Memory

Memory is the capacity of the human brain to learn and store information which is
usable. All the usable skills and knowledge is stored in memory and memory allows
human beings to function efficiently in daily life.
Memory is the cognitive process by which we encode and store information in
order to recall it whenever we want to use that information in future. Memory gives
us the ability to learn and adapt from our previous life experiences and also to build
relationships with our fellow human beings. It gives us power to recall previously
learned facts, experiences, skills and habits.
The word memory comes from the Latin word “Memoria” and “Memor” which
means mindful and remembering respectively. In the field of psychology, memory
is considered to be basis of all the other cognitive processes like problem solving,
logical thinking, imagination and decision making.

Components of Memory
• Encoding
Encoding is the first step for memory. In this stage, sensory information received
from the environment is converted into neural impulses which are then processed
by the brain for storage.Encoding is a process by which meaning is derived from the
information and converted into a language (neuronal signal) so that it can be placed
in the brain.
• Storage
The second stage of memory is storage; in storage the encoded information is
stored so it can be later use. Storage refers to the retention of encoded
representations over time and corresponds to some change in the nervous system
that registers the event. Stored representations are referred to as memories.
• Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of retrieving the stored information to current working use.
It is the third stage of memory and very important because if a piece of information
is not recalled then there is no memory at all. Encoding and storage have no use if
certain information cannot be recalled. Retrieval often requires effort external
effort to access the stored information and it is involved both in the explicit and
implicit memory systems.

Types of Memory
There are various types of memory which are broadly categorized in three stages
or types.
1. Sensory memory
2. Short- term memory
3. Long- term memory

1. Sensory Memory
The information received by our sense organs is briefly stored in its original sensory
form for a few seconds or less. Our sense organs like eyes, ears, nose, tongue and
skin receive information from the physical environment and all of this information
is very briefly stored in their sensory memory systems before moving onto the short
term memory.
Types of Sensory Memory
• Visual Sensory Memory
Visual sensory memory also known as iconic memory, in iconic memory
information is received by may last for only 20-400 milliseconds.
• Auditory Sensory Memory
Auditory sensory memory is also known as echoic memory. In echoic memory
information is received by ears. Auditory echoes are slightly longer than icons up
to 4,000 milliseconds (4 seconds).

• Haptic Memory
The type of sensory memory which stores information from the skin in the form of
tactile sensations is known as haptic memory.
2. Short-term memory
STM receives information from the sensory memory and processes that
information. The time duration of sensory memory is no more than 18 seconds
without rehearsal and upto 30 seconds with rehearsal. The capacity is also limited.
The capacity can be increased by the method of chunking. For example when we
remember a ten digit phone number (9875392056) a person can learn it more
easily by dividing it into 3 chunks (987, 539, 2056). This chunking is more effective
than trying to learn 10 digits singly and this is due to the limited capacity of STM.
STM is also known as working memory because it deals with what we are
doing/thinking at any given moment.
Components of Working Memory
• The Phonological loop
The phonological loop processes auditory information and is used to learn anything
related to sounds like new vocabulary, solving math-problems, remembering
instructions etc. the phonological loop is active whenever we read, speak or repeat
words.
• The Visuospatial Sketchpad
The visuospatial sketchpad is the component of working memory that is used to
process visual information with the help of physical characteristics or the location
of the object.
• The Central Executive
The central executive gathers information from the phonological loop, the
visuospatial sketchpad and the long term memory. It is like a master which encodes
the sensory memory and decides what is important to be stored in the long term
memory. Also, the central executive also retrieves information from the long term
memory as when needed.
• Rehearsal
Rehearsal is the technique that is used to keep the information in the short term
memory active for long. Rehearsal is simple repeating the information over and
over again in order to get it stored in the memory.

3. Long term Memory

Long term memory (LTM) is the most stable part of the memory. The information
stored in the long term memory is relatively permanent and the capacity of the
LTM is also infinite. The information learnt by us in childhood is available for recall
even after 50 years. It is seen that yes with passage of time information can be lost
or forgotten but still LTM is a system of memory which stores information for a very
long period of time.
Types of Long-term Memory
• Explicit Memory
Explicit memory is that type of long term memory which includes past experiences
that are consciously brought to mind.
• Declarative Memory
Declarative memory refers to cognitive information that can be brought to mind.
Declarative memory can involve words, concepts, visual images or both. It is the
memory for specific facts and personal experiences.
• Episodic Memory
Episodic memory refers to one’s personal past experiences. It is the sub part of
declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific
times and places. for example what your first day of school was like, what you did
on your last vacation.

