Foundation Mathematics

MTH 1101

Solomon Tumwekwase
July 6, 2023
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Contents

1 ALGEBRA 1
1.1 Laws of Idices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fractional Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Algebraic Operations, exponents, Multiplication and Factorization . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Algebraic Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 EQUATIONS 9
2.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Equation of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 14
3.1 Solving Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Roots of a Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 The quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Cubic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 24

4.1 Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 DIFFERENTIATION 29
5.1 Tangents and Normals to curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.2 Higher Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3 Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Small changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5 Techniques of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6 FUNCTIONS 44
6.1 Composite functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 46
7.1 Measures of central tendency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.2 Types of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.3 Measures of Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

8 INTEGRATION 54

9 FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS 54
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This course is intended to give students an understanding of aspects of Mathematics that are needed
in a wide range of applications. The course will allow students to develop competence in a range
of Mathematical techniques that are applied in a range of scientific contexts.
The above topics will be covered in this course.

References

1. Fong Yuen and Wang Yuen: Calculus (1999).Springer

2. Raymond A.,B.(1999). College algebra, 6th edition, McGrawHill Companies.

3. Backhouse J.K (1985). Pure Mathematics book 1, 4th edition, Longman group limited.

4. Croft, A. and Davison, R., (2010) Foundation Maths. 5th ed., Harlow: Prentice Hall

1 ALGEBRA

This chapter introduces some algebraic techniques which are commonly used in Mathematics. It
will include Indices, algebraic operations, algebraic fractions, factorization and multiplication of
algebraic expressions, exponents, percentage and rations and decimals.

1.1 Laws of Idices

Consider the product y × y × y × y × y, which may be written as y 5 . Here y is called the base and
5 is called the Index or Power.

1st Law of Indices

When expressions with the same base are multiplied, the indices are added.

am .an = am+n

Note that the bases must be the same if the law is to be applied.
Example: Write the following using Index notation.

a) (−2)(−2)(−2) = (−2)3

b) 4.4.4.5.5 = 43 52

yyy y3
c) xxxx = x4

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aa(−a)(−a) a4 4
d) bb(−b) = −b3
= − ab3

Example: Simplify the following.

i) 39 310

ii) 43 × 44 × 46

iii) y 4 y 2 y 3

iv) x2 x4 y 3 y −2

2nd Law of Indices

When expressions with the same base are divided, the indices are subtracted.

am
= am−n
an

Simplify the following;

59
a) 57

(−2)16
b) (−2)13

x9
c) x5

y6
d) y

x3
Consider the expression x3
. This can be simplified to x3−3 = x0
x3
But x3
= 1, =⇒ x0 = 1. Hence any expression/number raised to power 0 is 1.

i.e a0 = 1; (a ̸= 0)

Negative Indices.
23
Consider the expression: 25

2×2×2 1
= = 2
2×2×2×2×2 2

23
Alternatively; = 22−5 = 2−2
25

1
=⇒ 2−2 =
22

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In general,
1 1
a−m = m
and am = −m
a a
Example.
Write the following expressions using only positive indices.
x−2
a) x−4 b) 3x−4 c) d) 3x−2 y −3
y −2

3rd Law of Indices

(am )n = amn

Note that the indices m and n have been multiplied.

Generally,
(am bn )k = amk bnk

Example.
Write the following expressions using a single index, leaving your answer with a positive index.

a) (32 )3 b) (7−2 )3 c) (x2 )−3 d) (x−2 )−3 e) (2x2 )3 f ) (−3y 4 )2 f ) (x−2 y)3

1.2 Fractional Indices

From the third law of indices, take a = 2, m = 21 and n = 2

 1 2 1
=⇒ (am )n = 2 2 = 2 2 ×2 = 21 = 2
1 √
=⇒ 2 2 = 2
In general,
1 √
n
xn = x

Example:
Write the following using a single positive index and simplify your answer to root form.

1
a) 3−2 4
2 5
b) x 3 x 3
−2
c) yy 3

Example.
Evaluate:
1 2 −1 −2
a) 8 3 b) 8 3 c) 8 3 d) 8 3

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General Exercise

1. Find the values of;

(a) 2561/2

1/2
(b) 1 97
1 −3/2


(c) 16
4−3/2
(d) 8−2/3

(e) 0.04−3/2
161/3 ×41/3
(f) 8

2. Simplify;

a) 8n × 22n ÷ 43n

b) 9−(1/2)n × 3n+2 × 81−1/4

√
(xy)×x1/3 ×2y 1/4
c) (x10 y 9 )1/12
(1+x)1/3 − 13 x(1+x)−2/3
d) (1+x)2/3

1.3 Numbers

Numbers can be grouped into various sets.

Integers

The integers are the set of numbers {. . . . . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .} denoted by Z. In other wards they
are positive and negative numbers together with a zero. Natural numbers are a set {1, 2, 3, . . . . . .}
denoted by N.

Rational Numbers

p
These are numbers of the form q, where p and q are integers and q ̸= 0. The set of rational
numbers is denoted by Q. When written as decimal numbers, rational numbers either terminate of
p 15
are recurring infinitely. Note that p and q in q must have no common factor. For example 45 can
be reduced to a rational number 13 .
Qn: TRUE/FALSE; Every integer is a rational number. Give a reason for your answer.

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p
A number which can not be expressed in the form is called Irrational. When written as a decimal
q
√
number, an irrational number is infinite in length and non-recurring. For example, numbers 2
and π are irrational.

Numbers can be represented as points on a real number line. Numbers which can be represented by
points on a real line are called Real numbers. Their set is denoted by R. It comprises of rational
numbers, irrational numbers and integers.

1.4 Algebraic Operations, exponents, Multiplication and Factorization

An algebraic expression consists of 4 main parts; variables, operators, exponents, coefficients and
constants. An expression together with an equal sign (=) is called an algebraic equation.
Consider an equation
ax2 + bx + c = d

′ a′ and ′ b′ are called coefficients, ′ c′ and ′ d′ are constants, ′ 2′ is an exponent and ′ +′ is an operator.
Like terms in an equation are the ones which constitute the same variables and exponents, for as
long as the coefficients are known. The reader can guess what unlike terms are.

Exponents

An exponent refers to how many times a number is multiplied by itself. For example 25 , 5 is an
exponent of 2. Hence from the previous lecture we can conclude that an exponent is the same as
an index.

