism' involves
directional growth influenced by chemicals.
• Plants use hormones for communication, such as auxins causing bending towards light by
stimulating elongation on the shaded side.
• Gibberellins promote stem growth, cytokinins induce cell division, and abscisic acid inhibits
growth. Hormones allow plants to coordinate growth, development, and responses to the
environment.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS
HORMONAL SIGNALING IN ANIMALS

• Animals use hormones, chemical signals, for information transmission.
• Hormones coordinate complex activities, like fight or flight responses.
• Adrenaline is a hormone secreted by adrenal glands in response to stress.
• Adrenaline affects heart rate, blood flow, and breathing, preparing for action.
• Animal hormones are part of the endocrine system for control and coordination.
SOME IMPORTANT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1. Thyroxine:
• Secreted by Thyroid gland in the neck/throat region.
• Regulates carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
2. Growth Hormones:
• Secreted by Pituitary gland (master gland) in the mid-brain.
• Controls growth and development.
3. Adrenaline:
• Secreted by Adrenal glands above the kidneys.
• Increases blood pressure, heart rate, and carbohydrate metabolism in
emergencies.
4. Insulin:
• Secreted by Pancreas below the stomach.
• Regulates and lowers blood sugar levels.
SEX HORMONES
1. Testosterone (Males):

34
•Secreted by Testes in the genital area.
•Causes changes during male puberty.
2. Estrogen (Females):
• Secreted by Ovaries in the lower abdomen.
• Causes changes during female puberty.
QUESTIONS
1. Information in nervous system is conducted via electrical impulses.
2. Spinal cord plays a key role in reflex actions like watering of mouth when hungry.
3. Olfactory receptors are responsible for sense of taste in the tongue.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1,2 and 3
Answer: A
2. With respect to plant movement, consider the following statements:
1. Plant cells change shape by changing the amount of water in them.
2. Environmental triggers such as light, or gravity will change the directions that plant parts grow
in.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
3. Which of the following statement with respect to a control and coordination in organisms is not
correct?
(a) Electrical impulse from nervous system reaches each and every cell of the body.
(b) Hormonal signaling is slower than electrical signaling of nervous system.
(c) Hormones are generally synthesized at areas away from where they act.
(d) Both plants and animals have hormones.
Answer: A
4. Which of the following hormone aids in inhibiting the plant growth?

(a) Auxin
(b) Cytokinin
(c) Gibberllins
(d) Abscisic acid
Answer: D
5. With respect to hormones in human beings, consider the following statements:

1. Insulin is known as the flight or fight hormone.
2. The pituitary gland in the brain signals the testes to produce testosterone in males.
Which of the statement given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

35
Answer: B

36
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM
INTRODUCTION
• Organisms reproduce not for their individual survival, but to ensure the continuity of their
species. Reproduction drives genetic diversity, enabling adaptation to changing
environments.
• While energy-intensive, it secures long-term evolutionary success. Large populations attract
attention, and reproduction's role is evident in species recognition through shared traits.
Reproducing generates resemblance, aiding species identification.
• In essence, reproduction sustains life's diversity by passing on genetic information, facilitating
adaptation, and fostering species recognition through similarities in offspring.
DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT COPIES OF THEMSELVES?

• Reproduction doesn't result in exact duplicates of organisms due to DNA copying and
variations.
• DNA blueprints guide protein production and body structure in cell nuclei.
• Replication involves chemical reactions and cellular components.
• DNA copies separate during cell division, leading to non-identical copies.
• Biochemical unreliability introduces variations, driving evolution.
• Reproduction helps organisms’ secure ecological niches.
• Niche-specific traits are maintained through consistent DNA.
• Changing niches due to factors like temperature shifts can lead to extinction.
• Variations allow survival in altered niches, enhancing adaptability.
• Amidst global warming, heat-resistant bacteria thrive due to variation.
MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
FISSION
• Unicellular organisms divide through fission, creating new individuals.
• Bacteria and protozoa split into two equal halves.
• Some organisms, like Amoeba, divide in any plane.
• In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take
place in any plane.
• Others, like Leishmania, show orientation due to whip-like structures.
• In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these
structures.
• Parasites like Plasmodium divide via multiple fission.
FRAGMENTATION
• Some multi cellular organisms, like Spirogyra, break into fragments.
• Fragments grow into new individuals.
• Complexity of tissue organization makes cell-by-cell division impractical.
• Complex reproductive methods needed for multi-cellular organisms.
REGENERATION
• Many differentiated organisms regenerate from body parts.
• Hydra and Planaria can be cut into pieces, each growing into an organism.
• Specialized cells proliferate and differentiate.
• Regeneration is distinct from reproduction.

37
BUDDING
• Hydra reproduces via budding.
• Bud develops due to repeated cell division.
• Buds detach to become independent individuals.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
• Certain plant parts (roots, stems, leave) develop into new plants.
• Used in methods like layering or grafting for agricultural purposes.
• Early flowering and genetic similarity with parent plant.
• By roots: Example: dahlias, sweet potato.
• By stem: Example: potato, ginger.
• By leaves: Example: bryophyllum (leaf notches bear buds which develop into plants).
SPORE FORMATION
• Simple multi cellular organisms have reproductive parts.
• Sporangia contain spores in organisms like bread mold.
• Spores protected by thick walls, grow upon contact with moisture.
Sexual reproduction
• Involves two individuals (male and female) for a new generation.

