MANUAL OF

PHYSICS I
SESSION 1:

Presentation, Evaluation Criteria and Rules

 SESSION 2:

I MEASURES AND UNITS

1.1 Distance, Time and Mass

UNIT I: Measurements and Units

Directions: Obtain the results of the exercises in units of the

international system (SI) unless the exercise indicates otherwise.

Perform complete procedures, including unit conversion.

1.1.- Distance, Time and Mass

The language of physics and technology is universal. Facts and laws

must be expressed in a precise and consistent manner, so that a given
term means exactly the same thing to everyone.

The magnitude of a physical quantity is defined with a number and a

unit of measurement. Both are necessary because, by themselves, the
number or the unit is meaningless. With the exception of pure numbers
and fractions, the unit is required to be indicated along with the number
when expressing the magnitude of any quantity.

International System (SI):

Over time, several systems of units have been developed that group
magnitudes according to the needs of man in different regions, until in
1960 the International Committee of Weights and Measures established
seven basic quantities, and assigned official basic units to them. each
quantity integrating the International System (SI) of units.
A summary of these quantities, with their basic units and the symbols to
represent them, is presented in table 1.

Magnitude Llii klad Symbol

O basic units
R
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second yes
Electric current ampere TO
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candle CD
Amount of substance mole mole

U ii ity is comp J ementary

Plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian Mr
Table 1. Basic Units of the International System
Scientific notation:

Scientific notation is a mathematical resource used to simplify

calculations and concisely represent very large or very small numbers.
To do this , powers of ten are used.

To express a number in scientific notation we identify the decimal point

(if there is one) and move it to the left if the number to be converted is
greater than 10, however, if the number is less than 1 (starts with zero
comma) we move it to the right as many places as necessary so that (in
both cases) the only digit to the left of the comma is between 1 and 9
and all other digits appear to the right of the decimal point.

Note that the number of places we move the comma (either to the left or
right) tells us the exponent that the base 10 will have (if we move the
comma two places the exponent is 2, if we do it by 3 places, the
exponent is 3, and so on).

Whenever we move the decimal point to the left the exponent of the
power of 10 will be positive.
Whenever we move the decimal point to the right the exponent of
the power of 10 will be negative.

Examples:

15000000 7 places were traveled to the left, therefore this number is

represented as: 1.5x10 7

0.00006 6 places were moved to the right, therefore this number is

represented as: 6x10 -5

When writing a number in scientific notation, we will use a power of ten

that multiplies a number always between 1 and 10. That is, the number
can only have one figure in front of the decimal point.

Example: 5.7x10 3

To develop a quantity in scientific notation, the process is carried out in

reverse.

Example: 4.3x10 4 = 43000

Example: 2.3x10 -4 =0.00023

In these cases, a zero less than the exponent is added to represent the
developed quantity.

Decimal multiples and submultiples of measurement units:

Using multiples and submultiples of the units allows you to handle very
large or very small quantities in a simpler way.
Prefix Worth Symbol

yotta 1 OR 24
zetta 1 or 31 Z
exa 1018 AND
peta 1 o15 Q
tera 1 o12 T
jig -1 o® g
mega 106 M
kilo 103 k
2
hecto 1 or h

said 1 or gives

1
I said 1 or d
centi 1 or 2 c
milli 10-3 m
micro 10- //
1st
elder brother n
beak -io ” Q
fertile 10-15 F
atto 1 or 1S to
zepto 1 or 21 Z
yocto -io 24 and

Table 2. Multiples and submultiples

In mechanics, the three fundamental quantities are distance, mass and

time. All quantities in mechanics are expressed in terms of these three
units.
Distance :

At first, man chose lengths related to his body as units of distance. The
foot has been used as a unit of length by almost all cultures at one time
or another, although naturally the standard foot ended up being different
in different regions. In their marches the Roman legions counted 2,000
steps, from which the mile was derived.

Already in ancient Babylon there was a system of length measurements

that adopted the finger as its basic unit. In addition, the foot was used,
which corresponded to 20 fingers and the elbow, 30 fingers; The perch
consisted of 12 cubits and the surveyor's rope, 120 cubits; The league
was equivalent to 180 cords. These units have been normalized with
respect to the units in current use; For example, the “finger” is
equivalent to 1.65 centimeters.
It is very common for us to wonder how big things are or how far away
they are; That is, we are interested in sizes and distances or lengths,
therefore, distance can be defined as a magnitude that measures the
relationship of distance or closeness between two bodies, objects or
individuals. For Euclidean geometry, the distance between two points is
the length of the shortest path between them.

The basic unit of length currently accepted by the entire scientific world
is the meter.

The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299792458 of a second.
 Table 3. Length equivalence table

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Example

tera 1 1000 000000000 = 1012 1 terameter (Tm)
jig g 1000 000 000 = 109 1 gigameter (Gm)
mega M 1 000 000 =10* 1 megameter (Mm)
kilo k 1 000 = 103 1 kilometer (km)
centi c 0.01 = 10-2 1 centimeter (cm)*
milli m 0.001 = 10- 1 millimeter (mm)
micro or 0.000001 = 10-6 1 micrometer (gm)
elder brother n 0.000000001 = 10-9 1 nanometer (nm)
TO 0.0000000001 = 10-I0 1 angstrom (A)*
—
beak Q 0.000000000001 = 10-12 1 picometer (pm)
Table 4. Multiples and submultiples of the meter

Time:

Time has two aspects. For civil and some scientific uses, we want to
know the time of day so we can sequence events. In much scientific
work, we want to know how long an event lasts. Therefore, any time
standard must be able to answer the questions When did it happen?
and what is its duration?

Any phenomenon that repeats itself is a possible time standard. The

rotation of the Earth, which determines the length of the day; A quartz
watch, in which a quartz ring is vibrated continuously, can be calibrated
against the Earth's rotation by astronomical observations and used to
measure time intervals. However, calibration cannot be performed with
the precision required by modern scientific and engineering technology.

Therefore, time is defined as a certain period during which an action is

performed or an event takes place.
To meet the need for a better time standard, atomic clocks have been
created.

The XIII General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1967

adopted a standard based on the cesium clock:

One second is the time taken by 9192631770 oscillations of light (of a

specific wavelength) emitted by a cesium-133 atom.

Atomic clocks are so consistent that, in principle, two cesium clocks had
to run for 6000 years before their readings varied by 1 s.

The basic unit of time, used throughout the scientific world, is the
second.
 Unit Equivalence
1 hour 60 minutes = 3,600 seconds
1 day 24 hours
1 week 7 days
1 month 30 days
1 year 365 days = 52 weeks
1 lustrum 5 years
1 decade 10 years
1 century 100 years
1 1000 years
Table 5. Time Units

Submultiples Multiples
Worth Symbol Name Worth Symbol Name
10-1s ds you say efundo 101s you give decasecond
10-2s is centisecond 102 8 hs hectosecond
10-3s ms millisecond 103S
ks kilosecond
10-s ps microsecond 10® S Ms. megasecond
10-3s UI nanosecond 10s
5 Gs gigasecond
10' the 5 ps picosecond 1012s ts 1 second era

10-15s fs fe mto second io 15 8 Rs petasecond

10-18 5 ace att ob 1018s Is exasecond
10-21S zs ze ptosegu nd □ 1021 S Zs zettasecond

10-24S ys yoctosecond 1024 9 ys yottasecond

Table 6. Multiples of the second (s)

Mass:

Mass in Physics is a quantitative measure of inertia, it is the opposition

or resistance of a body to a change in its speed or position upon the
application of a force .

The mass standard in the SI is a platinum and iridium cylinder kept in

the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which was assigned,
by international convention, a mass of one kilogram. Accurate copies
have been sent to standardization laboratories in other countries and the
masses of other bodies can be determined by placing them on a scale
against a copy.

The masses of atoms can be compared with each other more precisely
than they can be compared with the standard kilogram. For this reason,
we have a second dough pattern. The carbon 12 atom is the one that,
by international agreement, has been assigned a mass of 12 atomic
mass units (u). The relationship between the two units is 1 u =
1.66053886x10 -27 kg.

Scientists can, with reasonable accuracy, experimentally determine the

masses of other atoms relative to the mass of carbon-12. But there is
currently a lack of a reliable means of extending that precision to more
common units of mass, for example, a kilogram.

UNITS EQUIVALENCES

1 kilogram 1000 Grams, 35.274 Ounces

1 ounce 28.3495 Grams

1 Pound 453.6 Grams, 16 ounces

1 Ton 1000 Kilograms, 2204.62 pounds

 Table 7. Fundamental units of mass

Submultiples Multiples
Worth Symbol Name Worth Symbol Name

10-1 3 dg decigram 10' g dag decagram

102g cg centigram 10 to g hg hectogram

10-3g mg milligram 103g kg kilogram

10®g pg microgram 10®g Mg megagram or ton

10"'g 10'g Gg gigagram
ng nanograms
10-12g pg picograms 1012g Tg tangram
10*159 fg femtogram 1015g Pg petagram
10-18g *9 attogram 1018g Eg exagram
10-21g zg zeptogram 1021g 2; zettagram
10-24g yg yoctogram 10249 yg yottagram

Table 8. Multiples for the gram (g)

ACTIVITY

Based on the knowledge previously acquired, answer the

following Questionnaire:

1. What is the current standard for measuring time?

2. Defines Time.
3. Defines Mass.
4. The sheet process engineer asks you to express the thickness of
a certain 3.2 mμ steel sheet to [mm], [cm], [dm] and [m], calculate
them.
5.
6. What is the current standard for Masa?
7. What is the prefix 10 -12 g?
 8. Defines distance.

9. What is the prefix 10 15 s?

10. What is the current length standard?

11.
12. What is the prefix 10 -10 m?

Solve the following exercises; indicates in decimal form or in

scientific notation:

1. 500000=
2. 700=
3. 0.000003=
4. 0.13=
5. 0.000000089=
6. 2300000000000=
7. 0.00687=
8. 798000=
9. 8.5X10 -3 =
10. 3X10 2 =
11. 5.67X10 -9 =
12. 5.2X10 4 =
13. 1.5X10 -5 =
14. 8.1X10 5 =

SESSION 3:

1.2.- Units and their conversions

The units of measurement are themselves arbitrary and, therefore, only
obtainable by agreement. The agreement can be with oneself, with a
local relationship group or international. In the case of an international
agreement, we speak of a standard unit. It is required that the standard
unit be easily reproducible and that it can be stored practically without
alterations. The validity of a standard unit lies in the fact that the world's
scientists accept it and use it to communicate. When the unit of
measurement has been agreed upon, the comparison is expressed by
a number, which is the quotient between the thing being measured and
the unit of measurement of that thing; we will call this number:
measurement number. We physicists call the things we deal with
physical quantities, thus implying that they are things that can be
measured and, therefore, quantified. For example, we say “the distance
was twenty meters” or “the time interval was 7 hours.” Saying “the
distance was twenty” or “the time interval was 7” makes no sense!

In this section the student will develop the ability to convert units.

Firstly, we must know the units of measurement and their equivalences,

see table on page 88-89.

Convert: 56.75

It is known that 1 mi = 16009 m and that 1 hour = 3600 s

Then then: 56.75X

Reasoning that to eliminate the units of measurement, mile and hour
and obtain the desired units, we must arrange them crosswise, that is,
if the miles are in the numerator, for equivalence they are arranged in
the denominator and vice versa for the hours.
To obtain the result, the numerators are multiplied by the multiplication
of all the denominators, eliminating the crossed units to obtain the
requested conversion unit.