Algebraic Operations

There are 4 basic operations;

- Addition

- Subtraction

- Multiplication

- Division

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Algebraic Rules

1. Commutative Rule

x+y =y+x

x.y = y.x

2. Associative Rule

x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z

x.(y.z) = (x.y).z

3. Distributive Rule
x.(y + z) = (x.y) + (x.z)

1.5 Algebraic Fractions

An algebraic fraction is of the form;

Numerator polynomial expression

Algebraic fraction = =
Denominator polynomial expression
x3 y 2 +1
For example x2 +1
, y 2 +2y+3
are all algebraic fractions.

Proper and Improper algebraic fractions

If the numerator has degree, say n and the denominator has degree, say m;
An algebraic fraction is proper if m > n. i.e the degree of the denominator is greater than the
degree of the numerator. If m ≤ n, the fraction is improper.
Degree is the highest exponent of a variable in the algebraic expression.
Examples.

x2 + 9x − 6
(Proper)
3x3 + x2 + 100

(r + 1)(r − 6)
(Improper)
r2 + 3r + 6

(x + 2)3
(Improper)
5x2 + 10x + 16

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Equivalent fractions

x 2x xt
Fractions of the same value are called equivalent fractions. e.g the algebraic fractions y , 2y , ty

are all equivalent.

The value of a fraction remains unchanged if both the numerator and denominator are multiplied
2(x+1) 2xt 2
or divided by the same quantity. e.g x(x+1) , x2 t
, x are equivalent fractions.
Example
x+1 x2 +4x+3
Show that x+7 and x2 +10x+21
are equivalent.

Expressing a fraction in its simplest form

To simplify a fraction, factorize both the numerator and denominator and then cancel the common
factors.
Example
Simplify

6x
a) 18x2

12x3 y 2
b) 4x2 yz

4
c) 6x+4

6t3 +3t2 +6t

c) 3t2 +3t

Multiplication and Division of algebraic fractions

To multiply two algebraic fractions, multiply their numerators together and multiply their denominators
together. e.g
x p x.p xp
× = =
y q y.q yq
Division is done by taking the reciprocal(inverting) the second fraction and multiplying. e.g

x p x q xq
÷ = × =
y q y p yp

Example
Simplify:

x2 +5x+6 x2 −x x(x+3)
(a) 2x−2 × x2 +3x+2
Ans. 2(x+1)

x2 +8x+7 x+7 x(x+1)2

(b) x2 −6x
÷ x3 +x2
Ans. x−6

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Addition Subtraction of algebraic fractions

The method of adding and subtracting algebraic fractions is identical to that for numerical fractions.
Example
Express the following as a single fraction

2 4 2(3x+4)
a) x+1 + x+2 Ans. (x+2)(x+1)

x2 +3x+2 2 x2 +4x+7
b) x2 −1
− 2x+6 Ans, (x−1)(x+3)

Exercise:

1. Classify each fraction as either proper or improper

x+2
a) x2 +2

2
b) x+2

2+x
c) 2

x2 +2
d) x+2

x2 +2
e) x2 +1

2. Express each of the following in its simplest form

y 3 +2y
a) 2y−y 2

5x2 +5
b) 10x−10

t2 +7t+12
c) t2 +5t+4

x2 −1
d) x3 −2x2 +x

x2 +2x+1
e) x2 −2x+1

3. Simplify the following;

x+1 x+3
a) x+3 × x+2

4 6
b) x2 −1
÷ x+1

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2 EQUATIONS

2.1 Linear Equations

A linear equation is an equation whose degree is 1.

For example

x + 2 = 12 (linear equation)

x + 2 (linear expression)

Solving linear equations calls for collecting like terms and making the unknown variable of the
subject of the equation.
Example
Solve the following equations

(i) 3x − 1 = x − 1

y+1
(ii) 3 = 4y − 2

(iii) −2(x − 4) − (x − 1) = 2

2.2 Equation of a Line

Distance between two points of a line

The length/distance of a line joining two points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by
p
|P Q| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Proof:  
x1
If P and Q have coordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) respectively, it follows that p =  
y1
 
x2
and q =  , where p and q are position vectors of P and Q respectively.
y2

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Diagram

P⃗Q = P⃗O + OQ
⃗

⃗ + OQ
= −OP ⃗

= −p + q = q − p
     
x2 x1 x2 − x1
= − = 
y2 y1 y2 − y1

By Pythograss theorem,
p
|P Q| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Examples

1. Find the length of the line joining P (5, 1) to Q(9, −3)

√
Ans. 4 2 units

2. The points A,B and C have coordinates (2,1), (7,3) and (5,k)respectively. If AB and BC are
of the same length, find the possible values of k.

Ans. k = 8 or k = −2

Exercise

1. Find the lengths of the straight lines joining each of the following points.

a) (1, 3) and (4, 7)

b) (−7, −1) and (−1, −4)

c) (7, −3) and 1, −1

d) (1, 8) and (7, 0)

 
−1
2. Find the length of the line AB where A is a point with position vector   and B has
3
 
3
position vector  .
7

3. Three points G(4, 0), H(h, 6) and I(7, 1) are such that GH is twice as long as GI. Calculate
the two possible values of h.

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Mid-Point of a straight line

The mid-point M of a line joining A(x1 , y1 ) to B(x2 , y2 ) has coordinates

 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M ,
2 2

Proof:
If A and B have coordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) respectively.
Diagram    
x1 x2
It follows that a =   and b =  , where a and b are position vectors of A and B respectively.
y1 y2

Let M be the mid-point of AB.

⃗ = OA
OM ⃗ + AM
⃗

= OA⃗ + 1 AB ⃗
2
1
a + (−a + b)
2
1
= (a + b)
     2 
1
1 x1 x2 (x1 + x2 )
=   +   =  2 
2 y1 y2 1
2 (y1 + y2 )

Thus M has coordinates  

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
,
2 2
as required.
Example
Find the mid-point of the straight line joining A(2, 1) and D(6, 5).

Ans. (4, 3)

Exercise

1. Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the straight lines joining;

a) A(4, 2) and B(6, 10)

b) C(−5, 6) and D(3, 2)

c) E(−6, −1) and F (3, −4)

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d) G(p, q) and H(r, s)

2. The points P (4, −3), Q(−3, 4), R(−2, 7) and S are vertices of a parallelogram PQRS. Find;

a) the coordinates of the mid-point of the diagonal PR.

b) the coordinates of S.