• Significance: Creates variation through DNA copying errors.
• Variations are important for species' survival in populations.
• DNA-copying mechanisms generate variations, but slowly.
• Combining variations from different individuals’ speeds up variation generation.
• Sexual reproduction achieves this by combining DNA from two individuals.
• Meiosis in multi-cellular organisms reduces DNA content in germ cells.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

• Flowers serve as plant reproductive organs.
• Reproductive parts of a flower: Stamen, pistil.
• Types of Flowers:
o Bisexual flowers have both male and female parts. Example: Hibiscus, mustard.
o Unisexual flowers have one gender part. Example: Papaya, watermelon.
• Reproductive Parts: Stamen (male) produces yellow pollen; Pistil (female) comprises ovary,
style, and stigma.
• Fertilization Process: Male germ-cell from pollen combines with female gamete in ovule,
forming zygote.
o Pollen moves from stamen to stigma; within the same flower is self-pollination,
between flowers is cross pollination.
▪ Transfer Agents: Agents include wind, water, and animals for pollen
movement.
o Pollen's Path: Tube grows from pollen to reach ovary through style after landing on
stigma.
• Zygote divides, forming embryo within ovule. Ovule turns into seed with tough coat.
• Ovary matures into fruit, flower parts may wither. Some flower parts persist within fruit.
• Seed houses embryo; germination leads to seedling development under suitable conditions.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

38
PUBERTY
• Period of sexual maturation. Germ cells (ova and sperm) production begins. Ova (female) and
sperm (male) are produced.
• Both genders experience common changes.
• Thick hair in armpits and genital area.
• Oily skin leading to pimples.
• Changes in girls:
• Increase in breast size.
• Onset of menstruation.
• Changes in boys:
• Thick facial hair growth.
• Cracking voice.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• The male reproductive system consists of portions which produce the germ-cells and other
portions that deliver the germ-cells to the site of fertilization.
• Testes, in pairs, are located within the scrotum outside the abdominal cavity.
o Scrotum maintains a lower temperature essential for sperm production.
o Male germ cells (sperms) are generated in the testes.
o Testes release the male sex hormone testosterone.
o Functions of Testes:
• Control sperm production.
• Induce puberty-related changes.
• Vas Deferens transports sperm from the testes to the urethra. Urethra shares pathway for
sperm and urine.
• The exterior layer is referred to as the penis.
• Glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add their secretions so that the sperms are
now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovary
• A pair of ovaries is situated on each side of the abdomen.

• Eggs (female germ cells) are produced in ovaries.
• At birth, thousands of immature eggs are present.
• Puberty triggers the maturation of some eggs.
• Monthly, one egg is produced by either ovary.
Oviduct or Fallopian Tube
• Carries egg from ovary to uterus.

• Site of fertilization (gamete fusion).
Uterus
• Bag-like structure for baby's development.

• The uterus connects to the vagina through the cervix.
Placenta
• Placenta is disc-like, embedded in the uterine wall.

39
• It connects the mother and embryo.
• Allows the exchange of nutrients, waste, oxygen, and glucose.
What happens when the Egg is not fertilized?
• Egg lifespan: Unfertilized egg survives for approximately one day.

• Monthly cycle: Ovary releases one egg monthly, prompting uterine preparation.
• Uterine lining: Uterus readies itself with a thick, spongy lining.
• Purpose of lining: Lining supports potential embryo's nourishment.
• Unused lining: If fertilization doesn't happen, lining becomes unnecessary.
• Lining shedding: Excess lining sheds, resulting in blood and mucus discharge.
• Menstrual cycle: This cycle repeats monthly, known as menstruation.
• Duration: Menstruation typically lasts two to eight days.
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive health encompasses comprehensive well-being across all facets of reproduction,
including physical, emotional, social, and behavioral aspects.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):

• Numerous diseases can be transmitted through sexual contact, including:
• Bacterial: Examples include Gonorrhea and Syphilis.
• Viral: Conditions like Warts and HIV-AIDS.
• Using condoms can provide partial protection against these infections.
• Contraception:
• Contraception involves methods to prevent pregnancy by inhibiting ovum
fertilization.
• Methods of Contraception:
1. Physical barriers: Employed to impede the fusion of sperm and egg. This
includes using condoms, cervical caps, and diaphragms.
2. Chemical methods: Incorporating oral pills that modify hormonal balance,
hindering egg release. May lead to potential side effects.
3. Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD): Copper-T or a loop inserted into the
uterus to deter pregnancy.
4. Surgical methods: In males, vasectomy involves blocking the vas deferens to
halt sperm transfer. In females, tubectomy entails obstructing the fallopian
tubes to prevent egg transfer.
QUESTIONS
1. Consider the following statements about survival of organisms:
1. Variations are useful for the survival of species over time.
2. Consistent DNA copying in reproduction maintains body design for niche utilization.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C

Organism Mode of reproduction
1. Amoeba Spore formation
2. Yeast Budding

40
3. Planaria Regeneration
How many of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched:
(a) Only one pair
(b) Only two pairs
(c) All three pairs
(d) None of the pairs
Answer: B
3. With respect to tissue culture, consider the following statements:
1. New plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the growing tip of a plant.
2. The cells are placed in an artificial medium where they divide rapidly to form a small group of
cells.
3. Many plants can be grown from one parent in disease-free conditions.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1,2 and 3
Answer: D
4. With respect to reproduction in plants, consider the following statements:
1. The flower of a plant is the female reproductive part.
2. Cross-pollination can be achieved by wind, water or animals.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
5. Consider the following statements with respect to reproduction in human beings:
1. Ovaries of newly born girl contain thousands of immature eggs.
2. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of vas deferens.
3. Copper-T is a male contraceptive used to prevent the transfer of Human Papilloma Virus.
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 3 only
Answer: A

41
Heredity
INTRODUCTION
• Reproductive processes yield new individuals with subtle differences.
• Asexual reproduction still generates some variation.
• Sexual reproduction maximizes successful variations.
• Sugarcane fields exhibit minimal variation due to asexual reproduction.
• Animals, including humans, display distinct variations due to sexual reproduction.
ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING REPRODUCTION
INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

• Inheritance from previous generations provides both a common basic body design and
subtle changes for the next generation.
• New generations inherit differences from their predecessors and develop new changes.
ASEXUAL VS. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Asexual reproduction leads to minor differences due to DNA copying inaccuracies in
subsequent generations.
• Sexual reproduction introduces even greater diversity due to the combination of genetic
material.
SURVIVAL AND DIVERSITY