• Semantic Memory
Semantic memory is the subpart of the declarative memory. The word semantic
refers to the meaning. So the semantic memory includes the impersonal knowledge
about the world we are living in. For example, we know the capitals of states and
countries and rules of basketball or cricket.
• Implicit Memory
It is a process by which we enhance our skills and behaviours without the conscious
awareness that we are learning something new.
• Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is the part of implicit memory. It is our unconscious memory
of our skills and habits, specifically how to do things like use objects. Basically it is
the ‘how to’ memory.
• Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical memory is memory for the events of one’s life. The term
"autobiographical memory" refers to a person's memory of their own past.
• Flush Bulb Memories
Brown and Kulikin invented the word "Flush Bulb Memory" in 1977. Flush bulb
memories are vivid recollections of arousing or shocking incidents.
• Eye witness Memory
Eye witness memory can be defined as the memory which is related to any
witnessed event. In which an individual see any accident is happen and recalls it in
his memory and later describes how the accident occur. For example the flood of
2014 is the eye witness memory for many people in Kashmir.

Techniques for Improving memory

• Proper attention
Proper attention plays a vital role in remembering process, without paying proper
attention towards the information received through sense organs from the
environment we can't send it to our short term memory. Maximum time's people
forget things due to less or no attention towards them.
• Rehearsal
Rehearsal is a technique used for keeping information active. Memory rehearsal is
a term for the role of repetition in the retention of memories. The process of
rehearsal consists of keeping items of information in the center of attention.
Rehearsal involves repeating information over and over in order to get the
information processed and stored as a memory.
• Chunking
Chunking is the process through which the large material or information is stored
in long term memory by breaking it into many meaningful units called Chunks for
example, to remember a 10 digit mobile number (9103133348) a person could
chunk the digits into three groups like 9103,1333,48. This method of remembering
mobile number is far more effective than attempting to remember a sting of 10
digits. This is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups
of numbers
• Elaborative Processing
Elaborative processing involves thinking of information that relates to and expands
on the information that needs to be remembered. For instance, you want
remember the name of your class teacher who teach you math in 10th, in
elaborative process you recall your school days first than all related information
will be send back from long term memory to short term memory and you get the
name of your class teacher.
• Mnemonics
The mnemonic devices are found to be good methods in helping people to
remember material quickly and easily.
• Sleep
Studies have shown that the brain requires 7-8 hours of sleep per night. Sleep
strengthens relevant associations and weakens irrelevant associations, thus
improving your access to memories.
Forgetting
The loss of knowledge from long-term memory is referred to as forgetting. Either
the memory is no longer available as in it has disappeared or the information is still
there in the memory but somehow due to any reason it is not being available for
recall. Based on these two things, various psychologists have given theories of
forgetting.
• Trace decay theory of Forgetting
The trace decay theory of forgetting says that forgetting of information occurs due
to lapse of time and due to passing time the memory trace is automatically decayed
and hence lost. This theory has its focus on the limited duration as well as limited
time of the short term memory. This theory however pays no attention to how the
information is learnt or what events happened between learning that information
and when we are trying to recall it. It simply says that more the time passes the
weaker the trace becomes and eventually decays.
• Displacement theory
This particular theory tries to explain forgetting in the short term memory.
Displacement theory says that forgetting is simple; it is because the information is
not available. According to this theory, STM has limited capapcity and limited
duration due to which as when new knowledge or information keeps pouring in, it
displaces the older one and take its place.
• Interference Theory
It was believed that what we had previously learned, as well as what we would
learn in the future, could disturb or interfere with memory. This theory proposes
that during encoding, information in long-term memory can become confused or
mixed up with other information, causing memories to be distorted or disrupted.
According to the interference theory, forgetting happens as a result of memories
interfering and disrupting one another.
Interference can lead to forgetting in one of twoways:
1. Proactive interference:
If you can't learn a new job because you've already learned one, it's called
proactive intervention (pro=forward). When what we already remember gets in
the way of what we're learning right now – when old memories get in the way
of fresh memories.
2. Retroactive interference:
When you forget a previously learned task as a result of learning a new task, this
is known as retroactive intervention (retro=backward). In other words, later
learning interferes with earlier learning, causing old memories to be disrupted.
• Lack of Consolidation
Memory, according to this theory, is also based on biological processes. When
we receive new information, it takes time for adjustments to occur in the
nervous system – the consolidation phase – so that it can be properly
documented. During this time, information is transferred from short-term
memory to long-term memory, which is more permanent. If there is a problem
with the biological process of consolidation, memory is not created, according
to this theory.And we can feel like we have forgotten something that just
happened.
• Retrieval Failure Theory
When information is stored in long-term memory but cannot be retrieved, it is
referred to as retrieval failure. The retrieval cues aren't present, so it can't be
accessed.
We also store information about the situation when we store a new memory,
which are known as retrieval cues. These retrieval cues will stimulate the
memory of the situation when we are in the same situation again. Retrieval cues
can be:
External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.
Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.