The gradient of a straight line

The gradient, m of a line joining the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is the measure of steepness of
the line AB.

Change in y
Gradient, m = Change in x

increase in y
OR: m = increase in x in moving from one point to another.

y2 −y1
=⇒ m = x2 −x1

Example

1. Find the gradient of a line joining;

(i) R(4, 8) and S(5, −2) Ans. −10

(ii) (2, −7) and (4, 3) Ans. 5

2. Determine whether or not the points A(−4, 3), B(−1, 5) and C(8, 11) are collinear.

Trial Qns

1. If the straight line joining A(3, −5) to B(6, b) has a gradient of 4, find the value of b.

2. The three points A(a, −1), B(8, 1) and C(11, 2) are collinear, find the values of a.

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

The gradient of a line may also be called the tangent of the angle between the line and the positive
direction of the x−axis.
If two lines are parallel, they have equal gradients. i.e if two lines are parallel and have gradients
m1 and m2 , then m1 = m2 .
If two lines are perpendicular, the product of their gradients is −1. i.e if the above lines are
perpendicular, then m1 × m2 = −1.(Prove this)

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The Equation y = mx + c

Suppose the point P (x, y) is a point on a straight line which cuts the y−axis at a point A(0, c) and
has gradient m,
y−c y−c
Gradient = =
x−0 x

But gradient = m

y−c
=⇒ = m =⇒ y − c = mx
x
=⇒ y = mx + c

Examples

1. Find the gradient of the following lines and in each case find the coordinates of the point
where the line cuts the y−axis.

(i) y = 3x + 4

(ii) 2y = 3x − 4

(iii) x + 4y = 2

−2
2. Find the equation of the line of gradient 3 which passes through (−4, 1)

Ans. 2x + 3y + 5 = 0

3. Find the equation of the straight line joining the points (−5, 2) and (3, −4)

Ans. 3x + 4y = −7

Points of Intersection

If two straight lines x + y − 1 = 0 and 2x − y − 8 = 0 cut at a point P (a, b), then the coordinates
of P will satisfy the equation of each line.

=⇒ a + b − 1 = 0 =⇒ a + b = 1 . . . . . . . . . (i)

and 2a − b − 8 = 0 =⇒ 2a − b = 8 . . . . . . . . . (ii)

Equations (i) and (ii) are called simultaneous equations.

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2.3 Simultaneous Equations

There are several methods of solving simultaneous equations

- Elimination Method

- Substitution method

- Inverse Matrix method

- Row echelon method

Example
Solve the above simultaneous equation each of the above methods.

3 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Any equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 is called a quadratic equation.

3.1 Solving Quadratic Equations

There are majorly three methods of solving quadratic equations

- Factorization

- Completing squares

- Using the quadratic formula

Factorization

Up to this point we have been coming across examples that we have been solving by factorization.
More Examples:
Solve the following quadratic equations

a) 2x2 + 7x − 15 = 0
Solution:
Get two numbers such that when you multiply them you get −30 but when you add them you

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get 7, i.e 10 and −3. Replace 7x by these two numbers (combined with x) in the equation.

=⇒ 2x2 + 10x − 3x − 15 = 0

2x(x + 5) − 3(x + 5) = 0

(2x − 3)(x + 5) = 0
3
Either 2x − 3 = 0 =⇒ x =
2

Or x + 5 = 0 =⇒ x = −5

b) 4x2 − 7x + 3 = 0

c) x2 − 6x + 9 = 0

d) x2 − 2x + 1 = 0

e) 4x2 − 12x − 9 = 0

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Completing squares

When it’s difficult to factorize, the completing squares technique may be used to solve quadratic
equations.
NOTE: Before using this method, the coefficient of the quadratic term (term with a square) must
be 1.
Example
Solve 5x2 − 6x − 2 = 0

Add two both sides

5x2 − 6x = 2

Divide through by 5 (to make the coefficient of x2 = 1

6 2
x2 − x =
5 5
 2
−3 −3 9
Half the coefficient of x, i,e , square it i.e = and add it both sides.
5 5 25

6 9 2 9
x2 − x + = +
5 25 5 25
 2
3
Factorizing the left hand side we get x−
5

3 2 19
 
=⇒ x − =
5 25
  r √
3 19 19
x− =± =±
5 25 5
√
3 19
=⇒ x = ±
5 5
√
3+ 19
Either x =
5
√
3− 19
Or x =
5

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More examples
Solve the following quadratic equations by completing squares.

a) x2 − 2x + 5 = 0

b) x2 + 6x − 1 = 0

c) 10 + 20t − 5t2 = 0

d) 2x2 − 4x + 5 = 0

The Quadratic Formula

The method of completing squares when used on the general quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
will lead to the formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
known as the quadratic formula. This formula is usually the most convenient method of solving
quadratic equations that can not be factorized. It requires one to compare the given equation to
the general quadratic equation, identifying the values of a, b and c and then substituting them in
the formula. Care should be taken to identify when any of these values is a negative.
Example
Solve all the above quadratic equations using the quadratic formula.

3.2 Roots of a Quadratic Equation

Whenever we solve a quadratic equation, the answers we obtain are called the roots of that equation,
in the sense that they satisfy the equation. For example the equation 4x2 − 7x + 3 = 0 has roots
3
x1 = 4 and x2 = 1.
From the quadratic formula, we see that
Either √
−b + b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Or √
−b − b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Therefore in general, a quadratic equation has two solutions, called roots.

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Nature of the roots of the Quadratic Equation

The term b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant and determines the nature of the roots.

1. If b2 − 4ac > 0
√
A real value of b2 − 4ac can be found and the equation will have two real and distinct
(different) roots.

2. If b2 − 4ac = 0
−b
The equation is satisfied by only one value of x i.e x = 2a and the quadratic equation has
two identical/repeated/equal roots.

3. If b2 − 4ac < 0
The equation has no real roots.

Example 1
Determine the nature of roots of the following equations.

(a) 4x2 − 7x + 3 = 0

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Comparing with ax2 + bx + c = 0, a = 4, b = −7, c = 3

From b2 − 4ac,

=⇒ (−7)2 − 4 × 4 × 3

= 49 − 48

=1>0

Since b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation has real and distinct roots.