• Variations in a species are not equally likely to survive in their environment.
• Different individuals possess distinct advantages based on the nature of their variations.
• Variants that are better suited to the environment have a higher chance of survival.
NATURAL SELECTION AND EVOLUTION

• Environmental factors drive the selection of variants within a species.
• The selection of advantageous traits by the environment is the foundation of evolutionary
processes.
HEREDITY
INHERITED TRAITS
• Reproduction primarily leads to the creation of individuals with similar characteristics.
• Heredity involves rules that govern the reliable inheritance of traits and characteristics.
• Offspring share fundamental human traits but exhibit variations. While offspring carry
essential human traits, they don't precisely resemble their parents. Human populations
display significant diversity in terms of characteristics.
• Exploring inherited traits helps understand heredity rules better. These traits are passed
down from parents to offspring, shaping their characteristics.
RULES FOR THE INHERITANCE OF TRAITS – MENDEL’S CONTRIBUTIONS

• The rules for inheritance of such traits in human beings are related to the fact that both the
father and the mother contribute practically equal amounts of genetic material to the child.
This means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA

42
• Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) initiated pioneering experiments in the realms of plant
breeding and hybridization, ultimately formulating the fundamental principles of inheritance
within living organisms.
• His groundbreaking work led to his recognition as the "Father of Genetics."
• Mendel's focus was centered on the plant species Pisum sativum, commonly known as the
garden pea.
• In his research, he meticulously selected and investigated a range of distinct and contrasting
characteristics inherent to the garden pea.
• Mendel selected the Garden Pea (Pisum sativum) as his experimental specimen due to:
• The presence of easily distinguishable and contrasting traits across multiple
characteristics.
• The plant's rapid life cycle, enabling swift experimentation and observation.
• The natural capacity for both self-fertilization and controlled cross-
fertilization.
• Abundant production of a substantial number of seeds.
• Mendel's Experimental Approach: Mendel systematically carried out a sequence of
investigations where he deliberately crossed pollinated plants to scrutinize individual traits,
one trait at a time.
HOW DO THESE TRAITS GET EXPRESSED?

• Traits are determined by genes, segments of DNA that code for proteins.
• Proteins govern traits; e.g., plant height is influenced by a hormone whose production relies
on enzyme efficiency.
• Mendelian experiments imply equal genetic input from both parents in sexual
reproduction.
• Each parent contributes a copy of the same gene; pea plants carry two gene sets, one from
each parent.
• Reproductive germ cells possess a single gene set due to chromosome separation.
• Cells contain two chromosome copies per pair, each from a parent.
• Germ cells acquire one chromosome from each pair, ensuring species' DNA stability in
offspring.
• This mechanism aligns with Mendel's findings in sexual reproduction and applies universally.
• Asexual reproduction follows analogous principles, emphasizing genes' role in controlling
traits.
SEX DETERMINATION
• Sex determination in sexual reproduction varies among species.
• Some animals use environmental cues; e.g., the temperature in reptiles, affecting embryo's
sex.
• Certain species, like snails, can change sex, indicating non-genetic determination.
• In humans, sex is largely genetically determined; genes from parents decide sex.
• Human chromosomes occur in pairs except for sex chromosomes.
• Humans have 22 pairs of chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.
• Women have two X sex chromosomes (XX), while men have one X and one Y
sex chromosome (XY).
• Inheritance pattern of sex chromosomes determines the child's sex.
• Half of offspring will be boys (XY) and half will be girls (XX).
• Children inherit an X chromosome from their mother.
• Child's sex is determined by the chromosome inherited from the father: X for
girls, Y for boys.

43
QUESTION
1. With respect to heredity, consider the following statements:
1. Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.
2. In some animals, the temperature at which fertilised eggs are kept determines whether the
animals developing in the eggs will be male or female.
3. In human beings, the sex of the children will be determined by what they inherit from their
mother.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d. 1,2 and 3
Answer: A

44
LIGHT – REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
OVERVIEW
We cannot see any object around us without light. An object reflects light that falls on it. This reflected
light, when received by our eyes, enables us to see things. We can only see in a transparent medium
as light is transmitted through it. Many wonderful phenomena like image formation by mirrors, the
twinkling of stars, the beautiful colours of a rainbow, bending of light by a medium are due to multiple
properties of light. Light travels in straight lines as per common optical phenomena. That’s why light
casts a sharp shadow of an opaque object. Straight-line path of light is indicated as a ray of light.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
A highly polished surface, such as a mirror, reflects most of the light falling on it.
Laws of reflection –
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
• The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected ray, all
lie in the same plane. These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting
surfaces including spherical surfaces.
Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect. The size of the image is equal to that
of the object. The image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. Further,
the image is laterally inverted. Mirrors, whose reflecting surfaces are spherical, are called
spherical mirrors.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards is called a concave mirror while it
is outwards for convex. In these diagrams that the back of the mirror is shaded.
• Pole:The centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror usually represented by P.
• Centre of curvature(C):It is the centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a
part. It lies outside its reflecting surface, for a concave mirror it lies in front of it while
behind in case of convex.
• Radius of curvature(R):It is the radius of the sphere of which the spherical mirror forms
a part. The distance PC is equal to R in above diagram.
• Principal axis: Imaginary straight line passing through the P and C. It is normal to the
mirror at its pole.
• Aperture: The diameter of the reflecting surface is called its aperture. In case of small
apertures, R = 2f. It means that F lies midway between the P and C.
USES OF CONCAVE MIRRORS

• They are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles headlights to get powerful
parallel beams of light, shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
• The dentists use them to see large images of the teeth of patients. They are also used to
concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.