So:

56.75X

= 25.36 So:
Exercises for class:

1. -Convert 31.45 to

2. - Convert 47.87 to

3. Convert 70 to

4. Convert 18 to

5. Convert 79.85 to

6. - Convert 13.89 to

7. - Convert 8 m 3 to cm 3

8. -Convert 17 m 3 to ft 3

9. Convert 192 ft 3 am 3
10. Convert 49 to

11. Convert 57.3 kg f to N

12. - On a highway a car travels with a speed of 25 m/s. Did the driver
exceed the speed limit of 75 mi/h?

13. A person prepares 18 liters of lemonade for a meeting, if his guests

drink 7,500 ml. How many liters of lemonade did you have left?

Proposed exercises (TASK):

1 . Perform the following unit conversions, you are given the
results, perform the complete procedures.

a) 20 a =
b) 300 a =

c) 560 a =

d) 50 Pa at atm =

e) 34 a =

f) 89 a =

g) 800 a =

h) 12 liters am 3 = 0.012 m 3

i) 67 a =

j) 300 a =

2 . A carpenter has a board 6.5 m long, if he uses a saw to cut 11 cm

from one end of the board. How many centimeters long was the board
after the carpenter cut it? 639cm
3 .- A car moves at a speed of 108 km/h, accelerating at a rate of 8.2
ft/s 2 and traveling a distance of 23 Yd in 1,041X10 -4 days. Convert the
previous magnitudes to units of the international system.

4 .- Two cars leave the same place at the same time heading to two
different locations, which are at the same distance, but in opposite
directions, if one of the cars moves at a higher speed than the other
and after one hour one covers 8700000 cm and the other 58000 m.
What distance in km do both cars have to travel to reach their
destination if it is 90 km from the starting point?

5 .- A wheel travels 950°. How many radians and revolutions does it

equal?

3
6 .- If you place a steel object whose density is 488.81 lb/ft and
another nickel object whose density is 8750 kg/m 3 , both with the same
mass, in a fluid. Determine which object will sink faster and obtain the
densities in gr/cm 3 .

-3
7 .- A train starts from rest and after 4.16X10 h reaches a speed of
2
64.8 km/h with an acceleration of 12960 km/h . Calculate the above
magnitudes in units of the international system.

8 .-What is the volume of a cube whose sides are 3.28 ft, 250 cm and
2.48X10 -3 mi? Get the result in units of the international system.
9 .- Calculate the difference between the Young's modulus of
aluminum (γ= 7X10 10 Pa) and the Young's modulus of lead (γ=
2.32X10 -4 lb f /in 2 ).

10 .- Perform the conversion of the following magnitudes into units of

the international system.

a) 80 Fahrenheit =
b) 106 ft 3 =
c) 51840 km/h 2 =
d) 281 lb f =
e) 116.8lb=
Unit Conversion Tables
Length
Unit cm (YES) inch inch foot yard mile
1 centimeter 1 0,01 0,39370 0,032808 0,010936 6,2137*10'6
1 meter 100 1 39,370 3,2808 1,0936 6,2137*10"*
(YES)
1 inch 2,54 0,0254 1 0,083333 0,027778 1 5783*10-
1 foot 30,48 0,3048 12 1 0,33333 1,8939*10"*
1 yard 91,44 09144 36 3 1 5,6818*10"*
1 mile 1,6093*105 1,6093*103 6,336*104 5 1 760 1

Surface
Unit cm2 m2 inch 3 foot 3 3
yard mile 3
1 cm to 1 1,0*10'* 0,15500 1,0764*10'3 1,1960*10'* 3,8610*10'11
1 m 3 (YES) 1,0*10* 1 1 550,0 10,764 1,1960 3,8610*10'7
1 inch 3 6,4516 6,4516*10'* 1 6,9444*10'3 7,7160*10'* 2,4910*10'10
1 foot 3 929,03 0,092903 144 1 0,11111 3,5870*10'8
1 yard 3 8 361,3 0,83613 1 296 9 1 3,2283*10'7
1 mile 3 2,5900*1010 2,5900*106 4,0145*109 2,7878*107 3,0976*106 1

Volume
Unit cm 3 1 m 3 (YES) inch 3 foot 3 gallon
1 cm 3 1 1,0*10' 3
1,0*10' 6
6,1024*10' 3
3,5315*10'5 2,6417*10'*
1I 1 000 1 1,0*10'3 61,024 3,5315*10'3 0,26417
1 m 3 (YES) 1.0*1 or 6 1 000 1 61,1024*10* 35,315 264,17
1 inch 3 16,387 1,6387*10'3 1,6387*10-5 1 5,7870*10'* 4,3290*10'3
1 foot 3 28 317 28,317 2,8317*10'3 1 728 1 7,4805
1 gallon 3 785,4 3,7854 3,7854*10'3 231 0,13368 1

Mass

Unit g kg (YES) oz Ib metric ton short tone

1g 1 1,0*10'3 3,5274*10'3 2,2046*10'3 1,0*10'6 1,1023*10'6
1 kg (YES) 1 000 1 35,274 2,2046 1,0*10'3 1,1023*10'3
1oz 28,350 2,8350*10'3 1 0,0625 2,8350*10'5 3,125*10'5
11b 453,59 0,45359 16 1 4,5359*10'* 5,0*10'*
1 ton meth. 1,0*106 1 000 3,5274*10'* 2 204,6 1 1,1023
1 short ton 9,0718*105 907,18 3,2*10* 2 000 0,90718 1

Density
 Unit q/cm3 kq/m 3 (SI) Ib/ft 3 Ib/qalon
1 q/cm3 1 1 000 62,428 8,3454
1 kg/m® (YES) 1 0*10- 1 6,2428*10*2 8,3554*10'3
1 Ib/ft® 1 6018-10-2 16,018 1 0,13368
1 Ib/qalon 0,11983 119,83 7,4805 1

Pressure

Unit dyne/ N/m a atm kg £ /cm a mmHg in Hg lb £ /in a

(YES)
1 dyne/cm 1 0,1 9,8692*10-7 1,0197*10’5 7,5006*10'* 2,9530*10'5 1,4504*10-5
1 N/m a (YES) 10 1 9,8692*10-6 1,0197*10'5 7,5006*10'3 2,9530*10'* 1,4504*10'*
1 atm 1,0133*10 6
1,0133*10 5
1 1,0332 760 26,921 14,696
a
1 kg £ /cm 9,8067*10 5
9,8067*10* 0,96784 1 735,56 28,959 14,223
1mm Hq 1 333,2 133,32 1,3158*10’3 1,3595*10’3 1 3,9370*10-2 1,9337*10-2
1 in Hg 3,3864*10* 3 386,4 3,3421*10-2 3,4532*102 25,4 1 0,49115
1 Ib,/in2 6,8948*10* 6 894,8 6,8046*10-2 7 0307*10-2 51,715 2,0360 1

Energy
Unit J (YES) lime kcal Btu kW-hr hp-hr ft-lb liter-atm
1 J (YES) 1 0,23901 2,3901*10'4 9,4782*10'4 2,7778*10-7 3,7251*10-7 0,73756 9,8692*10'3
1 cal 4,184 1 1,0*10'3 3,9657*140* 1,1622*10'6 1,5586*10'6 3,0860 4,1293*10-2
1 kcal 4,184*103 1 000 1 3,9657 1,1622*10'3 1,5586*10'3 3 086,0 41,293
1 Btu 1 055,1 252,16 0,25216 1 2,9307*10'4 3,9301*10'4 778,17 10,413
1 kW-hr 3,6*106 8,6042*105 860,42 3412,1 1 1,3410 2,6552*106 3,5529*104
1 hp-hr 2,6845*106 6,4162*105 641,62 2 544,3 0,74570 1 1,98*106 2,6494*104
1 ft-Ib 1,3558 0,32405 3,2405*10'4 1,2851*10'3 3,7662*10'7 5,0505*10-7 1 1,3381*10'2
1 liter-atm 101,33 24,217 2,4217*10'2 9,6038*10'2 2,8146*10-5 3,77444*10 74,733 1

Specific Energy
Heat Capacity and Specific Entropy
Power
Unit cal/s kcal/s W(YES) kW Btu/hr hp ft-lb, /hr
1 cal/s 1 3,6 4,184 4,184*10' 3
14,276 5,6108*10' 3
1,1109*10*
1 kcal/s 0,27778 1 1,1622 1,1622*10'3 3,9657 1,5586*10'3 3 086,0
1W (YES) 0,23901 0,86042 1 1,0*10'3 3,4121 1,3410*10'3 2 655,2
1 kW 239,01 860,42 1 000 1 3 412,1 1,3410 2,6552*106
1 Btuhr 7,0046*10-2 0,25216 0,29307 2,9307*10'* 1 3,9301 778,17
1hp 178,23 641,62 745,70 2,9307*10'* 2 544,4 1 1,98*106
1 ft-lbf/hr 9,0013*10'5 3,2405 3,7662*10'* 3.7662* 10'T 1,2851*10'3 5,0505*10-7 1
wow Jy u/ny (31 Lan H •u: IM
1 J/g 1 1 000 0,23901 0,42992
1 J/kg (YES) 1,0*10'3 1 2,3901*10'* 4,2992*10'*
1 cal/g 4,1840 4 184,0 1 1,7988
1 Btu/lb 2,3260 2 326,0 0,55593 1
http://phobos.eiq.ucv.cl/termo/conver.htm

Table 9. Conversion factors

 SESSION 4:

1.3 Dimensional analysis

Physical quantities can be of two types:

a) Fundamental: They are not expressed in terms of others. They are defined
without the need to resort to any formula.

b) Derivatives: They are defined through formulas or relationships that link

them to other magnitudes.

Dimensional analysis is the study of dimensional equations. These are

algebraic expressions, which relate the fundamental magnitudes to the derived
magnitudes.

The word dimension has a special meaning in physics. Denotes the physical
nature of a quantity or magnitude. Whether a distance is measured in units of
feet, meters, or fathoms, it is still a distance; Its dimension is said to be length.

The most common symbols for specifying the dimensions of length, mass, and
time are L, M, and T, respectively. Brackets [] will often be used to denote the
dimensions of a physical quantity.

Examples:
-1
• The dimensions of speed are written [ v ] = LT
2
• The dimension of the area is written [A] =L

Dimensional analysis is a useful procedure that helps in testing the dimensions

of quantities because they are treated as algebraic quantities. For example,
quantities are added or subtracted only if they have the same dimensions.
Additionally, the terms on both sides of an equation must have the same
dimensions. By following these simple rules you will be able to use dimensional
analysis to determine whether an expression has the correct form. Which will
be achieved only if the dimensions on both sides of the equation are the same.

Dimensional equations are expressed in terms of magnitude and not in units

according to the following considerations.
✔ Fundamental magnitudes use capital letters (L, M, T, Q, F, etc.) and
derived magnitudes use lowercase letters (u, a, p, q, w, etc.)
✔ The representation of the dimensional equation of a derived magnitude, in
addition to the lowercase letter, is enclosed in square brackets. Example:
✔ It may happen that two derived quantities have the same dimensional
equation. Examples:
• Job:

• Kinetic energy:

✔ A dimensional equation is never expressed in fraction or fraction of the

fundamental magnitudes, it only has a numerator and the exponents of L,
M, T, and Q can be positive or negative.