(b) x2 + ax + a2 = 0

From b2 − 4ac,

=⇒ (a)2 − 4 × 1 × a2

= a2 − 4a2

= −3a2

Since a2 is positive irrespective of the value of a, − 3a2 < 0. Therefore the equation has no
real roots.

(c) x2 − px − q 2 = 0

From b2 − 4ac,

=⇒ (−p)2 − 4 × 1 × (−q 2 )

= p2 + 4q 2

p2 +4q 2 > 0 irrespective of the values of p and q. Hence the equation has two real and distinct
roots.

(d) x2 − 6x + 9 = 0

From b2 − 4ac,

=⇒ (−6)2 − 4 × 1 × (9)

= 36 − 36 = 0

Therefore the equation has repeated roots.

Example 2
Find the value(s) of k for which the following equations have equal roots.

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(i) 3x2 + kx + 12 = 0
For a quadratic equation to have equal roots, b2 − 4ac = 0 i.e b2 = 4ac

(k)2 = 4(3)(12)

=⇒ k 2 = 144

k = ±12

=⇒ k = 12, k = −12

25
(ii) x2 − 5x + k = 0 Ans. 4

Example 3.
Prove that kx2 + 2x − (k − 2) = 0 has real and distinct roots for any values of k.
Solution
Comparing with the general equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a = k, b = 2, c = −(k − 2)

From b2 − 4ac

(2)2 − 4 × k × [−(k − 2)]

= 4 + 4k(k − 2)

= 4 + 4k 2 − 8k

= 4k 2 − 8k + 4

= 4(k 2 − 2k + 1)

= 4(k − 1)2 > 0

Since b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation has real and distinct roots.
Example 4
Find the range of values k can take for 9x2 + kx + 4 = 0 to have two real distinct roots.
Example 5
x2 −x+1
Find the value(s) of k for which the equation x−1 = k has repeated roots. What are the roots?

3.3 The quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

Using the method of completing squares, the expression ax2 + bx + c can be reduced to the form;

(a) a(x − p)2 + q

(b) q − a(x − p)2

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Maximum and Minimum values of a quadratic function

(i) Let y = a(x − p)2 + q

Since (x − p)2 is never a negative, the least value of y occurs when (x − p)2 = 0 and the
minimum value is q.

(ii) For y = q − a(x − p)2 , since (x − p)2 is never a negative, the maximum value of y occurs
when (x − p)2 = 0 and is q.

Examples
Find the greatest or least values of the following functions.

(a) x2 − 2x + 5

(b) 5 − 4x − x2

(c) x2 − 3x + 5

(d) 2x2 − 4x + 5

(e) 7 + x − x2

(f) x2 − 2

(g) 2x − x2

Solution:
(i)

By completing squares

x2 − 2x + 5 = (x2 − 2x + 1) + (5 − 1)

= x2 − 2x + 1 + 4

= (x − 1)2 + 4

y = 4 + (x − 1)2

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 HEC 1:1

The least value of y is 4 and occurs when (x − 1)2 = 0

(ii)

By first making sure the coefficient of x2 is 1

x2 + 4x − 5

= (x2 + 4x + 2) − 5 − 2

(x + 2)2 − 9

Multiplying through by a negative to take it to the original form

y = 9 − (x + 2)2

The greatest value is y = 9 and it occurs when (x + 2)2 = 0

3.4 Cubic Equations

These are equations with degree 3.

A cubic equation has a general form;

ax2 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

Solving Cubic Equations

A cubic equation can be solved by the following methods.

ˆ By factors

ˆ Using graphical method

Using factors
Example
Solve the equation x3 + 2x2 − 37x + 52 = 0

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Solution
We aim at finding one of the roots by inspection and the proceed as follows:

Let P (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 37x + 52

By Inspection, P (4) = 0

=⇒ x = 4 is a root. Hence x − 4 is a factor of P (x).

Hence P (x) can be written as;

P (x) = (x − 4)(x2 + αx + β)

=⇒ x3 + 2x2 − 37x + 52 = x3 + (α − 4)x2 + (β − 4α)x − 4β

By comparing coefficients

−4β = 52 =⇒ β = −13

α−4=2 =⇒ α = 6

∴ P (x) = (x − 4)(x2 + 6x − 13) = 0

Either (x − 4) = 0 =⇒ x = 2

Or (x2 + 6x − 13) = 0

Solving the quadratic equation : (x2 + 6x − 13) = 0

p √
−6 ± 36 − 4(1)(−13) −6 ± 2 22
x= =
2 2
√
Either x = −3 + 22
√
Or x = −3 − 22

Alternatively;
Using long division.
(To be illustrated in class)

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4 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

4.1 Exponential Function

The exponential function is one of the most important functions in Mathematics. To form the
exponential function, we let the independent variable be the exponent.
For example; f (x) = 2x or y = 2x

As illustrated above, the exponential function increases rapidly.

1 x


An exponential function can describe growth or decay. e.g y = 2 is an example of exponential
decay. It gets rapidly small as x increases.

The above functions differ only by the change in the base of the exponentiation i.e 2 and 12 .
Let the base be b
=⇒ y = bx

We can also change the exponential by including a constant in the exponent. i.e y = bkx
Letting b = e, we can write the exponential function as;

y = ekx

The usual laws of indices apply to the exponential function.