45
USES OF CONVEX MIRRORS
• They are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles so that the driver can see
traffic for safe driving.
• They are preferred because they always give an erect, though diminished, image.
• Also, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area than would be possible with
a plane mirror as they are curved outwards.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
• When light travels obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of propagation of
light in the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light. We
observe practical examples of it in our day-to-day experiences.
• For example, bottom of a tank or a pond containing water appears to be raised.
o Similarly, when a thick glass slab is placed over some printed matter, the letters
appear raised when viewed through the glass slab; a lemon kept in water in a glass
tumbler appears to be bigger than its actual size, when viewed from the sides.
• The light reaching us from the portion of the object inside second medium seems to come
from a different direction, compared to the part in first medium. This accounts for the above
example.
• The extent of the effect is different for different pair of media. These observations indicate
that light does not travel in the same direction in all media. Refraction is due to change in the
speed of light as it enters from one transparent medium to another.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of sine of angle of incidence (i) to the sine of angle of refraction(r) is a constant,
for the light of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as
Snell’s law of refraction. This is true for i between 0 to 90 degrees.
THE REFRACTIVE INDEX

•
The ratio of sin (i) to sin(r) is a constant. This constant value is called the refractive index
of the second medium with respect to the first.
• The extent of the change in direction of light that takes place in a given pair of media
depends on the refractive index.
• The refractive index depends on the relative speed of propagation of light in different
media. Light travels fastest in vacuum followed by air, glass, water. It can also be
expressed as ratio of speed of light in both media.
POWER OF A LENS (P)
• It is the degree of convergence or divergence achieved by a lens. Its SI unit is dioptre (D).
P = 1/f with P in dioptres and f in metres. Thus, 1 dioptre is the power of a lens whose
focal length is 1 metre.
• The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative. Opticians
prescribe corrective lenses indicating their powers.
• Many optical instruments are combination of a number of lenses to increase the
magnification and sharpness of the image. The net power (P ) is given by the algebraic
sum of the individual powers P1 , P2 , P3 , … as P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

46
• During eye-testing, an optician puts several different combinations of corrective lenses
of known power, in contact, inside the testing spectacles’ frame. The optician calculates
the power of the lens required by simple algebraic addition.
• It has practical applications in design of cameras, microscopes, telescopes to minimise
certain defects in images produced by a single lens.
QUESTIONS
1. When a person stands in front of a plane mirror, several observations can be made:
1. The size of the image is equal to that of the object.
2. The image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
3. The image is laterally inverted.
How many of the above observations are correct?
a. Only one
b. Only two
c. All three
d. None
Answer: C
2. Which of the following involve the use of concave mirrors?
1. Torches
2. Search-lights
3. Shaving mirrors
4. Solar furnaces
5. Rear view mirrors
Select the correct code using the options given below:
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 1,2,3 and 4
c. 2,3,4 and 5
d. 1,2,3,4 and 5
Answer: B

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THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD
INTRODUCTION
• The human eye uses light and enables us to see objects around us.
• The defect of eyes can be corrected by using a needed lens of suitable power.
• Refraction of light can be studied with the help of prism.
• Twinkling of stars and Advance sunrise and delayed sunset are phenomena of atmospheric
refraction.
THE HUMAN EYE AND ITS STRUCTURE

• The human eye is like a camera.
• Retina: Lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called the retina.
• The retina is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells.
• Cornea: Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the cornea.
• It forms the transparent bulge on the front surface of the eyeball.
• Most of the refraction for the light rays entering the eye occurs at the outer surface
of the cornea.
• Iris: Behind the cornea is iris. Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the
pupil.
• Eyeball: The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.
• Lens: The crystalline lens merely provides the finer adjustment of focal length required to
focus objects at different distances on the retina.
• Pupil: The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light entering the eye.
• Process of working of eye:
• The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina (The retina is a
delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells).
• The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate electrical
signals.
• These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
• The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information so that we
perceive objects as they are.
POWER OF ACCOMMODATION
• The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material. Its curvature can be modified to
some extent by the ciliary muscles.
• The change in the curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal length.
• When the muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin.
• Thus, its focal length increases. This enables us to see distant objects clearly.
• When you are looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles contract.
• This increases the curvature of the eye lens.
• The eye lens then becomes thicker. Consequently, the focal length of the eye lens
decreases. This enables us to see nearby objects clearly.
• The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation. However, the
focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain minimum limit
• The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most distinctly without strain, is called the
least distance of distinct vision (near point of the eye).
• Cataract: Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy and this
condition is called cataract.

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• This causes partial or complete loss of vision.
• It is possible to restore vision through a cataract surgery.
DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

• Sometimes, the eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation. The vision becomes
blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye.
• These defects can be corrected by the use of suitable spherical lenses.
• There are mainly three common refractive defects of vision. These are:
• Myopia or near-sightedness,
• Hypermetropia or farsightedness,
• Presbyopia.
MYOPIA
• Myopia is also known as near- sightedness.
• A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects
distinctly.
• A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity.
• Such a person may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres.
• In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at the
retina itself.
Reasons
• This defect may arise due to
• Excessive curvature of the eye lens, or
• Elongation of the eyeball.
Cure
• This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power.
• A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect
is corrected.
HYPERMETROPIA
• Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness.
• A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects
distinctly.
• The near point, for the person, is farther away from the normal near point (25 cm).
• Such a person has to keep a reading material much beyond 25 cm from the eye for
comfortable reading.
Reason
• This is because the light rays from a close by object are focused at a point behind the retina.
• This defect arises either because
• The focal length of the eye lens is too long, or
• The eyeball has become too small.
Cure
• This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power.
• Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focusing power required for
forming the image on the retina.