Dimensional equations help us to:

1. Find the dimensional equation of derived equations

2. Test the homogeneity of a physical equation
3. Find the empirical equation of some physical phenomenon
4. Transform the value of a magnitude, expressed in certain units, into
different ones.
Principle of dimensional homogeneity:

“All terms in physical equations must have the same dimensions.”

Only quantities of the same species can be added or subtracted.

Properties:
• The dimension of any number is one

Example:
• The dimension of any trigonometric function is one

Example:

• The dimension of any logarithmic function is one Example:

• The dimension of any exponential function is one Example:

• The dimension of any dimensionless constant one Example:

 Fundamental Magnitudes
[Length]
[Mass] M
[Time] T
[ Temperature] and
[Amperage] 1
[Light intensity] J.
[Amount of substance] N
M a g n u t u e s D e ri v a t i o ace
[Area] n |2

[Volume] |3
[Speed] LT-1
[Acceleration] LT-2
[Force] MLT -2
[ Job] ML2T-2
[Energy] ML2T-2
[Heat] ML2T-2
[ Density] ML-3
[Specific weight] ML-2T-2
[Power] ML2T-3
[Pressure] ML-1T-2
[Flow] L3T-1
[Angular velocity] T-1
[Period] T
[Frequency] You
[Angular acceleration] T-2
[T ork] L2MT-2
[Momentum of movement] LMT-1
[Boost] LMT 1
[Specific weight] L2MT-2
Table 8. Basic dimensional formulas

Exercises for class

1. Find the dimensions of the speed (v) yes, Solution:
2. Find the dimensions of the area (A) and its SI physical units yes, , where:

3. Find the dimensions of D yes, , where: a=length

4. Find the dimensions of m yes, , where a=mass.

5. Find the dimensions of F and its physical units in the SI yes, where:
m= mass and g= gravity

6. Finding the dimensions of the power is equal to the quotient of work over
time.

7. Find the dimensions of V yes, V=, where: h=length

 Find the dimensions of density and its physical units in the SI
yes, a=mass and b=c=length

8. What are the dimensions of h, if the equation is homogeneous?

Where: m=mass; f=frequency; v=speed.

9. Find the dimensions of B yes

Where: B=magnetic field; I=current; r=distance; o = magnetic permeability

constant

10. If the torque is obtained by multiplying the force by distance. Get its
dimensions.

11. If pressure is equal to the ratio of force over area, find its dimensions
and SI physical units.

12. Find the dimensions of Coulomb's constant if,

13. Find the dimensions of r from the following equation.
r= distance

Proposed exercises (TASK):

1. - Find the dimensions of A in the following expression:

v= speed.

2. - Find the dimension of time if, , where v=speed and d=distance.

3. - If the SI unit of energy is the Joule where J=N, what are its dimensions?

4. Find the dimension of Q in the following equation:

Where: A= Section; w=angular frequency; R=length; F=force; P=pressure

5. Find the dimensions of the universal constant of ideal gases.

6. Find the dimensions of yes,

7. If the specific gravity is the ratio of the weight to the volume, find its
dimensions.

8. What is the dimension of m if weight=mwhere g is gravity.

9. Find the dimension of the distance if,

10. Find the dimensions of B if:

Where: f=frequency

SESSION 5 and 6:

UNIT II: One-Dimensional and Dimensional Movement

Directions: Obtain the results of the exercises in units of the international
system (SI) unless the exercise indicates otherwise.

Perform complete procedures, including unit conversion.

Movement in one dimension :

It is the movement of an object along a straight line. In physics, motion is

classified into three categories: translational, rotational and vibrational. A car
traveling on a highway is an example of translational motion, the Earth spinning
on its axis is an example of rotational motion, and the back and forth motion of
a pendulum is an example of vibratory motion.

Motion in one dimension will be treated only with translational motion where the
particle model will be used and the moving object is described as a particle
regardless of its size.

2.1. Position, Displacement, Speed and Speed

Position:

The motion of a particle is completely known if the position of the particle in

space is known at all times. The position of a particle is the location of the
particle with respect to a chosen reference point that is considered the origin of
a coordinate system.
 A
Z

Fig. 1. Position of a particle in a plane in three dimensions

For example, the displacement of a car is analyzed and because we are

interested only in the translational movement of the car, it is represented as a
particle either as a graphical, pictorial or tabular representation:
position t(s) x(m)
@ 0 30
8 10 52
© 20 38
© 30 0
© 40 -37
50 — 53

Fig. 2. Graphic and tabular representation of the movement of a car

Fig. 3. Pictorial representation of the movement of a car

Using any of the above representations, the position and movement of

the car can be analyzed as one would with a particle.

Displacement:

Displacement refers to the distance and direction of the final position

with respect to the initial position of an object in some time interval.
A change from one position x 1 to another position x 2 is called an 8x
shift.
Change of the Position Position
position foal initial

, T ,
Displacement - Ax -XX
The capital Greek letter delta (Δ) is used to denote the change in a
quantity.
 Fig. 4. Difference between distance and
displacement

It is important to distinguish the difference between displacement and

distance. Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle.
Therefore, it refers to how much space an object travels during its
movement.

Distance is always represented as a positive number, while

displacement can be positive or negative because it is a vector quantity
(direction and magnitude) while distance is scalar (numerical value).

98
Fig. 5. Difference between distance and displacement

Speed:
A common way to compare different motions is to divide the
displacement Δx by the value of a time interval Δt. The result is a very
useful relationship called average velocity (v x ).

The subscript x indicates movement along the x axis. The average

velocity of a particle moving in one dimension is positive or negative,
depending on the sign of the displacement.

Since speed is the ratio of displacement to time interval, it has length

dimensions divided by time (L/T) and units in the international meter
system by seconds (m/s).

Fig. 6. Obtaining speed

Speed :

In everyday use, speed and average speed are interchangeable. In any

case, in physics there is a clear distinction between these two
quantities.
Instantaneous speed is a scalar quantity that represents the speed at
the instant the car is at an arbitrary point C. Therefore, it is the rate of
change of distance with respect to time.

The instantaneous velocity is a vector quantity that represents the

velocity v at any point C. It is, consequently, the rate of change of
displacement with respect to time.

Fig. 7. Displacement and velocity are vector quantities, while distance and speed are
independent of direction.

In the study of movement in a straight path, the magnitudes of speed

and velocity will be the same at each instant. If the direction does not
change, the instantaneous speed is the scalar part of the instantaneous
velocity. However, it is a good habit to reserve the term speed for the
most complete description of the movement. As we will see later, a
change in speed can also cause a change in direction. In such cases,
the terms speed and displacement are more appropriate than speed
and distance.
Note: Movement in one direction with constant speed is also called
Uniform Rectilinear Motion .

Formulas :
Δx= x f - x i Δt= t f - t i r v avg=
prom

Where: v= Speed of a mobile (m/s)

X i =Initial position (m)

d= Displacement of a mobile (m)

r avg =Average speed (m/s)

t= Time (s)

X f =Final position (m)

Δx= Displacement (m)

Class exercises:
1 .- Find the displacement, distance, average speed and average
speed of the car from the following tabular representation between
positions A and E. Make the position-time graph.

Δx= d= Δt= v avg = avg=

Position Time (s) Distance (m)

TO 0 10

b 15 33

c 23 25

d 35 150

AND 47 200

2 .- A person travels in his car along a straight road for a stretch of 6

km at 80 km/h, at which point the vehicle runs out of gasoline and
stops. In the next 40 min, the person walks another 3 km along the road
to a gas station.

a) What is the total displacement from the beginning of your

trip until you arrive at the gas station?
b) What is the time interval Δt from the beginning of the trip to
the arrival at the gas station?
c) What is the average speed v avg from the beginning of the
trip until arriving at the gas station?
d) Let's assume that it takes another 50 minutes to pump gas,
pay for it, and get back to the vehicle. What is the average
 speed from the beginning of the trip to returning to the
vehicle with gasoline?

3 . A long strip of pavement has markings at 5 m intervals. Students

use stopwatches to record the times a car passes each mark. Thus
they have obtained the following data:

a) Draw a graph that represents distances on the y-axis and times

on the x-axis.
b) What is the average speed of the vehicle?
c) After how much time is the distance equal to 18 m?
4 .- Determine the displacement in meters that a pallet cart makes
when moving south at a speed of 0.3 km/h for 6 minutes.

5 .- A sailboat in the Pacific Ocean develops a speed whose

magnitude is 3.8 m/s; If the speed that the wave current carries towards
the east is 1.8 m/s. Calculate:

a) The speed of the sailboat if it goes in the same direction

and direction as the sea current.
b) The speed of the sailboat if it goes in the same direction
and direction as the sea current.
c) The speed of the sailboat if it is required to cross
perpendicularly towards an island that is 2.8 km away and
what direction the sailboat will take.

5. A bee flies in a straight line south for 4 minutes. If it does so at a

speed of 26.24 ft/s, calculate the distance traveled by the bee.

7 .- A pirinola travels 3.5 m to the right in a period of 0.25 minutes.

What is its speed?
8 .- My family travels from Morelia to Mexico in their car that travels
322 km in a time of 4.3 hours. What was its speed?

9 .- A ball rolls to the left following a straight line path and travels a
distance of 10 m in 8 s. Calculate the speed it carries in units of the
usual system in the United States.

10 .- A butterfly flies in a straight line towards the west with a speed of

23.4 km/h for 27 s. What is the total distance the butterfly travels?

11 .- Calculate the time necessary for a car moving at a speed of 110

km/h to travel a distance of 180 km.

12 .- A plane flies in a straight line south for 22 minutes; if it has a

speed of 800 km/h. What is the distance it travels during that time?
13 .- Determine the distance that a train travels during 7 hours if the
magnitude of its speed is 123 km/h.

14 .- Georgina takes 40 minutes to get to her school because she has

to travel a distance of 3.5 km. What is her speed?
Suggested exercises (TASK)

1 .- An airplane has a speed of 300 km/h. How much time will it take to
travel a distance of 35 km? Give the answer in hours and minutes.

2 .- In the Olympic Games the record in the 100 m dash was 9.5
seconds. What is the speed of the winning athlete, give the answer in
m/s and km/h?

3 .- How far will a plane traveling at a speed of 700 km/h travel in a

straight line for a time of 25 min. Give the answer in km and in meters.

4 .- A train has a speed of 20 m/s. How much time will it take to travel
a distance of 0.1 miles?

5 .- What is the speed of a person who travels a distance of 2 km in 67

min? Give the answer in SUEU units.

6 .- Two runners in a competition compete for the gold medal and in

the last section the player with the red shirt is 7 m from the finish line
and runs at a speed of 2 m/s, while the runner with the blue shirt is 6.5
m and runs at a speed of 1.8 m/s. Who will reach the finish line first?

7 .- A motorcycle travels at a speed of 98.43 ft/s. How far will it travel in

5 hours?

8 .- Find the displacement, distance, average speed and average

speed of the car from the following tabular representation between
positions A and F. Make the position-time graph.

Position Time (s) Distance

(m)

TO 0 5

b 18 23

c 22 33

d 30 -10

AND 38 -20
 45 10

9 .- What is the speed of a car that travels 10 km in 45 minutes? Give

the answer in YES and SUEU.