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4.2 Logarithms

A logarithm of a number, m to base a is the power to which a must be raised to give m i.e

logm
a = x =⇒ m = a
x

The following statements are equivalent

16 = 24 and log16
2 =4

log27 3
3 = 3 and 3 = 27

Laws of Logarithms

1. logxa + logya = logxy

a
 
x

2. logxa − logya = loga

y

m
3. logxa = m logxa =⇒ log1a = 0

logbc
4. logba = loga =⇒ logba = 1
loga
c b

Example 1
Prove the laws of logarithms.
Solution
(1)

Supoose x = an and y = am

Then logxa = n and logya = m

From the first law of indices, xy = an+m

Introducing logarithms to base a on both sides

logxy
a =n+m

But n = logxa and m = logya

=⇒ logxy x y
a = loga + loga

Prove the other laws

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 HEC 1:1

Solving Equations with Logarithms

Example 2
Solve logx5 +2 log5x = 3
Solution
1
By the change of base law, log5x =
logx5

2
∴ logx5 + =3
logx5

Let logx5 = m

2
m+ =3
m

m2 + 2 = 3m

m2 − 3m + 2 = 0

(m − 1)(m − 2) = 0

Either m = 1 or m = 2

But m = logx5

∴ logx5 = 1 =⇒ x = 51 = 5

logx5 = 2 =⇒ x = 52 = 25
Example 3
Solve the following

(i) logx2 − log8x = 2

(ii) 3 logx2 − log2x = 2

(iii) ln(6x − 5) = 3
Solution
loge(6x−5) = 3

=⇒ 6x − 5 = e3
e3 + 5
x=
6

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Example 4
Prove that
logx3
logx6 =
1 + log23
Solution
logx3
logx6 =
log63

logx3
=
log3 + log23
3

logx3
=
1 + log23

Example 5
q
Given that logx3 = p and logx18 = q, prove that log36 = p−q

Example 6
If logm m
4 = a, log12 = b, prove that
a+b
log48
3 =
a−b
Example 6
Prove that logx8 = 2
3 logx4 . Hence find log68 if log34 = 0.7925
Example 6
Solve the following simultaneous equations

6 logx3 +6 logy27 = 7

4 logx9 +4 logy3 = 9

Application to Indices

Example 7
Solve the following equation: 52x − 5x+1 + 4 = 0

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 HEC 1:1

Solution

(5x )2 − 5x .51 + 4 = 0

Let 5x = y

y 2 − 5y + 4 = 0

(y − 1)(y − 4) = 0

Either y = 1 or y = 4

=⇒ 5x = 1 and 5x = 4

For 5x = 1 =⇒ 5x = 50 =⇒ x = 0

For 5x = 4,

Introducing log to base 10 both sides

x
log510 = log410
log410
x= = 0.86135
log510

Example 8
Solve the following equations

a) 22x+8 − 32(2x ) + 1 = 0

b) 9x − 12(3x ) + 27 = 0

c) 4x + 2 = 3 × 2x

d) 9x − 3x+1 = 10

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5 DIFFERENTIATION

Suppose we have a smooth function f (x) which is represented graphically by the curve y = f (x).
If P is the point (x, y) on a curve and Q is another point and if the increase in x in moving from
P to Q is δx, then the corresponding increase in y is δy. Thus Q is the point (x + δx, y + δy).

δy δy
The gradient of the chord P Q is δx and the gradient of the curve at P is the limit of δx as δx → 0.
δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
=
δx (x + δx) − x

f (x + δx) − f (x)
=
δx

f (x + δx) − f (x)
The gradient of the tangent at P, f ′ (x) = lim
δx→0 δx
Example 1
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2
Solution
dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
= f ′ (x) = lim
dx δx→0 δx

f (x) = x2

f (x + δx) = (x + δx)2

= x2 + 2xδx + δx2
 2
x + 2xδx + δx2 − x2

′
=⇒ f (x) = lim
δx→0 δx

= lim (2x + δx)

δx→0

= 2x

dy
=⇒ = 2x
dx

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Example 2
If f (x) = 4x + 2x2 , find f ′ (x) from first principles and hence calculate f ′ (2) and f ′ (−2).

dy
If y = xn , then dx = f ′ (x) = nxn−1 .

dy d
e.g; If y = x4 , dx = 4
dx (x ) = 4x3
Example
Differentiate the following functions

(a) x3 + 2x2 + 3x

(b) 4x4 − 3x2 + 5

(c) ax2 + bx + c

d
NOTE: The notation dx indicates that we are differentiating with respect to x.
d 2 d 3
Therefore dx (y ) = 0 while dt (2t ) = 6t2 .
Example
Find the gradient of the curve y = x(2 − x) at a point x = 2

y = 2x − x2
dy
= 2 − 2x
dx
dy
= 2 − 2(2) = −2
dx (x=2)

Example
Find the gradients of the curves at the given points

(a) y = (4x − 5)2 ( 12 , 9)

(b) y = 3x3 − 2x2 (−2, −24)

(c) y = (x + 2)(x − 4) (3, −5)

5.1 Tangents and Normals to curves

A tangent is a line which touches a curve at a point. A normal is a line which is perpendicular to
the tangent of the curve or the curve itself.

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 HEC 1:1

ˆ If m1 is the gradient of the curve and m2 is the gradient of the tangent to the curve, then
m1 = m2

ˆ If m1 is the gradient of the curve and m2 is the gradient of the normal to the curve, then
m1 × m2 = −1.

Example
Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve at the given point;

(a) y = x2 (2, 4)
Solution

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 HEC 1:1

Let the gradient of the curve be m1 and gradient of the tangent be m2

dy
= 2x
dx
dy
=4
dx (x=2)
=⇒ the gradient of the curve, m1 = 4

∴ the gradient of the tangent, m2 = 4

Equation of the tangent

y−4
=4
x−2
=⇒ y = 4x − 4

For the normal, let its gradient be m3

m3 × m1 = −1
−1
∴ m3 =
4
Equation of the normal
y−4 −1
=
x−2 4
=⇒ 4y = −x + 18
1 9
Or y = − x +
4 2

(b) y = 3x2 + 2 (4, 50)

(c) y = 3x2 − x + 1 (0, 1)

(d) 3 − 4x − 2x2 (0, 1)

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Example
Find the coordinates of the point on y = x2 at which the gradient is 2. Hence find the equation of
the tangent to the curve y = x2 at that point.

Example
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x2 + 3x − 2 at the point where it cuts the x−axis

Example
Find the value of k for which y = 2x + k is a normal to the curve y = 2x2 − 3.
Example
Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y = (2x − 1)(x + 1) at the points where the curve
cuts the x−axis. Find the point of intersection of these tangents.

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 HEC 1:1

Example
Find the coordinates of the point on y = x2 − 5 at which the gradient is 3. Hence find the value of
c for which the line y = 3x + c is a tangent to y = x2 − 5.
Example
A tangent to the parabola x2 = 16y is perpendicular to the line x − 2y − 3 = 0. Find the equation
of this tangent and the coordinates of its point of contact.