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PRESBYOPIA
• The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing.
• For most people, the near point gradually recedes away.
• They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably and distinctly without
corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called Presbyopia.
Reason
• It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing flexibility of
the eye lens.
Cure
• Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
• Such people often require bi-focal lenses.
Bi-focal lenses
• A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex lenses.
• The upper portion consists of a concave lens. It facilitates distant vision.
• The lower part is a convex lens. It facilitates near vision.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM
PRISM
• It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.
• These surfaces are inclined to each other.
• The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism.
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
• The prism splits the incident white light into a band of colours.
• Sequence of colours that seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red.
• VIBGYOR acronym use to remember the sequence of colours.
• Spectrum :
• The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum.
• Dispersion :
• The splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion.
• Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as
they pass through a prism.
• The red light bends the least while the violet the most. Thus the rays of each colour
emerge along different paths and thus become distinct.
• It is the band of distinct colours that we see in a spectrum.
Newton’s findings
• Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.
• He tried to split the colours of the spectrum of white light further by using another
similar prism. However, he could not get any more colours.
• He then placed a second identical prism in an inverted position with respect to the
first prism.
• This allowed all the colours of the spectrum to pass through the second prism.
• He found a beam of white light emerging from the other side of the second prism.
• This observation gave Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven
colours.

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The rainbow creation
• A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower.
• It is caused by dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere.
• A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
• The water droplets act like small prisms.
• They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally
refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.
• Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the
observer’s eye.
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
• The deviation of light or other electromagnetic waves from a straight line as it passes
through the atmosphere is known as atmospheric refraction.
• The star twinkles due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The star twinkles as a result of
the atmospheric refraction of starlight.
TWINKLING OF STARS
• The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.
• The starlight, on entering the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before
it reaches the earth.
• The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index.
• Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position of the star
is slightly different from its actual position.
• The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position when viewed near the
horizon.
ADVANCE SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET

• Advance sunrise and delayed sunset happen due to atmospheric refraction.
• The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after
the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction.
• By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.
• The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.
• The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same
phenomenon.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
• When white light from sun enters the earth's atmosphere, the light gets scattered.
• i.e., the light spreads in all directions by the dust particles, free water molecules and
the molecules of the gases present in the atmosphere.
• The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise
and the sunset are some of the wonderful phenomena of scattering of light.
TYNDALL EFFECT
• The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles.
• These particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and
molecules of air.
• When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible.

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• The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles.
• The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.
• This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room
through a small hole. Thus, scattering of light makes the particles visible.
• Tyndall effect can also be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense
forest. Here, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter light.
The colour of the scattered light

• The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering particles.
• Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light while particles of larger size scatter light of
longer wavelengths.
• If the size of the scattering particles is large enough, then, the scattered light may even
appear white.
BLUE COLOUR OF THE CLEAR SKY
• The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the
wavelength of visible light.
• These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than light of
longer wavelengths at the red end.
• The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light.
• Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the
blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red.
• The scattered blue light enters our eyes.
• If the earth had no atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering.
• Then, the sky would have looked dark.
QUESTIONS
1. With respect to defects of vision, consider the following statements:
1. A person with near-sightedness can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects
distinctly.
2. A person with far-sightedness can see distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects
distinctly.
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
2. With respect to some natural phenonmenon, consider the following statements:

1. A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.
2. The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.
3. The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 30 minutes.
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 and 3 only
c. 1 and 3 only
d. 1,2 and 3
Answer: A

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3. Which of the following statements best describes the term “Tyndall Effect”?
a. An experiment that illustrates a paradox of quantum superposition.
b. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles.
c. The idea that small things can have non-linear impacts on a complex system.
d. The apparent change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer moving relative to the
wave source.
Answer: B
4. Consider the following statements with respect to the color of sky:

1. The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times smaller than blue light.
2. If the earth had no atmosphere, sky would have looked red.
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D

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ELECTRICITY
INTRODUCTION
• Electricity has an important place in modern society. It is a controllable and convenient form
of energy for a variety of uses in homes, schools, hospitals, industries and so on.
• Electric current is carried by moving electrons through a conductor. By convention, electric
current flows in the opposite direction to the movement of electrons.
• The difference in the amount of electric potential energy between two points in an electric
circuit comes under the concept of electric potential difference.
• There are various uses of heating effect of electric current.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT

• Electric current: Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through a
particular area in unit time. In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges.
• In circuits using metallic wires, electrons constitute the flow of charges. However, electrons
were not known at the time when the phenomenon of electricity was first observed.
• So, electric current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the
direction of flow of positive charges was taken to be the direction of electric current.
• Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as
opposite to the direction of the flow of electrons, which are negative charges.
• SI Unit: The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge
contained in nearly 6 × 1018 electrons.
• Ampere: The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), named after the French
scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere.
• One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second, that is,
1 A = 1 C/1 s.
• Small quantities of current are expressed in milliampere (1 mA = 10–3 A) or in
microampere (1 μA = 10–6 A).
• Ammeter: An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit.
• It is always connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be
measured.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• Potential difference: Charges do not flow in a copper wire by themselves, the electrons move
only if there is a difference of electric pressure – called the potential difference – along the
conductor.
• This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more
electric cells.
• The chemical action within a cell generates the potential difference across the
terminals of the cell, even when no current is drawn from it.
• When the cell is connected to a conducting circuit element, the potential difference
sets the charges in motion in the conductor and produces an electric current.
• In order to maintain the current in a given electric circuit, the cell has to expend its
chemical energy stored in it.

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• Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)
• SI unit: The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta,
an Italian physicist.
• Volt: One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.
• Voltmeter: The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the
voltmeter.
• The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.
OHM’S LAW
• In 1827, a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854) found out the relationship
between the current I, flowing in a metallic wire and the potential difference across its
terminals.
• The potential difference, ‘V’ across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains the
same. This is called Ohm’s law.
• V∝I
V/I = constant
= R or V = IR
• R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its
resistance.
• It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
• Its SI unit is ohm, represented by the Greek letter W.
• Variable resistance: A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source
is called variable resistance.
• Rheostat: In an electric circuit, a device called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in
the circuit.
FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS

• It is observed that the ammeter reading decreases to one-half when the length of the wire is
doubled.
• The ammeter reading is increased when a thicker wire of the same material and of the same
length is used in the circuit.
• A change in ammeter reading is observed when a wire of different material of the same length
and the same area of cross-section is used.
• On applying Ohm’s law, we observe that the resistance of the conductor depends
• on its length,
• on its area of cross-section, and
• On the nature of its material.
• Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly
proportional to its length (l ) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A).
• That is, R ∝ l/A or, R = ρ (l/A)
• Where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of
the material of the conductor.
• SI unit : The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m.
• Ohm (Ω)
• It is a characteristic property of the material.