10 .- How far will a plane traveling at a speed of 500 km/h travel in a

straight line for a time of 15 min. Give the answer in km and in meters.

SESSION 7 and 8:

2.2. Average and instantaneous acceleration

In most cases, the speed of an object changes as it moves. Motion in

which the magnitude or direction changes with respect to time is called
acceleration.

speed change
Acceleration =-------------,—¡-------------
time interval

t
For example, the magnitude of a car's speed increases when the
accelerator is depressed and decreases when the brakes are applied.

Consider an object represented as a particle moving along the x axis

has an initial velocity (v xi ) at time t i and a final velocity (v xf ) at time (t
f ). The average acceleration (a x,avg) of the particle is defined as the
change in velocity (Δv x ) divided by the time interval during which the
change occurs.
As was done with speed, when the movement to be analyzed is one-
dimensional, the positive and negative signs are used to indicate the
direction of acceleration. Acceleration has dimensions of length divided
by time squared and the unit in the international system is the meter per
second squared (m/s 2 ).

In some cases the value of the average acceleration may be different

during different time intervals, so it is useful to define the instantaneous
acceleration as the limit of the average acceleration as Δt approaches
zero.

Therefore, instantaneous speed is that which is measured in a short

period of time.

For straight line movements, the direction of an object's speed and the
direction of its acceleration are related as follows. When the velocity
and acceleration of the object are in the same direction, the object
increases its speed. On the other hand, when the velocity and
acceleration of the object are in opposite directions, the object slows
down.

Acceleration is a vector quantity and, therefore, depends on the change

of both direction and magnitude. If the direction does not change and
the movement is in a straight line, only the speed of the object changes.
However, if a curved path is followed, there would be acceleration even
though the speed does not change.

Class exercises :

1 .- A mobile phone in one-dimensional motion changes its speed from

2 m/s to 7 m/s in a period of 3 seconds. What is the acceleration of said
mobile phone?

2 .- The vague torpedo of a blast furnace transports the pig iron at an

initial speed of 80 km/h, subjecting itself to an acceleration of 3 m/s 2 in
4 seconds. What is the final speed with which it reaches the blast
furnace? refinement?

3 .- An artificial satellite flies through space uniformly changing its

2
speed from 80 m/s to 95 m/s achieving an acceleration of 2.3 m/s
What is the time during which the speed change was made?

4 .- What is the acceleration of a motorcycle that changes its speed

from 20 m/s to 82 ft/s in 5 seconds.
5 .- A transporter truck arrives at the unloading station with a speed of
100 km/h and during its journey it accelerates at a rate of 4 m/s in 2
seconds. What was its initial speed?

6 .- A car is moving at a speed of 120 km/h when a dog crosses it and

it has to brake suddenly until reaching a speed of 50 km/h in 3.5
seconds. What is the deceleration of the car?
7 .- An athlete covers a distance of 820.21 ft in 30 seconds with a
speed of 5 m/s. What is the athlete's acceleration?

8 .- If a conveyor belt starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a

2
rate of 2.8 m/s in 7 seconds. Get the final speed of the band in the
SUEU.
9 .- An airplane changes its speed uniformly from 270 km/h to 388
km/h in 0.10 min. What is the acceleration of the plane?

10 .- A forklift uniformly changes its speed from 10 m/s to 18 m/s at a

2
rate of 1.7 m/s What is the time during which the speed change was
made?

11 .- Two racing cars have a speed of 200 km/h in a certain time, when
one of them accelerates first at a rate of 3.6 m/s 2 in 2.4 seconds. What
is the final speed of the car that accelerates first? What is the final
speed of the car that accelerated next if its acceleration was half that of
the first?

12 .- Luis walks to work with a speed of 6.37 ft/s when he increases the
speed because he is already late at 8 ft/s in half a minute, while Juan
walks to the supermarket with a speed of 8.2 km/h and changes his
speed. speed at 9.4 km/h in 0.53 minutes. What is the difference in the
acceleration of Luis and Juan?
13 .- How long does the speed of a train change if it starts from rest
and accelerates at a rate of 5 m/s 2 arriving with a speed of 25 m/s.
14 .- What is the acceleration of a car whose initial speed is 85 km/h
and brakes to rest in 8 seconds.

Suggested exercises (TASK)

1 .- A train changes its speed uniformly from 70 km/h to 100 km/h in

0.15 min. What is the acceleration of the train?

2 .- What is the acceleration of a particle that changes its speed from

10 m/s to 90 ft/s in 3.7 seconds.

3 .- A mobile in one-dimensional motion changes its speed from 44

m/s to 56 m/s in a period of 6 seconds. What is the acceleration of said
mobile in the SUEU?
4 .- If a conveyor belt starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a
rate of 1.5 m/s 2 in 5.8 seconds. Get the final speed of the belt.

5 .- An airplane has a speed of 400 km/h and during its journey it

accelerates at a rate of 2.2 m/s in 3 seconds. What was its initial
speed?
6 .- A child on a bicycle has a speed of 20 km/h and during his journey
he accelerated at a rate of 1.8 m/s in 2 seconds. What was his initial
speed?

7 .- Two racing motorcycles have a speed of 140 km/h in a certain

2
time, when one of them accelerates first at a rate of 4 m/s in 3
seconds. What is the final speed of the car that accelerates first? What
is the final speed of the car that accelerated next if its acceleration was
half that of the first? Get the results at SUEU.

8 .- How long does the speed of a forklift change if it starts from rest
and accelerates at a rate of 3 m/s 2 arriving with a speed of 15 m/s.
9 .- What is the acceleration of a conveyor belt whose initial speed is 50 km/h and
brakes until it comes to rest in 7 seconds.

10 .- A cargo truck uniformly changes its speed from 20 m/s to 23 m/s at a rate of 1
m/s 2. What is the time during which the speed change was made?

SESSION 9 and 10:

2.3 One-dimensional motion with acceleration

The simplest type of acceleration is rectilinear (one-dimensional) motion, in which

speed changes at a constant rate. This special type of motion is known as uniformly
accelerated or uniformly accelerated motion. Since there is no change in direction,
the difference in vectors simply becomes the difference between the signed values of
the final and initial velocities. However, it is worth remembering that velocity is still a
vector quantity and that the sign assigned to it indicates the direction and not the
magnitude.

If the speed increases in a negative direction, the acceleration is also negative.

Acceleration refers to the change in speed, which means it can be an increase or
decrease in speed.

Therefore, in Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion (MRUA) the speed is not

constant; That is, the speed increases or decreases as long as the acceleration is
constant.

As the image indicates, we observe how the speed increases as time passes and it
advances in its trajectory.

The speed changes linearly; That is to say, an increase in speed occurs due to the
constancy of the acceleration and the analysis of these problems can be carried out
whether the mobile starts from rest or the movement is analyzed from the advanced
stage at a certain moment.
V1
Formulas:
Where: v=Velocity (m/s)
d= Distance traveled by the mobile on the x axis (m)
a= Acceleration (m/s 2 )
v i = Initial velocity (m/s)
v f = Final speed (m/s)
t= Time (s)

Class exercises:

1 .- A train car starts from rest and 3 seconds later reaches a speed of 19 m/s. What
acceleration did it obtain?

2 .- A coke conveyor belt initially moves at 16 m/s and constantly accelerates at a

2
rate of 2 m/s . How far will it travel in 20 seconds? What will be its final velocity
when it reaches the blast furnace?

3 .- A forklift has a speed of 14 m/s. Calculate its acceleration if it stops in 2 seconds

due to excess load and the distance it traveled before stopping.
4 .- A tool box starts from rest and falls down an inclined plane with a uniform
-3
acceleration, traveling 7x10 km in 4 seconds. How long will it take to acquire a
speed of 10 m/s from the moment it begins to move?

5 .- A cargo truck has an initial speed of 90 km/h when it begins to brake and travels
0.15 km before stopping. Calculate the acceleration.

6 .- A particle changes its speed from 77 m/s to 92 m/s with an acceleration of 1.8
m/s 2 . Calculate the time it takes to make that change.

2
7 .- A car experiences an acceleration with a magnitude of 3.4 m/s that lasts 16
seconds; If it has an initial velocity of 4.6 m/s, calculate what displacement it has in
that time and what is the final velocity in this time.

2
8 .- A train experiences a constant acceleration of 0.56 m/s for 4 seconds; If said
train starts from rest, calculate:

a) How far does it travel in that time?

b) What final speed does it have in that time?

9 .- A cargo trailer travels from Querétaro to Celaya with a speed of 83 km/h when it
suddenly applies the brakes and stops in 24 seconds. Calculate:

a) The acceleration
b) Total distance traveled when braking until stopping.
c) The speed it takes 9 seconds after applying the brakes.
d) The distance traveled in these 9 seconds.

10 .- A small plane travels to the south of the country, has an initial speed of 230
km/h at the moment it begins its landing and travels 0.8 km before stopping.
Calculate:

a) The acceleration
b) The time to stop
c) The distance 2 seconds after starting the landing

11 .- A car has an initial speed west of 35 km/h and after 7 seconds the final speed
is 73 km/h. Calculate:

a) The acceleration
b) The distance at that time
12 .- A car changes its speed from 108 m/s to 171 m/s with an acceleration of 2.1
m/s 2 . Calculate the time it takes to make that change and its distance.

13 .- The speed of a vehicle increases uniformly from 20 km/h to 77 km/h in 33 s.

Calculate:

a) the average speed in km/h and m/s,

b) the acceleration in km/s 2 and in m/s 2
c) the distance traveled in that time in km and m.

14.- An engineer designs an airport for small planes which can accelerate at 2.5 m/s
2
and must reach a speed, before taking off, of at least 108 km/h.

a) If the runway is 550 ft long, can this airplane reach the minimum speed required
to take off?
b) If not, what minimum length should the track be?

Suggested exercises (TASK)

1 .- A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at 160 mi/h.

a) What is its acceleration if it stops in 4 seconds due to an arresting cable that locks
the jet and leaves it at rest?

b) How far did the jet travel before stopping?

2 .- A motorcyclist who starts from rest and 6.5 seconds later reaches a speed of 28
m/s, what acceleration did he obtain?

3 .- A person on a bicycle starts from rest from home, reaching a speed of 1.5 m/s.
How long will it take to get to work if it is 0.15 miles away?

4 .- A motor boat starts from rest and reaches a speed of 13 m/s in a time of 4 s.
What was its acceleration and how far did it travel? Obtain the results in SI and
SUEU.

5 .- A plane lands on the deck of an aircraft carrier with an initial speed of 90 m/s
and comes to a complete stop within a distance of 100 m. Find the acceleration and
the time needed to stop it.

6 .- A plane lands on an aircraft carrier at 89,800 ft/h.

 a) What is its acceleration if it is stopped in 7 seconds by applying the brake and
left at rest?
b) How far did the plane travel before stopping?

7 .- A train that initially travels at 38 mi/h is constantly accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s

2
. How far will it travel in 20 seconds? What will be its final speed?

2
8 .- A car maintains a constant acceleration of 15 m/s . If its initial velocity was
65.6168 ft/s north, what will its velocity be after 0.05 minutes?

2
9 .- A racehorse accelerates at a rate of 3.7 m/sec in 6 sec. Reaching a speed of
100 km/h. What will be its initial speed?

10 .- A train with an initial speed of 25 m/s comes to a complete stop in a distance of

328.4 ft. Find the acceleration and the time needed to stop it.