5.2 Higher Derivatives

We can repeat the differentiation process to find the differential coefficient of the differential
coefficient of y with respect to x. This is called the second differential of y with respect to x
d2 y
and is written as dx2
. Or if y = f (x), it may be written as f ′′ (x).
Thus if

y = 3x3 − 6x + 4
dy
= 9x2 − 6
dx
d2 y
and = 18x.
dx2

5.3 Maxima and Minima

To determine the maximum, minimum and inflexion points of a curve, we proceed as follows,

dy
(a) Find the gradient dx of the curve.

dy
(b) Find the value(s) of x for which dx = 0. These values are called stationary/turning points.

dy
(c) Consider the sign of dx on either side of these points.

(d) Find the value(s) of y corresponding to the value(s) of x above.

Using the second derivative method.

In order to distinguish the turning points, we may use use the second derivative method.

d2 y
(a) If dx2
< 0 at (x, y), then (x, y) is a maximum point.

d2 y
(a) If dx2
> 0 at (x, y), then (x, y) is a minimum point.

d2 y
(a) If dx2
= 0 at (x, y), then (x, y) is a point of inflexion.

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 HEC 1:1

Example 1
Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the curve y = 2x3 − 24x and find whether they are
maximum, minimum or inflexion points.
Solution

y = 2x3 − 24x
dy
= 6x2 − 24
dx

dy
For stationary points, =0
dx

=⇒ 6x2 − 24 = 0

(x − 2)(x + 2) = 0

Either x = 2 or x = −2

W hen x = 2, y = −32

∴ (2, −32) is a stationary point

W hen x = −2, y = 32

∴ (−2, 32) is a stationary point

For (2, −32)

x left 2 right
dy
Sign dx −ve +ve

∴ (2, −32) is a minima

For (−2, 32)

x left 2 right
dy
Sign dx +ve −ve

∴ (2, −32) is a maxima

Second derivative method(To be illustrated in class)

Example 2
Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the curve y = x4 + 2x3 and distinguish between
them. Hence sketch the curve.
Example 3
Find the coordinates of any stationary points on the curve y = 5x6 − 12x5 and distinguish between

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 HEC 1:1

them. Hence sketch the curve.

Example 4
Investigate the nature of the stationary points of the following curves.

(a) y = x(x2 − 12)

(b) y − x2 (3 − x)

(c) y = x(x − 8)(x − 15)

(d) y = x3 (2 − x)

(e) y = 3x4 + 16x3 + 24x + 3

Example 5
If p = 4s2 − 10s + 7, find the minimum value of p and the value of s which gives the minimum value
of p.

p = 4s2 − 10s + 7
dp
= 8s − 10
ds
dp 5
= 0 =⇒ 8s − 10 = 0 =⇒ s =
ds  4
5 3 5 3
When s = , p = =⇒ ,
4 4 4 4
d2 p
=8
ds2
d2 p
=8>0
ds2 [s= 54 ]
 
5 3
Hence , is a minimum.
4 4
3 5
∴ The minimum value of p is and the value of s which gives this minimum value is .
4 4
Example 6
The length of a rectangular block is twice its width and the total surface area is 108cm2 . Show
that if the width of the block is xcm, the volume is 43 x(27 − x2 ). Find the dimensions of the block
if the volume is maximum.

Example 7
A right circular cone of radius r has a maximum volume. The sum of its vertical height h and
circumference of its base is 15cm. If the radius varies, show that the maximum volume of the cone
125 3
is 3π cm .

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 HEC 1:1

5.4 Small changes

 
dy δy
We defined dx as limδx→0 δx . Thus if δx is small, the

δy dy dy
≈ Or δy ≈ δx
δx dx dx

Thus if y is given as a function of x, we can determine the change in y corresponding to some small
change in x.
Example 1
If y = 2x2 − 3x, find he approximate change in y when x increases from 6 to 6.02.

y = 2x2 − 3x
dy
= 4x − 3
dx
dy
Using δy ≈ δx
dx
δy ≈ (4x − 3)δx

If x = 6 and δx = 0.02,

δy ≈ (24 − 3)(0.02) = 0.42

Example 2.
In calculating the area of a circle it is known that an error an error of 3% could have been made in
the measurement of the radius. Find the possible percentage error in the area.
δr 3
A = πr2 , = = 0.03
r 100
dA
= 2πr
dr
dA
δA ≈ δr
dr
≈ 2πrδr

error
P ercentage error = × 100
exact value

2πrδr
= × 100
πr2

= 6%.

Example 3
√
Find the approximate value of 16.08

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 HEC 1:1

Solution
√
y= x
√
y + δx = x + δx

x = 16, δx = 0.08
dy 1 1
= x−1/2 = √
dx 2 2 x

δy dy
≈ δx
δx dx

1
δy ≈ √ × 0.08 = 0.01
2 16

But y = 4 when x = 16
√
From y + δx = x + δx
√
4 + 0.01 = 16 + 0.08
√
4.01 = 16.08
√
∴ 16.08 = 4.01

Exercise
√
1. Use small changes to estimate 101
√
3
2. Find the approximate value of 1003

3. Use small changes to find the cube root of 1005.

q
l
4. The period T of a simple pendulum is calculated from the formula T = 2π g where l is the
length of the pendulum and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Find the percentage change
in the period caused by lengthening the pendulum by 2%.

5.5 Techniques of Differentiation

So far we have found out that;

1. The derivative of a sum is a sum of the derivatives.

2. The derivative of a difference is the difference of the derivatives.

However,

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 HEC 1:1

d
1. The derivative of the product is not equal to the product of the derivatives i.e dx (f (x)g(x)) ̸=
f ′ (x)g ′ (x)

f ′ (x)
 
d f (x)
2. The derivative of a quotient is not the quotient of the derivatives i.e dx g(x) ̸= g ′ (x)

3. The derivative of the composition of f (x) is not equal to the composition of the derivatives.

The chain rule, product rule and quotient rules are used when differentiating the above three
situations.

Chain Rule
dy dy dt
= ×
dx dt dx
Example
Given that y = (x2 + 7)100
Solution

Let t = x2 + 7

=⇒ y = t100
dt
= 2x
dx
dy
= 100t99
dt
dy dy dt
= ×
dx dt dx
= 100t99 × 2x

= 200xt99

But t = x2 + 7
dy
=⇒ = 200x(x2 + 7)99
dx
Example 2
dy
Find dx in terms of t in the following;

a) x = t2 , y = 4t − 1

b) y = 3t2 + 2t, x = 1 − 2t

c) x = 1t , y = t2 + 4t − 3

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Product Rule

Quotient Rule

Consider a function y = uv , where u and v are functions of x.