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• The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω
m.
• They are good conductors of electricity.
• Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 to 1017 Ω m.
• Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.
Electrical resistivity of some substances at 20°C
Material Resistivity (Ω m)
Conductors Silver 1.60 × 10–8

Copper 1.62 × 10–8
Aluminum 2.63 × 10–8
Tungsten 5.20 × 10–8
Nickel 6.84 × 10–8
Iron 10.0 × 10–8
Chromium 12.9 × 10–8
Mercury 94.0 × 10–8
Manganese 1.84 × 10–6
Alloys Constantan 49 × 10–6

(alloy of Cu and Ni)
Manganin 44 × 10–6
(alloy of Cu, Mn and Ni)
Nichrome 100 × 10–6
(alloy of Ni, Cr, Mn and Fe)
Insulators Glass 1010 – 1014

Hard rubber 1013 – 1016
Ebonite 1015 – 1017
Diamond 1012 – 1013
Paper (dry) 1012
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

• A part of the source energy in maintaining the current may be consumed into useful work
(like in rotating the blades of an electric fan).
• Rest of the source energy may be expended in heat to raise the temperature of gadget.
• We often observe this in our everyday life. For example, an electric fan becomes warm if used
continuously for longer time etc.
• On the other hand, if the electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors
only connected to a battery; the source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the form
of heat.
• This is known as the heating effect of electric current.
• This effect is utilized in devices such as electric heater, electric iron etc.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

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• Heat generation: Heat generation in a conductor is an inevitable consequence of electric
current.
• In many cases, it is undesirable as it converts useful electrical energy into heat.
• In electric circuits, the unavoidable heating can increase the temperature of the components
and alter their properties.
• However, heating effect of electric current has many useful applications.
• The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric
heater are some of the familiar devices based on Joule’s heating.
• Use of electric heating:
• The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb.
• Here, the filament must retain as much of the heat generated as is possible,
so that it gets very hot and emits light.
• It must not melt at such high temperature.
• Tungsten: A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point
3380°C) is used for making bulb filaments.
• Most of the power consumed by the filament appears as heat, but a small part of it
is in the form of light radiated.
• fuse used in electric circuits
• Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric circuits.
• It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high
electric current.
• The fuse is placed in series with the device.
• It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate
melting point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc.
• If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the
temperature of the fuse wire increases.
• This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit.
ELECTRIC POWER
• Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric
circuit.
• The power P is given by P = VI
• SI unit: The SI unit of electric power is watt (W).
• It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current when operated at a
potential difference of 1 V. Thus,
• Kilowatt: The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, in actual practice we use a much larger
unit called ‘kilowatt’.
• It is equal to 1000 watts.
• Watt hour: Since electrical energy is the product of power and time, the unit of electric
energy is, therefore, watt hour (W h).
• One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour.
• The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as
‘unit’.
QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is best explained by Ohm’s law?
a. Relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an electrical circuit.
b. The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence of light.
c. A phenomenon that is observed whenever the source of waves is moving with respect to an
observer.

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d. Every pair of alleles or genes in parents, divides and a single gene is transferred from each
parent to their offspring.
Answer: A
2 . With respect to practical applications of heating effect of electric current, consider the following
statements:
1. Tungsten is a metal with low melting that is used for making bulb filaments.
2. Iron and lead can be used to make electrical fuses.
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A

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CHAPTER 12: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
OVERVIEW
Electricity and Magnetism are linked to each other. Moving magnets can cause an electric impact. In
this chapter, our focus is on study of magnetic fields and the resultant electromagnetic effects.
ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECT
• When the electric current passes through the copper wire, it produces a magnetic effect. This is
called electromagnetic effect and was first noticed by Hans Christian Oersted.
Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851)

• Hans Christian Oersted, a prominent scientist of the 19th century, contributed significantly to
the comprehension of electromagnetism.
• In 1820, he accidentally discovered that when an electric current flowed through a metallic
wire placed in close proximity, a compass needle experienced deflection.
• Oersted's subsequent investigations paved the way for revolutionary technologies like-
• radio,
• television, and
• fiber optics.
• As a tribute to his accomplishments, the unit of magnetic field strength is named after him as
the "oersted."
Compass Needle
• A compass needle gets deflected when brought close to a bar magnet.
• The compass needle essentially acts as a miniature bar magnet.
• The ends of the compass needle point towards the north and south directions.
• The end pointing towards the north is called the north-seeking or north pole, and the end
pointing towards the south is called the south-seeking or south pole.
MAGNETIC FIELD AND FIELD LINES

• Iron filings arrange themselves in a distinct pattern when influenced by a magnet and this
pattern illustrates the magnetic field's influence.
• The magnetic force exerted causes iron filings to align in a specific way.
• The region around a magnet where its force is detectable is called the magnetic field.
• The arrangement of iron filings represents magnetic field lines.
• Magnetic field lines can also be obtained by drawing them around a bar magnet.
• Magnetic field is a property with both direction and magnitude.
• Field lines emerge from the north pole and converge at the south pole of a magnet.
• The direction of the magnetic field is determined by the movement of a north pole of a
compass needle within it.
• Inside the magnet, field lines go from its south pole to its north pole, forming closed
curves.
• Strength of the Magnetic Field: The degree of closeness of magnetic field lines indicates the
relative strength of the magnetic field.
• Field lines that are crowded represent stronger magnetic fields.
• Stronger fields exert greater force on poles of other magnets placed nearby.
• Non-Intersecting Field Lines: Magnetic field lines do not cross each other.