SESSION 11 and 12:

11 4 Free fall of bodies .

Much of our knowledge about the physics of bodies in free fall is due to the Italian
scientist Galileo Galilei (1564 1642).
He was the first to deduce that, in the absence of friction, all bodies, large or small,
heavy or light, fall to Earth with the same acceleration. That is a revolutionary idea
because it contradicts what a person might assume.

The explanation for the above is that, in a vacuum, a feather and a steel ball will fall
at the same time because the greater inertial effect of the steel ball is exactly
compensated by its greater weight.

In the explanation of bodies in free fall, the effects of friction due to air will be
completely neglected. In these circumstances, gravitational acceleration corresponds
to a uniformly accelerated movement. This acceleration has been measured at sea
2 2
level and at a latitude of 45°, and its value is 32 ft/s , or 9.8 m /s , and is
represented by g.

Free fall is an accelerated uniform rectilinear movement, in this case we must take
into account the following:
A body in free fall has a constant downward acceleration, as the movement is in one
direction (when it is falling) it is considered positive which is of utmost importance to
choose a direction and follow that criterion systematically when substituting the
known values.
• Only the sign of the speed is determined by the direction of motion.
 • The sign of the displacement depends on the location or
position of the
object.
Freefall

Point

Formulas:

h max incr
ease

Where:

h = Height or distance on the y axis (m) (In books you can also find this as “y”)
g= Gravity= 9.8 m/s 2
t= Time (s)
v i = Initial velocity (m/s)
v f = Final speed (m/s)
Class exercises:

1 .- A child drops a ball from the roof of his house and it takes 3.8 s to reach the
ground. Calculate the height of the building and the speed with which it hits the
ground.
2 .- A stone falls from the top of a building and the time it takes to reach the ground
was 6.5 s. Calculate the height of the building and the speed of the stone when it hits
the ground.

3 .- A person on top of a hot air balloon drops a metal sphere from a height of 6 km.
Calculate the time it will take to reach the ground. Consider the motion of the balloon
and the air resistance negligible.

4 .- A fighter plane drops a missile to carry out accuracy tests, the altitude is 38,200
m. What time would it take for the missile to hit its target? Consider the air resistance
on the missile negligible.
5 .- A solid object is thrown vertically downward with an initial speed of
6.2 m/s. Calculate the speed it takes 4 seconds after its fall and how far
it will travel after 4 seconds.
6 .- A stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial speed of 23 m/s.
Calculate the maximum height reached and the time it will take to rise.

7 .- A golf ball is dropped from an apartment window and it takes 1.6 s

to arrive. Calculate the height and final speed with which it hits the
ground.

8 .- A solid object is thrown upward with an initial speed of 18.2 m/s.

Calculate:
a) How far does it travel in 2.3 seconds?
b) Maximum height
c) Time it takes to rise

9 .- Pedro forgot the keys to his house, he asked his mother to throw
them out the window. It took them 0.83 seconds to reach the floor.
Calculate the height of the window and the speed with which they hit
the ground.
10 .- An object is launched vertically with a bazooka with an initial
speed of 43.2 km/h. Calculate the maximum height reached and the
speed at 11 seconds.
11 .- Two children play by throwing objects vertically trying to reach the
greatest height; Juan's object had an initial speed of 9 m/s and Adrián's
8 m/s. What was the maximum height of each of them?

12 .- A rock is thrown downwards vertically with an initial velocity

whose magnitude is 13 m/s and takes 4.1 seconds to impact the
ground. Calculate distance traveled and speed with which it hits
the ground.

13 .- An object is dropped from the top of a building and it takes 4

seconds to reach the ground. Calculate the final speed and height of
the building.

14 .- From what height must water fall from a dam to hit the turbine
wheel with a speed of 50 m/s.
Suggested exercises (TASK)

1 .- A stone is thrown from a bridge with an initial speed of 8 m/s and it

takes 1.5 seconds to reach the water. Calculate the speed of the stone
when it hits the water and the height of the bridge.

2 .- An anti-aircraft gun launches a grenade vertically with a speed of

350 m/s. Calculate:
a) The maximum height that the grenade will reach
b) The time it will take to reach said height
c) The speed at the end of 30 and 50 seconds

3 .- A ball is thrown vertically so that after 3 seconds it returns to the

starting point. Calculate the initial speed with which it was launched.

4 .- A stone is dropped from rest. Find its speed and its position after 1,
3, 5 and 7 s. Give the results in the SI and SUEU.
5 .- A baseball thrown vertically upward from the roof of a tall building
has an initial velocity of 28 m/s. Calculate:

a) The time required for it to reach the maximum height

b) The maximum height
c) Determine its position and velocity after 2 s.
d) What are its position and velocity after 4 s?

6 .- A baseball pitcher throws a ball upward along the y axis, with an

initial speed of 18 m/s. Calculate:

a) How long does it take for the ball to reach its maximum
height?
b) What is the maximum height of the ball above its launch
point?

7 .- A stone is dropped from the state of rest. When will it reach a

displacement of 13 m below the starting point? What is its speed at that
moment?

8 .- Pedro drops a weight from the highest part of a bridge and his
friend José, who is below, will measure the time it takes for the object to
reach the water at the bottom. What is the height of the bridge if that
time is 3 s?

9 .- An initial velocity of 8 m/s is imparted to a brick on its downward

trajectory. What will be its final velocity after falling a distance of 33 m?
10 .- An arrow is shot vertically upward with an initial speed of 100 ft/s.
What is your maximum height?

SESSION 13 and 14:

2.5 Ballistic movement (of projectiles).

The kinematics of a particle moving in two dimensions will now be

explored. Knowing the basics of two-dimensional motion will allow us to
examine a diversity of motions ranging from the motion of satellites in
orbit to the motion of electrons in a uniform electric field.

An object that is launched into space without its own propulsion force is
called a projectile. If the resistance exerted by the air is neglected, the
only force acting on the projectile is its weight W, which causes its
trajectory to deviate from a straight line. The projectile experiences a
constant downward acceleration due to the gravitational force exerted
towards the center of the Earth; but it differs from the movements
previously studied because, in general, the direction of gravity does not
coincide with the direction of the initial velocity. Since no force acts
horizontally to change the velocity, the horizontal acceleration is zero;
this produces a constant horizontal velocity. On the other hand, the
downward force of gravity causes the vertical velocity to change
uniformly.

Therefore, under normal conditions the motion of a projectile occurs in

two dimensions and must be studied in that way.

For its study, it can be considered that it is a combination of two

movements; one uniform horizontal and the other rectilinear vertical
uniformly accelerated, so the movement of projectiles is the result of the
vector sum of the aforementioned movements.
Formulas:

t= t= R=

t= y=

x= y= + v =

Where:

v ox =Initial velocity along the x axis

v oy =Initial velocity on the y axis

y=Distance on the y axis

x=Distance on the x axis

R= Reach
Class exercises:

1 .- In a soccer game, a player hits a ball at an angle of 56° with an

initial speed of 19 m/s as shown in the figure. Calculate the time the ball
lasts in the air and the maximum height it reaches.

2 .- A rocket is launched with an initial speed of 288 m/s; The target

where it should hit is at 2820 m. Calculate the time it takes to reach the
target and the angle at which it should be launched .

3 .- A projectile is launched at an initial speed of 323 m/s and an angle

of 35. Calculate time in the air, maximum height and distance.

4 .- A steel ball rolls and falls over the edge of a table from 60 cm
above the floor. If it hits the ground 70 cm from the base of the table,
what was its initial horizontal velocity?

5 .- A plane flying at 90 m/s drops a box of supplies. What horizontal

distance will the box travel before hitting the ground, 200 m below?

6 .- An Olympic athlete in the long jump jumps with a speed of 10 m/s

at an angle of 23° with the horizontal. Calculate:

a) The athlete's reach

b) The maximum height it reaches

7 .- A ball is hit with an initial speed of 23 m/s and with an angle of 40,
calculate the maximum height and distance.

8 .- A tennis ball is thrown at an angle of 65 with an initial speed of 8

m/s. Calculate the maximum height and time in the air.
9 .- A stone is thrown with a speed of 8 m/s at an angle of
83 . Calculate time in the air and distance.

10 .- A ball is thrown with a speed of 15 m/s at an angle of 35 with the

horizontal. Calculate the maximum height it reaches.

11 .- A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 120 m/s and an

angle of 40° above the horizontal. Determine:

a) Position and speed after 4 s

b) The time required for it to reach its maximum height
c) The horizontal range R, as indicated in the figure.

12 .- A skier begins a jump horizontally with a speed of 30 m/s. The

initial height at the end of the ramp is 60 m above the point of contact
with the ground.

a) How long does the skier stay in the air?

b) How far does it travel horizontally?
c) What are the horizontal and vertical components of final
velocity?
13 .- A stone is thrown upward from the top of a 30 m high building with
an initial speed of 28 m/s and an angle of 40° with the horizontal.
Calculate:

a) The time it takes for the stone to reach the ground

b) The speed of the stone just before hitting the ground

14 .- A skier begins a jump in a horizontal direction with a speed of 20

m/s. The landing plane falls with a slope of 30°. Calculate where the
skier will land on the plane.

Suggested exercises (TASK)

1 .- In a school practice, a student hits a ball with an angle of 35,
leaving with a speed of 13.28 m/s. Calculate maximum height, time in
the air and distance.

2 .- A bowling ball falls over the edge of a table 50 cm from the floor. If
it hits the ground 80 cm from the base of the table, what was its initial
horizontal velocity?

3 .- What is the angle at which a baseball is thrown with a speed of 23

m/s and reaching a height of 2.5 m.

4 .- A projectile is launched with a speed of 30 m/s at an angle of 60°.

Calculate time in the air and distance.

5 .- What is the speed reached by a person who jumps reaching a

height of 3 m with an angle of 80 with the horizontal.

6 .- A projectile has an initial horizontal speed of 85 m/s at the edge of

a roof. Find the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity after 4
s.

7 .- A baseball is hit by the bat with a speed of 40 m/s at an angle of

35°. What are the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity after
4 s?
8 .- A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 150 m/s and an
angle of 27° above the horizontal. Determine:
a) Position and speed after 3 s.
b) The time required for it to reach its maximum height
c) The horizontal range R, as indicated in the figure

9 .- An Olympic athlete in the long jump jumps with a speed of 9 m/s at

an angle of 25° with the horizontal. Calculate:

a) The athlete's reach

b) The maximum height it reaches

10 .- A stone is thrown upward from the top of a 50 m high building with

an initial speed of 33 m/s and an angle of 37° with the horizontal.
Calculate:

a) The time it takes for the stone to reach the ground.

b) The speed of the stone just before it hits the ground.

SESSION 15 and 16:

2.6 Uniform and uniformly accelerated circular motion

The simplest motion in two dimensions (dimensional) occurs when a

constant external force always acts at right angles to the path of the
moving particle. In this case, the resulting force will produce an
acceleration that only changes the direction of motion and keeps the
speed constant. This type of simple motion is known as uniform circular
motion.

Uniform circular motion is a motion in which the speed does not change,
there is only a change in direction.

In uniform circular motion, the angular velocity can be calculated from

the period or frequency, since these are constant.