Quotient rule rule states that:
dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v

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 HEC 1:1

(Proof to be done in class).

Example
Differentiate the following with respect to x.

x2 +1
(a) x2 −1

(b) √ x
x2 +1
q
(x+2)3
(c) x−1
√
(1− x)2
(d) √
x2 −1

Implicit functions

Example 1
dy
Find dx when x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 8.
Solution
d 2 d
(x + 2xy + y 2 ) = (8)
dx dx
2xdx + 2(xdy + ydx) + 2ydy = 0
dy dy
2x + 2x + 2y + 2y =0
dx dx

dy
(2x + 2y) = −2x − 2y
dx

dy −2(x + y)
=
dx 2(x + y)

dy
= −1
dx
Example 2
dy
If x2 − 3xy + y 2 − 2y + 4x = 0, find dx .

Example 3
dy
If x2 + 3xy − y 2 = 0, find dx at (1, 1). Find the equation of the tangent and normal at (1, 1).
Example 4
Find the x−stationary points of the curve x3 − y 3 − 4x2 + 3y = 11x + 4

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 HEC 1:1

Application of derivatives

Rates of change.
Example 1
A side of a cube is increasing at a rate of 6cm/s. Find the rate of increase in the volume of the
cube when the length of the cube is 8cm.
Solution Let the side of the cube be x.
dx
= 6cm/s
dt

V = x3
dV
= 3x2
dx

dV dV dx
= ×
dt dx dt
= 3x2 × 6
dV
= 18x2
dt
dV
When x = 8, = 18(8)2
dt
= 1152cm3 /s

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 HEC 1:1

Example 2
The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 2cm3 s−1 . Find the rate of change of the side of the
base when the length is 3cm.
Solution
Let the side of the cube be l.

V = l3
dV
= 2cm3 s−1
dt

dV
= 3l2
dl

dV dV dl
= ×
dt dl dt

dl
2 = 3l2 ×
dt

dl 2
= 2
dt 3l

dl 2
= cms−1
dt (l=3) 27

Example 3
The area of a circle is increasing at a rate of 3cm2 /s. Find the rate of change of the circumference
when its radius is 2cm. (Ans. 1.5cm/s)
Example 4
A spherical balloon is inflated such that the rate at which its radius is increasing is 0.5cm/s. Find
the rate at which;

(a) the volume is increasing at the instant when r = 5.0cm.

(b) the surface area is increasing when r = 8.5cm.

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 HEC 1:1

6 FUNCTIONS

Any relationship which takes one element of one set and assigns to it one and only one element of
the second set is said to be a function. The first set is called the domain of the function and the
second set is is called the co-domain. Each element of the first set is mapped onto its image in
the second set. The set of all images is the subset of the co-domain and is called the range.

Note that a function can map more than one element of the domain onto the same element of
the range. Such functions are said to be many-to-one. Functions for which each element of the
domain is mapped onto a different element of the range are said to be one-to-one.

Relationships which are one-to-many can occur but from the definition, they are not functions.

If every element of the co-domain is the image of atleast one element of the domain, then the
function maps the the domain onto the co-domain. Otherwise the function maps the domain into
the co-domain.
Example
Draw arrow diagrams for the functions

(a) f : x → 2x

(b) g : x → 3x + 1

(c) h : x → x2

for the domain {−1, 0, 1} and state the range of each function.
Example
The functions f and g are given as f (x) = x + 3 for x ≥ 0 and g(x) = x2 for −2 ≤ x ≤ 3. State
the range of each of these functions.
Solution:

ˆ If x ≥ 0, x + 3 ≥ 3. Thus the range of f is f (x) ≥ 3.

ˆ If −2 ≤ x ≤ 3, then 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 9. Thus the range of g is 0 ≤ g(x) ≤ 9.

6.1 Composite functions

Consider functions f (x) and g(x). The combined or composite functions are written as f g(x) or f g
and gf (x) or gf . For gf (x), notice that the function f is performed first and so is written nearer

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 HEC 1:1

to the variable x.
Example
If f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2 − 1, find the range of the following functions for the the domain
{−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}.

(a) f (x)

{−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} →f {−4, −2, 0, 2, 4}

Range : {−4, −2, 0, 2, 4}

(b) g(x)

{−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} →g {3, 0, −1}

Range : {−1, 0, 3}

(c) f g(x)

{−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} →g {3, 0, −1} →f {6, 0, −2}

Range : {−2, 0, 6}

(d) gf (x)

Example
If f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 3x + 1, find f g(2) and express gf (x) as a single function h(x).

6.2 Inverse functions

Find the inverses of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = 2x + 3

(b) g(x) = 2 − x

1
(c) h(x) = x −3

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7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

7.1 Measures of central tendency

These are values of the distribution that tend to locate the middle values of the data. They include:
Mean, Median and Mode.

7.2 Types of data

ˆ Ungrouped data

ˆ Grouped data

Ungrouped Data
P
x
Mean, X̄ = n where n is the number of observations.
NOTE:
P
d
1. If a working mean/Assumed mean, A is given, the true mean is given by X̄ = A + n , where
d = x − A.

2. If the scores are repeated in the data, then we form the frequency distribution and hence;
P P
fx fd
Mean X̄ = P Or X̄ = A + P
f f

Mode:
This is the score that appears most in the data.

Median: The is the middle score after arranging the data in either ascending or descending order.
Example 1
Given the data below
2, 7, 6, 1, 2, 1, 4, 3 and 2 cm.
Find the;

(i) the mean height.

(ii) mode.

(iii) median.

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Solution

(i)
P
x
Mean, X̄ =
n

2+7+6+1+2+1+4+3+2
=
9

28
= = 3.1111 cm.
9

(ii) Mode= 2 cm

(iii)

Arranging in ascending order

1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7

Median = 2 cm

Example 2
For the above data, calculate the mean using an assumed mean of 4 cm.

x d=x-A
2 -2
7 3
6 2
1 -3
2 -2
1 -3
4 0
3 -1
2 -2
P
d = −8

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P
d
Mean, X̄ = A +
n

−8
=4+
9

= 3.1111 cm.
Example 3.
The values below are ages in years for 30 students.