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• Crossed field lines at an intersection would result in a compass needle pointing in two
directions, which is not possible.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

The shape of the conductor affects the pattern of the magnetic field that forms around it as an
electric current passes through it.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

• Changing the current in the copper wire affects the deflection of a compass needle placed at a
certain point.
• Increasing the current increases the deflection, indicating that stronger current leads to
a stronger magnetic field at that point.
• As the compass is moved farther from the wire, the deflection in the needle decreases.
• This indicates that the magnetic field produced by a fixed current in the conductor
weakens as the distance from it increases.
• The magnetic field's representation around a current-carrying straight wire forms concentric
circles.
• These circles expand in size as the distance from the wire increases.
Right- Hand Thumb Rule

• Imagine holding a straight conductor that carries current in your right hand with your thumb
pointing in the direction of the current.
• The conductor will then be encircled by fingers pointing in the direction of the magnetic field's
field lines.

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• This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew rule.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT THROUGH A CIRCULAR LOOP

• Similar to the magnetic field around a straight wire, the magnetic field lines around a circular
loop also follow a pattern.
• The magnetic field lines around the circular loop, due to the current, form concentric
circles.
• These circles expand in size as one moves away from the wire.
• At the center of the circular loop, these concentric circles appear as straight lines.
• At the center of the circular loop, the magnetic field lines become straight lines.
• Applying the right-hand rule shows that every segment of the wire contributes to the
magnetic field lines in the same direction within the loop.
• The field produced by a circular coil with n turns is n times larger than the field produced by a
single turn. This is such that the field caused by each spin simply adds up because the current in
each circular turn has the same direction.
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT IN A SOLENOID

• A solenoid refers to a coil made of insulated copper wire wound closely in a cylindrical shape.
The solenoid has many circular turns, resembling a cylinder.
• One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, and the other end behaves as a
magnetic south pole and this behavior is similar to that of a bar magnet.
• Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field lines take the form of parallel straight lines.
• This arrangement signifies a uniform magnetic field inside the solenoid, with equal field
strength at all points within it.
• A solenoid with a strong magnetic field has the ability to magnetize magnetic materials, like soft
iron, when placed inside the coil .
• The resulting magnet is termed an electromagnet.
FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

• When a current-carrying conductor is exposed to a magnetic field, a force is generated.
• The force acting on the conductor will be perpendicular to both if the direction of the field and
the direction of the current are mutually perpendicular to one another, as determined by
Fleming's left-hand rule.
• Devices that use current-carrying conductors and magnetic fields include electric motor, electric
generator, loudspeakers, microphones and measuring instruments.
• French scientist Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836) suggested that the magnet must also
exert an equal and opposite force on the current-carrying conductor.
Magnetism in medicine
• Electric currents generate magnetic fields.
• Even weak ion currents within nerve cells in the human body produce magnetic
fields.

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• When we touch something, the nerves transmit an electric impulse to the relevant
muscles, leading to a temporary magnetic field.
• These fields are incredibly faint, approximately one-billionth of Earth's magnetic field.
• Two crucial organs where significant magnetic fields are produced in the human body are the
heart and the brain.
• The magnetic fields generated within the human body serve as the foundation for obtaining
images of different body parts.
• This process is achieved through Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
• The images obtained aid medical professionals in making accurate diagnoses.
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY AND MAIN WIRES

• Electric power is supplied to homes through a main supply, often supported by overhead
electric poles or underground cables.
• The live wire (positive) has red insulation, and the neutral wire (negative) has black insulation.
• The potential difference between these wires is usually 220 V.
• At the meter-board in a house, the wires enter through an electricity meter and a main fuse.
• The main switch connects them to the line wires inside the house, which supply electricity to
various circuits.
TWO SEPARATE CIRCUITS

• Two separate circuits are used in homes-
• One with a 15 A current rating for high-power appliances like geysers, air coolers, etc.,
• The other with a 5 A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc.
EARTH WIRE FOR SAFETY

• The earth wire, usually insulated in green, is connected to a metal plate buried deep in the
earth near the house.
• It provides a low-resistance path for current, ensuring that appliances with metallic bodies are
at earth potential, reducing the risk of electric shock.
• Appliances are connected across live and neutral wires in separate circuits.
• These are connected in parallel to maintain equal potential difference across them.
• Each appliance has its own switch to control the flow of current.
ELECTRIC FUSE
• An electric fuse is a crucial component in domestic circuits.
• It prevents damage to appliances and circuits due to overloading or short-circuiting.
• Overloading can be caused by direct contact between live and neutral wires or by a
spike in supply voltage.
• An electric fuse melts due to Joule heating in case of excess current, breaking the circuit and
preventing damage.
QUESTIONS

1. An electric current always produces a magnetic field.
2. A human heart produces magnetic field.
a. 1 only

62
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
2. At the time of a short circuit, which of the following thing happens?

a. The current in the circuit reduces substantially.
b. The current in the circuit does not change.
c. The current in the circuit increases heavily.
d. The current in the circuit varies continuously.
Answer: C

63
OUR ENVIRONMENT
OVERVIEW
All living things, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and people, as well as their physical
surroundings, interact with one another and keep nature in balance. There are various interactions
among different environmental components and it is important to examine their influence on the
environment.
ECOSYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS

An ecosystem encompasses all the interacting organisms within an area, including both living and
non-living elements of the environment.
COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
• Biotic Components : Living organisms, such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans,
constitute the biotic components of an ecosystem.
• Abiotic Components : The physical factors of the environment, including temperature, rainfall,
wind, soil, and minerals, comprise the abiotic components of an ecosystem.
EXAMPLES OF ECOSYSTEMS
• Natural Ecosystems: Forests, ponds, and lakes.
• Human-Made Ecosystems: Gardens, crop fields, and aquariums.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
Organisms can be classified as producers, consumers, or decomposers depending on how they
receive their food from the environment.
• Producers: Organisms capable of producing organic compounds like sugar and starch from
inorganic substances through photosynthesis using sunlight. Examples: Green plants and certain
bacteria.
• Consumers: Organisms that depend on producers for sustenance, either directly or indirectly.
• Herbivores
• Carnivores
• Omnivores
• Parasites
• Decomposers: Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, play a vital role in breaking down the
remains of dead organisms and waste products. They convert complex organic substances into
simple inorganic substances that enrich the soil for plant use.
FOOD CHAINS AND WEB

• A food chain consists of organisms at different trophic levels, where each step represents a level
of feeding hierarchy.
• Trophic levels are steps in a food chain, with producers at the first level and consumers at
higher levels.
ENERGY FLOW IN FOOD CHAINS

• Producers (autotrophs) capture solar energy and convert it into chemical energy .