While uniformly accelerated circular motion (UACM) occurs when a

particle or solid body describes a circular path, constantly increasing or
decreasing its speed in each unit of time. That is, the particle moves
with constant acceleration.
Evenly varied circular motion

Formulas

r T= f=
Where:

T= Period (s)

f= Frequency (s -1 )

= Initial frequency (s -1 )

= Final frequency (s -1 )

(rad)

Class exercises:

1 .- A mobile phone acquired an angular velocity with a magnitude of

2315 rad/s in 1.02 s. What is the magnitude of the angular acceleration?

2 .- A gear in a machine has an angular velocity of 5221 rad/s and its

time is 2.1 s. Calculate the magnitude of its acceleration.

3 .- If the angular acceleration of a disk is 3215 rad/s 2 after 1.8 s, what

is the angular velocity?
4 .- If the angular velocity of a mobile phone is 2316 rad/s and its
angular acceleration is 1915 rad/s 2 , how long did it take to acquire that
velocity?

5 .- A wheel increased its angular velocity from 22 rad/s to 115 rad/s in

0.8 s. Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration and its angular
displacement in that time.

6 .- A gear has an angular velocity of 45 rad/s and after 1.1 s its

angular velocity is 183 rad/s; calculates its angular acceleration and the
angular displacement acquired in that time.

7 .- Determine the angular velocity of a wheel if its initial angular

velocity is 12 rad/s, if the time was 0.8 s and its angular acceleration is
6 rad/s 2

8 .- A mobile rotates with an initial angular velocity of 24.6 rad/s and

2
has an angular acceleration of 6 rad/s which lasts 9 s. What is the
angular displacement and its angular velocity?

9 .- A disk that rotates at 6 rev/s and increases to 28 rev/s in 4

seconds. Determine the magnitude of the angular acceleration.

10 .- A worker standing on the edge of a platform 10 ft in diameter

travels a distance of 3 ft. What is its angular displacement in radians,
degrees, and revolutions?

11 .- A gear has a radius of 30 cm and rotates 57 revolutions in 1.5

min. What linear distance will it travel in 40 s?

12 .- An electric motor rotates at 530 rpm. What is its angular velocity?

What is the angular displacement after 3 s?

13 .- The wheel of a bicycle completes 19 revolutions in 4 s. I

calculated the average angular velocity in revolutions per second,
revolutions per minute, and radians per second.

14 .- Determine the final angular velocity of a tire at 0.7 minutes if it had

an initial angular velocity of 6 rad/s and suffers an angular acceleration
of 9 rad/s 2 .

Suggested exercises (TASK)

1 .- A gear initially rotates with an angular velocity of 18 rad/s in 9

2
seconds, receiving an angular acceleration of 4 rad/s What is the
magnitude of its final angular velocity after this time?

2
2 .- An endless belt rotates at an initial angular speed of 8 rad/s in a
time of 17 seconds. Calculate the angular velocity in 13 seconds and
the displacement.
3 .- The propeller of a machine has an initial angular velocity of 16.4
2
rad/s and receives an angular acceleration of 7 rad/s for 20 seconds.
What is the magnitude of the final angular velocity and its angular
displacement?

4 .- A disk that rotates at 6 rev/s increases its frequency to 30 rev/s in 2

seconds. Determine the value of its angular acceleration.

5 .- An electric mixer increased its angular velocity from 15 rad/s to 100

rad/s in 0.45 s. calculate: a) What was the value of its acceleration? b)
What was the value of its angular displacement at that time?

6 .- A body A traveled 600 radians and a body B traveled 450 radians.

How many degrees and revolutions are radians equivalent to in each
case?

7 .- Find the angular velocity and period of a wheel that rotates with a
frequency of 780 revolutions per minute.

8 .- A wheel that rotates with a period of 1.3 s changes its period to 2.7
s in 6 seconds. Determine the value of its angular acceleration.

9 .- The wheel of a bicycle has a radius of 55 cm and rotates 45

revolutions in 0.45 min. What linear distance will the bicycle travel in 1.5
minutes?

10 .- A gear rotates with an initial angular velocity whose value is 25

2
rad/s, experiencing an angular acceleration of 3 rad/sec . What value
of angular displacement and angular velocity does it have at 5
seconds?

SESSION 17 and 18:

UNIT III: NEWTON'S LAWS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

3.1- Newton's Law of Gravitation

One of the long-established goals of physics is to understand the

gravitational force, that is, the force that keeps us attached to our planet
and holds the Moon in its orbit around the Earth and around the Sun
and in all its extension. of the universe.

Although the gravitational force has not been completely understood,

the starting point of our knowledge about it is found in Isaac Newton's
Law of Gravitation.

Perhaps you have heard the legend that, while dozing under a tree,
Newton was hit on the head by a falling apple. This supposed accident
caused him to imagine that perhaps all objects in the Universe were
attracted to each other in the same way that the apple was attracted to
the Earth. Newton analyzed astronomical information about the
movement of the Moon around the Earth. From this analysis, he made
the bold claim that the law of force governing the motion of the planets
was the same law of force that attracted a free-falling apple toward
Earth.

In 1687 Newton published his work on the law of gravity in his treatise
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Newton's law of
universal gravitation states that: ̏ Every particle in the Universe
attracts every other particle with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. ̋

This proportionality is usually stated in the form of an equation:

Where m 1 and m 2 are the masses of any pair of particles separated by

a distance r.

The proportionality constant (G) is a universal constant equal

G = 6.67X 10 -11 N • m 2 /kg 2 = 3.44 X 10 -8 Ib • ft 2 /slug 2 The

gravitational force is actually small. Because the mass of the Earth is
relatively large compared to that of the objects on its surface, we often
assume that gravitational forces are very large. However, if we consider
two marbles very close to each other that lie on a horizontal surface, our
experience allows us to verify that the gravitational attraction is weak.
Formulas:

Where:

F= Force of attraction (N)

G = Constant of universal gravitation

m 1.2 = Masses that attract each other (kg)

r= Distance (m)

Class exercises:

1. Two particles, one of 0.5 kg and the other of 0.2 kg, are placed so
that their centers are 80 cm apart. What is the strength with which
they attract each other?
2. A mass of 1.3 kg is at a distance of 15 cm from a mass of 4 kg.
Calculate the force of gravitational attraction between the two
masses.

3. Two objects are 80 mm apart and the larger object attracts

-8
another 850 g object with a force of 5.3x10 N. What is the mass
of the larger object?

4. A mass of 2.60 slug attracts another mass of 1.37 slug with a

-12
force of 6.83x10 N. What is the distance at which they are?
Obtain the result in SUEU units.

5. What distance must there be between a weight of 5 tons and a

weight of 3 tons if their mutual force of attraction is equal to
0.0050 Ib?

6. Two objects are 50 cm apart, one object attracts another 70 lb

object with a force of 3x10 -5 lb f What is the mass of that object?
7. A 30 kg body is at a distance of 15 m from a 2 kg mass. Calculate
the force of gravitational attraction between the two masses.
8. Two weights of 0.3 tons and .8 tons have a mutual force of
-4
attraction of 4.5x10 N. What is the distance that separates
them?

9. What is the gravitational force that two 5.9 kg particles have if

they are separated by a distance of 23 cm.

10. What is the gravitational force that two .5 slug particles have if
they are separated by a distance of 40 in.

11. Three 0.270 kg billiard balls are placed on a table at the corners
of a right triangle. The lengths of the sides of the triangle are
a=50 cm, b=30 cm and c=75 cm. Calculate the resulting
gravitational force and its direction.
12. placed on a surface at the corners of a right triangle. The
lengths of the sides of the triangle are a=20 cm, b=8 cm and c=35
cm. Calculate the resulting gravitational force and its direction.

13. Three particles of 50 g, 25 g and 80 g respectively are

They are positioned forming a right triangle whose sides are a=8
m, b=5 m and c=12 m. Calculate the gravitational force between
particle m 2 and m 3 .
14. Three 0.130 kg billiard balls are placed on a table at the corners
of a right triangle. The lengths of the sides of the triangle are
a=80 cm, b=50 cm and c=100 cm. Calculate the gravitational
force between ball 1 and 2.

Proposed homework exercises:

1. Two particles, one 220,462 lb and one 727,525 lb, are positioned
so that their centers are 8 m apart. What is the strength with
which they attract each other?
2. Two objects are 1 m apart and one object attracts another 10 kg
-9
object with a force of 9x10 N. What is the mass of the other
object?
3. Two particles are 20 ft apart and one object attracts another 100
lb object with a force of 50 N. What is the mass of the larger
object?

4. A mass of 5 kg is at a distance of 86 cm from a mass of 10 kg.

Calculate the force of gravitational attraction between the two
masses.

5. A 400 kg mass attracts another 34 kg mass with a force of 56x10

-3
N. What is the distance at which they are?

6. Two objects are 1 km apart and one object attracts another 30 kg

-14
object with a force of 2x10 N. What is the mass of the other
object?

7. Two particles, one 20 kg and the other 133 kg, are positioned so
that their centers are 30 m apart. What is the strength with which
they attract each other?

-7
8. A 40 kg mass attracts another 4 kg mass with a force of 8x10
N. What is the distance at which they are?

9. Three particles of 1 g, 7 g and 13 g respectively are placed on a

surface at the corners of a right triangle. The side lengths of the
triangle are a=2 m, b=1.5 m and c=3 m. Calculate the resulting
 gravitational force and its direction.

10. Three 0.250 kg billiard balls are placed on a table at the corners
of a right triangle. The lengths of the sides of the triangle are
a=10 cm, b=30 cm and c=90 cm. Calculate the resulting
gravitational force and its direction. Obtain the result in SUEU
units.

SESSION 19, 20 and 21:

3.2- Newton's laws

3.3- Applications

3.2- Newton's First Law

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was the one who first understood the
relationship between a force and the acceleration caused by said force.
The study of this relationship, as Newton presented it, is called
Newton's mechanics, which does not apply to all situations, therefore
we will focus on his first three laws of motion.

Before Newton formulated his mechanics, it was thought that some

influence, a “force,” was needed to keep a body moving at a constant
speed. Likewise, a body was thought to be in its "natural state" when it
remained at rest. So that it moved with constant speed, apparently
 the body had to be propelled in some way, by a push or a pull.
Otherwise it would stop moving.
From these observations, we conclude that a body will continue moving
with constant velocity if no force acts on it. That brings us to the first of
Newton's three laws of motion:

Newton's first law: If no force acts on a body, then the speed of the
body cannot change, that is, it cannot accelerate.

LAW OF INERTIA
Every body at rest,
remain at rest

For it to start moving, it is

necessary to apply force to it.

V Poro to stop a body in motion 2 it is necessary to

overshadow it with a force

Or also: "Every body at rest remains at rest and every body in motion
will remain in motion at a constant speed unless an external force is
applied to it."
We must know that Newton formally began the study of the causes and
effects of the movement of bodies, that is, MECHANICS.

Due to the existence of friction, there is no real body that is completely

free from the action of external forces. However, there are situations in
which it is possible to make the resultant force equal to or
approximately equal to zero. In such cases, the body must behave
according to the first law of motion. Since we recognize that friction can
never be completely eliminated, we must also accept that Newton's first
law is an expression of an ideal situation. A flywheel that spins on
lubricated bearings tends to keep spinning; but even the slightest
friction will sooner or later cause it to stop.

Newton called inertia the property of a particle that allows it to remain in

a constant state of motion or rest. His first law is sometimes known as
the law of inertia. When a car accelerates, passengers obey this law by
tending to remain at rest until the external force of the seats forces
them to move. Similarly, when the car stops, the passengers continue
moving at a constant speed until they are stopped by the seat belts or
by their own efforts.