19 12 12 19 18 19
13 19 16 22 20 20
23 15 19 22 16 20
14 20 17 16 19 17
19 17 22 22 19 20

(a) Find the mean age

(b) Find the mean age, using a working mean of 18 years.

Solution

Age(x) Tally Frequency(f ) fx d=x−A fd

12 // 2 24 −6 −12
13 / 1 13 −5 −5
14 / 1 14 −4 −4
15 / 1 15 −3 −3
16 /// 3 48 −2 −6
17 /// 3 51 −1 −3
18 / 1 18 0 0
19 /////// 8 152 1 8
20 ///// 5 100 2 10
21 0 0 3 0
22 //// 4 88 4 16
23 / 1 23 5 5
P P P
f = 30 f x = 546 fd = 6

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(a)
P
fx
X̄ = P
f

546
= = 18.2 yrs
30
(b)
P
fd
X̄ = A + P
f

6
= 18 +
30

= 18 + 0.2 = 18.2 yrs

Example
Below are the heights in cm for 50 seedlings

Height(cm) 1 2 3 4 5
No. of seedlings p 11 q 8 9
If the mean is 2.7 cm, calculate the values of p and q.

7.3 Measures of Dispersion

These are the Variance and the Standard Deviation.

P 2  P 2
ˆ Variance, V ar(X) = nx − nx

(x−x̄)2
P
Or: V ar(X) = n , where x̄ is the mean.
NOTE:

1. If the scores are repeated in the data, then we form the frequency distribution and hence;
P 2  P 2
fx fx
V ar(X) = P − P
f f
2. If an assumed mean, A is given,
 P 2
d2
P
d
V ar(X) = −
n n
OR: P 2  P 2
fd fd
V ar(X) = P − P
f f
where d = x − A

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ˆ Standard deviation, σ =
p
V ar(X)

Grouped Data

Example 1
The frequency distribution table shows marks scored by 100 students in a test.

Marks 30 − 39 40 − 49 50 − 59 60 − 69 70 − 79 80 − 89
No. of students 10 14 26 20 18 12
Use the data above to calculate the;

(i) mean mark

(ii) variance

(iii) standard deviation

(iv) modal mark

(v) median mark

(b) Draw a histogram and use it to find the modal mark

(c) Draw a cumulative frequency curve and use it to estimate;

ˆ median

ˆ semi-interquartile range

(d) Calculate the semi-interquartile range.

Solution

Frequency distribution table

Marks f x fx x2 f x2 Class boundaries CF
30 − 39 10 34.5 345 1190.25 11902.5 29.5 − 39.5 10
40 − 49 14 44.5 623 1980.25 27723.5 39.5 − 49.5 24
50 − 59 26 54.5 1417 2970.25 77226.5 49.5 − 59.5 50
60 − 69 20 64.5 1290 4160.25 83205 59.5 − 69.5 70
70 − 79 18 74.5 1341 5550.25 99904.5 69.5 − 79.5 88
80 − 89 12 84.5 1014 7140.25 85683 79.5 − 89.5 100
f x2 = 385645
P P P
f = 100 f x = 6030

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(i) Mean, P
fx 6030
x̄ = P = = 60.3 marks
f 100

(ii) variance,
P 2  P 2
6030 2
 
fx fx 385645
V ar(X) = P − P = − = 220.36 marks
f f 100 100

(iii) standard deviation,

p √
σ= V ar(X) = 220.36 = 14.8443 marks

(iv) Mode  
d1
= lb + ×i
d1 + d2
where;

ˆ d1 = frequency of modal class-frequency of pre-modal class

ˆ d2 = frequency of modal class-frequency of post-modal class

ˆ i = class interval of the modal class

ˆ lb = lower class boundary of the modal class

mode  
12
= 49.5 + × 10 = 56.1667 marks
12 + 6

(v) median !
N
2 − CFb
= lb + ×i
fm
where;

ˆ N = total frequency

ˆ CFb = cumulative frequency before the median class

ˆ i = class interval of the median class

ˆ lb = lower class boundary of the median class

ˆ fm = frequency of the median class

median  
50 − 24
= 49.5 + × 10 = 59.5 marks
26

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NOTE: A cumulative frequency curve is drawn from the cumulative frequencies plotted against
the upper class boundaries. It is also called an Ogive and it is used to estimate the quartiles,
percentiles and denciles.
Example 2
Given the information in the table below;

Classes f
1.0 − 1.9 3
2.0 − 2.9 7
3.0 − 3.9 8
4.0 − 4.9 2
5.0 − 5.9 15
6.0 − 6.9 5
7.0 − 7.9 6
8.0 − 8.9 4

Find the;

(a) mean value using the assumed mean of 4.45.

(b) standard deviation

Example 3
The table below shows weights of patients who visited a a certain health unit.

Weght (kg) No. of patients

30-39 2
40-49 15
50-59 10
60-69 11
70-79 28
80-89 30
90-99 4

(a) Calculate the mean and median weights

(b) Draw a cumulative frequency curve and use it to determine;

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(i) the semi-interquartile range.

(ii) find the number of patients with a weight above 72kg

Example 4
The table below shows the distribution of marks of students in a Math Exam

Score Frequency
20 − 30 4
30 − 45 3
45 − 50 9
50 − 65 21
65 − 75 3
75 − 80 5
80 − 100 14

(a) Draw a histogram and use it to estimate to estimate the modal mark.

(b) Calculate the;

(i) mean score

(ii) standard deviation

(iii) mode

(iv) median

(c) Draw an Ogive and use it to estimate the median and the inter-quartile range.

Example 5
The data below shows the weights in kg of 50 cattle

60 81 76 68 84 112 76 102 86 67
65 98 107 72 99 87 92 110 76 77
94 102 87 86 73 118 98 120 62 87
65 92 104 116 91 93 78 112 102 92
80 111 73 120 106 123 94 109 80 96

(a) Form a grouped frequency distribution table for the data with classes of equal intervals
starting with a class 60 − 69.

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(b) Use your table to find;

(i) mean weight

(ii) median weight

(iii) modal weight

(c) Draw a histogram of the data and use it to estimate the modal weight.

8 INTEGRATION

9 FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS

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