64
• Herbivores (primary consumers) consume producers, followed by small carnivores (secondary
consumers) and larger carnivores (tertiary consumers).
• Energy flows from one component of the environment to another, supporting all living activities.
• This energy supports all the activities of the living world. From autotrophs, the energy goes to
the heterotrophs and decomposers.
• Numerous studies on the energy transfer between various environmental components have
revealed the following –
• In a terrestrial ecosystem, green plants are able to convert around 1% of the sunlight
that strikes their leaves into food energy.
• Energy is lost as heat, digestion, and work and only about 10% of eaten food energy is
converted into the consumer's body.
• The quantity of organic matter that is present at each stage and reaches the next level
of consumers may thus be regarded as an average of 10%.
• Energy loss at each trophic level restricts food chains to three or four steps.
• Lower trophic levels usually have more individuals, with producers having the highest
population.
• Food chains are not always straight; they can be complex and interconnected, forming a
food web.
• Energy flow is unidirectional, from autotrophs to consumers, with no reversion to the
previous level.
• Energy diminishes progressively across trophic levels due to losses at each step.
BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION
• Harmful chemicals, like pesticides, can enter the food chain through soil and water
contamination.
• These chemicals accumulate at each trophic level and reach higher concentrations in organisms
at the top of the food chain.
• This phenomenon is known as biological magnification.
• Humans, being at the top of many food chains, can accumulate higher concentrations of these
chemicals.
• This is the cause of the varied levels of pesticide residues found in our food grains, including
wheat and rice, as well as in vegetables, fruits, and even meat which can't always be removed by
washing.

65
EFFECT OF OUR ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT
OZONE LAYER AND ITS DEPLETION

• Concept: Ozone (O3) is composed of three oxygen atoms. While oxygen (O2) is vital for aerobic
life, ozone is harmful.
• In the upper atmosphere, ozone plays a crucial role by shielding the Earth's surface
from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.
• UV radiation is detrimental and can lead to issues like skin cancer in humans.
• Formation of Ozone: At higher atmospheric levels, UV radiation interacts with oxygen (O2)
molecules.
• High-energy UV radiation splits O2 molecules into individual oxygen (O) atoms.
• These oxygen atoms then combine with O2 molecules to form ozone (O3).
• Ozone Depletion : The ozone layer's quantity began decreasing significantly in the 1980s.
• This decline is attributed to synthetic chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
used in refrigerants and fire extinguishers.
• In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established an agreement
to halt CFC production at 1986 levels.
• The production of CFC-free refrigerators became compulsory worldwide.
GARBAGE MANAGEMENT
• In our daily activities, a lot of material is generated and thrown away.
• The waste may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
• Biodegradable: Substances that can be broken down by biological processes.
• Non-biodegradable: Substances that are not broken down in the above manner.
• Substances like plastics are not biodegradable, as they cannot be broken down by biological
processes. Physical processes like heat and pressure will affect these materials, but under the
ambient conditions present in our environment, these processes last for a very long period.
• Biodegradable substances are broken down by biological agents like bacteria.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
• The rise in waste production due to lifestyle changes and disposables poses environmental
challenges.
• The prevalence of non-biodegradable waste can adversely affect the environment.
• Tourism destinations are often littered with waste like empty food wrappers.
• Changes in packaging methods have led to a surge in non-biodegradable waste.
Use of disposable cups
• Plastic cups were recommended to be replaced with kulhads( disposable clay cups). But a
little reflection revealed that mass production of these kulhads would lead to the degradation
of the rich topsoil.
• Disposable paper cups are now in use.
Points to Remember
• The various components of an ecosystem are interdependent.
• The producers make the energy from sunlight available to the rest of the ecosystem.
• There is a loss of energy as we go from one trophic level to the next, this limits the
number of trophic levels in a food-chain.
• Human activities have an impact on the environment.

66
• The use of chemicals like CFCs has endangered the ozone layer. Since the ozone
layer protects against the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, this could damage
the environment.
• The waste we generate may be biodegradable or non-biodegradable.
• The disposal of the waste we generate is causing serious environmental problems.
QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following statement best describes the term ecosystem?
a. All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents of the
environment.
b. A large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat.
c. The match of a species to a specific environmental condition.
d. Transition area between two biological communities, where two communities meet and
integrate.
Answer: A
2. With respect to the flow of energy in an ecosystem, consider the following statements:
1. The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem capture about 1% of the energy of sunlight that
falls on their leaves.
2. The flow of energy is unidirectional.
3. The energy available at each trophic level gets magnified progressively.
a. 1 and 2 only
b. 2 only
c. 2 and 3 only
d. 1,2 and 3
Answer: A
3. With respect to Biomagnification, consider the following statements:

1. The maximum concentration of the toxic chemicals is present in the lowest trophic level of
the food chain.
2. Fat soluble substances do not bio-magnify.
a. 1 only
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
4. Consider the following statements with respect to Ozone:
1. Ozone is a deadly poison at higher level of atmosphere while it is essential for life at lower
levels.
2. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O)
atoms.
a. 1 only

67
b. 2 only
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B

68

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