All matter has inertia. The concept of mass will be presented later as a
measure of the inertia of a body.

The law of inertia defines a special set of reference frames called

inertial frames. This law can be established as follows:

``If an object does not interact with other objects, it is possible to

identify a reference frame in which the object has zero
acceleration.

Such a reference frame is called an inertial reference frame.

3.3- Second law of Newton

Newton's first law explains what happens to an object when no forces

act on it: it remains at rest or moves in a straight line with constant
speed. Newton's second law answers the question of what happens to
an object that has one or more forces acting on it.
Newton's Second Law: When viewed from an inertial reference frame,
the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and proportional inversely
to its mass:

The change in velocity per unit of time is defined as acceleration a.

In both the textual and mathematical statements of Newton's second
law, acceleration is due to the net force acting on an object. The net
force on an object is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the
object.

Mass is the property of an object that specifies how much resistance an

object shows to changing its speed. Experiments show that the greater
the mass of an object, the less the object accelerates under the action
of a known applied force.

The SI unit of force is the Newton (N). A force of 1N is the force that,
when acting on an object of mass 1 kg, produces an acceleration of 1
m/s. From this definition and Newton's second law, it is clear that the
newton can be expressed in terms of the following fundamental units of
mass, length and time:

1N= 1kgm/s 2

In the US system, the unit of force is the pound (lb). A force of one
pound is the force that, when acting on a mass of 1 slug, produces an
acceleration of 1 ft/s 2 :

1lb= 1slug ft/s 2

A convenient approximation is 1N
Free body diagrams

A free body diagram is a vector diagram that describes all the forces
acting on an object or body. Note that, in the case of concurrent forces,
all vectors point away from the center of the x and y axes, which
intersect at a common origin.

When drawing free-body diagrams it is important to distinguish between

action and reaction forces. To avoid confusion, it is important to select a
point at which all forces act and draw those forces acting on the body at
that point.

To carry out the analysis of a free body diagram, the following external
forces must be considered:

Friction : This occurs when two bodies come into contact and always
opposes movement; This force is also exerted in water and air.

Friction force opposite to motion

Weight: Equivalent to the force exerted by a body on a support point,

caused by the action of the local gravitational field on the mass of the
body.
Tension: It is the force that can exist due to the interaction in a spring,
rope or cable when it is attached to a body and is pulled or stressed.
This force occurs outwards from the object.
Normal: It is a contact force exerted by a surface on a body resting on
it. This force will always be perpendicular to the contact surface.

To analyze all of these possible forces, free body diagrams are a tool to
discover the unknown forces that appear in the equations of body
motion.

3.4- Newton's third law There cannot be a force if two bodies are not
involved. When a hammer hits a nail, it exerts an “action” force on it.
But the nail also “reacts” by pushing the hammer back. In all cases
there must be an action force and a reaction force. Whenever two
bodies interact, the force exerted by the second on the first (the
reaction force ) is equal in magnitude, but in the opposite direction to
the direction of the force exerted by the first body on the second (the
action force ). . This principle is stated in Newton's third law.
"Every action corresponds to a reaction of the same magnitude or
intensity, in the same direction, but with a different sense."

Therefore, there cannot be a single isolated force. Consider the

examples of action and reaction forces:

Note that the action and reaction forces do not cancel out. They are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, but they act on different
objects. For two forces to cancel each other, they must act on the same
object. It can be said that the forces of action create the forces
of reaction. For example, when someone starts to climb a ladder, the
first thing they do is place one foot on the step and push off. The step
must exert equal and opposite force on the foot to avoid breaking. The
greater the force the foot exerts on the step, the greater the reaction
against the foot. Of course, the step cannot create a reaction force until
the force of the foot is applied. The action force acts on the object and
the reaction force acts on the agent that applies the force.
We must take into account that the force that produces the action acts
on one body and the reaction force acts on another, therefore, they are
pairs of forces that act on different bodies, so an equilibrium is not
produced.

Let's take into account that when the speed does not change to = 0 the
body is at rest.

Therefore, the action force () will be of equal magnitude but in the

opposite direction to the reaction force () according to the following
formula:

; ;

3.5- Applications:

Neglect friction forces for all exercises that do not mention such a force.

1. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

 Result:

2. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

 Result:

3. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

Answer:

4. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

Answer

5. A block hangs from a rope attached to two other ropes, 1 and 2,

which, in turn, are attached to the ceiling. If rope 2 makes a 70°
angle with the ceiling and rope 1 makes a 35° angle, draw the
free-body diagram of the knot.

6. Make the free-body diagram of a 300-N block suspended by a

rope A that is pulled to one side horizontally by another rope B
and held so that rope A makes an angle of 30° with the vertical
 wall.

7. An 80 N block rests on a frictionless inclined plane, which has a

slope of 45°. The block is tied to a rope that passes over a
frictionless pulley placed at the upper end of the plane and is tied
to a second block. Draw the free body diagram.

8. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

9. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

10. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

11. Draw the free body diagram of the scheme.

12. Draw the free body diagram of the

scheme.
13. What is the force necessary for a 155 kg mobile phone, starting
from rest, to acquire a speed of 3 m/s in 9 seconds.

14. What acceleration will a 3.3 kg body take when

on the current one a force of 8 Newton.

15. Calculate the mass of a body whose weight has a

magnitude of 3100 N.

16. Calculate the mass of a body that, upon receiving a force of 135 N,
2
produces an acceleration whose magnitude is 200 cm/s . Get the
result in kg.

17. Find the magnitude of the weight of a body whose mass is 132 kg.

18. Alberto weighs 714 N and rides an elevator with an acceleration

whose magnitude is 3 m/s 2 . Calculate:

a) The apparent weight of the person, that is, the magnitude of

 the reaction force that the elevator floor will exert when going
up.
b) The magnitude of the person's apparent weight when lowered.

19. Determine the magnitude of the force that must be applied to

a ball bearing cart that has a mass of 40 kg to change the
magnitude of its velocity from 0 to 3 m/s in 1 second.

2
20. Determine the magnitude of the acceleration in m/s
produced by a force whose magnitude is 75 N to a body whose
mass is 1500 g.

21. When a box is pressed with a force of 5.5 N, it acquires an

acceleration of 4 m/s 2 What is the mass of the box?
22. What force must be generated when pushing a car with a
mass of 1200 kg, if an acceleration of 0.8 m/s 2 is obtained?
 23. What is the acceleration achieved when applying a force of
47 N to a body whose mass is 42 kg.

24. A crane lifts a block whose weight is 350 N; performing an

applied force of 1500 N. What is the magnitude of the
acceleration acquired by the body?

25. Two friends, Ana and Laura, are going to skate from rest,
when Ana pushes Laura with a force of 90 N. Calculate the
acceleration that each one acquires, if Ana has a mass of 45
kg and Laura 42 kg.
26. A 38 kg child exerts a force on a 6 kg skateboard.
kg. If she receives an acceleration of 2.3 m/s 2 , what is the
skateboard acceleration?

2
27. A person accelerates a tool box at 2 m/s and it acquires an
2
acceleration of 5.3 m/s having a mass of 20 kg. What is the
mass of the person pushing the box?
 29. If we push two boxes of 110kg and 80kg of mass with
a force of 140 N, s. What is the acceleration of each mass? What
force will each box exert on the other?

30. A 43 kg girl exerts a force on a skate of 4

kg. If he receives an acceleration of 1.8 m/s 2 , what is the
skateboard acceleration?
SESSION 22 and 23:

3.6- Kepler's Laws and Planetary Motion

Kepler's Laws

The German astronomer Johannes Kepler, a disciple of Brahe, took up

the countless data collected by his mentor and worked with them for
many years trying to develop a mathematical model that agreed with
the observed data. At the beginning of this research it seemed obvious
that the orbits of the planets might not be circular. Their studies showed
that the orbit of the planet Mars was actually an ellipse, with the Sun at
one of its focuses. This conclusion was later generalized to all planets
orbiting the Sun, and Kepler was able to establish several mathematical
statements related to the solar system. Today these statements are
known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
Kepler's First Law: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at
one of the focuses. This law is sometimes called the law of orbits.

Kepler's Second Law: A line connecting a planet to the Sun covers

equal areas in equal times. This law is also called area law.
Kepler's Third Law: The square of the period of any planet is
proportional to the cube of the planet's average distance from the Sun.
This law is also known as the law of periods.

Kepler's third law is represented by the following equation, which was

obtained for a satellite in a circular orbit. It is also true for ellipses if we
replace R (the average distance
from the planet to the Sun) with a, semimajor axis of the ellipse. In
the result, another way to be general for the equation can
written as:

Note that when the planet's path is circular, a = R.

The following equation allows you to determine the mass of the Earth or
other celestial bodies after substituting the known data:

As you remember, weight is the attraction that the Earth exerts on the
masses located near its surface. Therefore, based on Newton's law of
gravitation, the attraction that any large spherical mass (such as that of
the Earth) exerts on another mass located outside the sphere can be
calculated assuming that the total mass of the large sphere It is
concentrated in its center.

Satellites in Circular Orbits:

A terrestrial satellite is nothing more than a projectile that “falls” around

the Earth. Since the surface of the Earth is curved, one can only
imagine that, if the velocity were great enough, a falling ball would
simply follow the curved surface around the Earth. Of course, this
example has two serious problems: first, that the Earth's surface is not
uniform and there would definitely be obstructions; second, that due to
the great acceleration that would be near the Earth's surface, the speed
would have to be exceptionally great. Calculations show that speeds of
the order of 29,000 km/h or 18,000 mi/h would be required. The ball
would burn to ash quickly at such speeds due to atmospheric friction.
However, today there are a large number of satellites placed in orbit
around the Earth at altitudes where excessive resistance and speed are
not a problem. Some move in orbits that are almost circular as they
“fall” around our planet. If a space station were placed in a circular orbit
around the Earth, neither the space vehicle nor the passengers would
be “weightless”; On the contrary, the gravitational force (weight) is what
provides the centripetal force necessary for circular motion.

For the aforementioned reasons, the speed of a circularly orbiting

satellite is calculated according to the following equation:
 Gm.
V-vf
For a large number of satellites, the period T is very important. For
example, communication satellites must circle the Earth in a period
equal to the time it takes the planet to make a revolution; In other
words, they need a day. Such orbits are said to be geosynchronous
(geostationary) and the satellites are called synchronous satellites.
These satellites remain at an accessible point at a necessarily constant
latitude, which easily allows direct communication between two points
on Earth. Three of these satellites are necessary to allow direct line
communication between all points on Earth.
Therefore, and according to the previous formulas, the square of the
period of a revolution is proportional to the cube of the radius of the
orbit.

Class exercises:

1. On the surface of the Moon, the acceleration due to gravity is 1.62

m/s 2 . If the diameter of the Moon is 3474 km, calculate the mass
of the Moon.

2. On the surface of Mars, the acceleration due to gravity is 3,711

2 23
m/s . If the mass of the Moon is 6.4185x10 kg, calculate its
radius.
3. The radius of a distant planet is approximately 67355 km, its
26
mass is 3.5x10 kg. What is the acceleration due to gravity on
that planet?

30
4. The mass of the sun is approximately 1.9891x10 kg and the
acceleration due to gravity is 274 m/s 2 . Calculate its radius.

5. A satellite is located at a distance of 500 km above the Earth's

surface. What is the period of the satellite's motion?

Earth radius: 6378000m

6. How far above the Earth's surface must a satellite be for it to
complete one revolution around our planet in a period of 20
hours?

7. What is the mass of mercury if an artificial satellite takes 25 hours

to complete one revolution which is 700 km from its surface.

Mercury radius:2439.7 km

8. A satellite is located at a distance of 372,823 miles above the

Earth's surface. What is the period of the satellite's motion?

9. An artificial satellite is located at a distance of 1,148x10 6 ft above

the surface of the Moon. What is the period of the satellite's
motion?

Mass of the Moon: 7.349 × 10 22 kg

Diameter of the Moon: 3474 km

10. What is the mass of the sun if the period of the Earth's orbit
7
around the sun is 3.156x10 s and the distance from the sun is
 1.5x10 11 m.

24,
11. If the mass of the Earth is 5.9x10 what should be the altitude
of a synchronous satellite that is placed in orbit around the Earth?

12. An astronaut with a mass of 89 kg travels in a space station that

moves in a circular orbit 1100 km above the Earth's surface.
Calculate the speed of the space station.

13. What is the weight of an astronaut traveling in a space station

that moves in a circular orbit 700 km above the Earth's surface
whose mass is 90 kg.

14. What is the period of a synchronous satellite that moves in a

circular orbit 1500 km above the Earth's surface?
Suggested homework exercises:

24
1. The mass of an unknown planet is 2.8x10 kg and its radius is
approximately 9873 km. What is the acceleration due to gravity
on that planet?
2. How far above the surface of the Moon must a satellite be to
complete one revolution around our planet in a period of 35
hours?

3. An artificial satellite is located at a distance of 1000 km above the

surface of Mars. What is the period of the satellite's motion?
4. What is the mass of Venus if it takes 40 hours for an artificial
satellite to complete one revolution which is 1150 km from its
surface.

5. On the surface of Jupiter, the acceleration due to gravity is 24.79

m/s². If the mass of Jupiter is 1.899×10 27 kg, calculate its radius.

23,
6. If the mass of Mars is 6.39x10 what must be the altitude of a
synchronous satellite that is placed in orbit around Mars?

7. An astronaut with a mass of 110 kg travels in a space station that

moves in a circular orbit 700 km above the Earth's surface.
Calculate the speed of the space station.

8. What is the weight of an astronaut traveling in a space station

that moves in a circular orbit 1200 km above the Earth's surface
whose mass is 4.79 slug.

9. What is the period of a synchronous satellite that moves in a

circular orbit 600 km above the Earth's surface?
10. What is the weight of an astronaut traveling in a space station
 that moves in a circular orbit 1200 km above the surface of Mars
whose mass is 88 kg.

11.

SESSION 26 and 27:

UNIT IV: WORK AND ENERGY

4.1- Job

Work W is energy transferred to or from an object by a force acting on

the object. The energy transferred to the object is positive work and the
energy transferred from the object is negative work.

The term work has an operational, explicit and quantitative definition.

For a job to be carried out, three requirements must be met:

1. There must be a force applied.

2. The force must act over a certain distance, called displacement.
3. The force must have a component along the displacement.

Therefore, 'work' is energy transferred; “Doing work” is the act of

transferring energy. Work has the same units as energy and is a scalar
quantity.

When applying a force on a body it will move in the direction of the

applied force and energy will be transferred, therefore, Work is energy
in motion that is applied to an object with a certain weight in a specific
direction.
To calculate the work done on an object by a force during a
displacement, we only use the force component throughout the object's
displacement. The force component perpendicular to the displacement
does zero work.
Examples:

✔ Horizontal work:

So;
✔ Work with angle between travel directions

distance d and force F :

So;

✔ Vertical work:
So; W=mgh

Note that the units of work are the units of force multiplied by the units
of distance. Therefore, in SI units, work is measured in newton-meters
(N • m). By convention, this combined unit is called a joule and is
represented by the symbol J. One joule (1 J) is equal to the work done
by a force of one newton in moving an object along a parallel distance
of one meter.

In the United States, work is also sometimes expressed in US

Customary Units (SUEU). When the force is expressed in pounds (Ib)
and the displacement in feet (ft), the corresponding unit of work is
called foot-pound (ft • Ib). One foot-pound (1 ft • Ib) is equal to the work
done by a force of one pound in moving an object along a parallel
distance of one foot. There is no special name for this unit.

The following conversion factors are useful when comparing units of

work in the two systems:
 1 J = 0.7376 ftIb; 1 ftIb = 1.356 J

Resulting work:

When considering the work of various forces acting on the same object
it is useful to distinguish between positive and negative work.
Therefore, the convention will be followed that the work of a specific
force is positive if the component of the force is in the same direction as
the displacement. The negative work is done by a component of force
that opposes the real displacement. Thus, the work done by a crane
when lifting a load is positive, but the gravitational force exerted by the
Earth on the load does negative work. Likewise, if we stretch a spring,
the work on it is positive and the work on the spring is negative when it
contracts and drags us. Another important example of negative work is
that done by a friction force that opposes the direction of travel.

If several forces act on a moving body, the resulting work (total work) is
the algebraic sum of the works of the individual forces. This will also be
equal to the work of the resultant force. The performance of net work
requires the existence of a resultant force.

Formulas:

Where:

W= Work (Joule)
F= Force (N)
d= Displacement (m)
m= Mass (kg)
g= Gravity (9.8 m/s23 )
h= Height (m)
F f =Friction force (N)
(dimensionless)
N= Normal force (N)
P=Weight

(Joule)
Class exercises:

2. A box is pulled by an 18 N tension rope. The surface measures 8

m in total and the rope has an angle of 75

3. What work is done on a body that moves with a force of 80 N over

a distance of 50 m.

2 A box is pushed with an initial force of 5 N across a surface area

of 1.5 m. An opposing friction force of 7 N is applied.
3a) Calculate the work of the 5 N force.
b) What is the work of the friction force?
4. A force of 250 N acts on a body that moves along a horizontal
surface of 30 m. Calculate the work done .

5. What force does it take to lift a boat to a height of 1.5 m if work of

85.3 Joule is done?

6. A child drags a toy car with a force of 25 N. With the rope it forms
an angle of 28, if the car moves forward 10 m, what is the work
done?
7. An athlete exerts a total force of 588 N. What is the distance
traveled? Knowing that it performs a work of 4704 J.

8. A force of 33 N acts over a distance of 5 m. Calculate:

a) The work done by said force
b) The force that will do the same work over a distance of 8m.

9. A cart like the one in the figure is dragged with a force of 100
N, traveling a distance of 20 m when the force transmitted by
the handlebars forms an angle of 25° with the horizontal. What
is the work done?

F
10. A 55.11 lb trunk is pushed a distance of 30 m. If the
coefficient of sliding friction is 0.4, what work has been done
by the friction force?

11. A crane lifts a 900 kg car to a height of 10 ft. How many

meters can you lift another 700 kg car with the same amount
of work?

12. A 3 kg block is moved with a force of 120 N up a plane

inclined at 40°. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.4 and the
length of the plane is 18 m. Calculate:
a) The work done by each of the forces acting on the block
b) The net work done by these forces
 13. What is the resultant work and acceleration of an 8 kg block that
is dragged 50 m by a parallel force of 45 N if (k = 0.3.

14. A 30 kg trunk is dragged at an angle of 20° with the horizontal

for a horizontal distance of 14 m, if the tension in the rope is 78 N
and the friction force is 18 N. What work do the rope and friction
do? What is the resulting work?

Proposed homework exercises

1. Calculate the force of work done of 12 J knowing that the distance

traveled is 8 cm.

2. Determine what requires more work…. climbing an 820 N package

up a 500 m hill or a 725 N package up a 300 m hill.

3. A crane exerts a parallel and constant force of 500 N on a lump of

sand and moves it a distance of 200 m. What work did the crane do?

4. Calculate the work of a crane that exerts a force of 780 N with a

displacement of 8 km with an angle of 190°.

5. Calculate the work done by a force of 20 N on an object that moves

2 m down a 40° inclined plane.
6. A suitcase is dragged a horizontal distance of 40 m by a rope that
makes an angle I with the floor. If the tension in the rope is 60 N, what
is the work done at each of the following angles: 30°, 45°, 60°?

7. A person lifts a 3 kg box to a height of 1.5 ft. How many meters can
you lift another 4 kg box with the same amount of work?

8. An object is moved with a force of 45 N over a distance of 16.4 ft.

Calculate:
a) The work done by said force
b) The force that will do the same work over a distance of 15 m

9. A heavy 88 kg machinery is relocated by dragging it horizontally a

distance of 20 m. If the resulting work is 2000 J and the coefficient of
kinetic friction is 0.25, what was the parallel pulling force?
10. A 10 kg box is moved with a force of 500 N up a plane inclined at
35°. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3 and the length of the plane
is 44 m. Calculate:
a) The work done by each of the forces acting on the block.
b) The net work done by these forces.

UNIT IV: WORK AND ENERGY

4.2- Kinetic Energy

The work has already been investigated and identified as an energy

transfer mechanism in a system.
SESSION One
30possible
and 31: result of doing work on a
system is that the system changes its speed.

Kinetic energy E c is the energy that a body has by virtue of its

movement.
From the previous equation we can obtain the change in kinetic energy
for a system that requires it by obtaining the following equation:

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and has the same units as work.

Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

When the work done by a constant net force carries out a

displacement, which is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the
particle, the relationship between work and kinetic energy is obtained.

With this definition, we can now state that the resulting work done on a
mass m by a constant force F exerted over a distance x is equal to the
change in kinetic energy ΔK .

This is the definition of what we will call the work-energy theorem.

It holds for positive and negative work: if the net work done on a particle
is positive, the kinetic energy of the particle increases by the amount of
the work. If the net work done is negative, the kinetic energy of the
particle decreases by the amount of work.

Work-energy theorem: The work of a resultant external force exerted

on a body is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of that body.

RY = 1mv2-------mv2
2-2nd

Since only translational motion through space has been investigated so

far, the work-kinetic energy theorem was arrived at by analyzing
situations involving translational motion.

Formulas:
Where:
E C = Kinetic energy (Joule)
F= Force (N)
d= Distance (m)
m= Mass (kg)
v o = Initial velocity (m/s)
v f = Final speed (m/s)

Class exercises:

1. Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 600 kg moving at a

speed of 100 km/h.

2. A 700 kg car with a speed of 80 km/h brakes and reduces its

speed to 70 km/h. Determine the initial and final kinetic energy.

3. Determine the kinetic energy of a car traveling at 15 m/s if its

mass is 1 kg.

4. Calculate the kinetic energy of a 900 kg car moving at 80 km/h.

5. A person of mass 65 kg moving with a speed of 20 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy .
 6. A body is moving at 18 m/s with a kinetic energy of 2000 J.
Calculate the mass of said body.

7. A 1470 N motorcycle travels at a speed of 25 m/s. What is its

kinetic energy?

8. A 20 g ball hits the ground at a speed of 20 m/s and rebounds at

12 m/s. What is the change in kinetic energy during this motion?

9. A 10 g bullet travels at 200 m/s and penetrates a piece of wood

at a distance of 20 cm. What is the average force necessary to
stop the bullet?
Yes v f 2 =0

10. A 19600 N car at a speed of 23 m/s stops. What was the

magnitude of the work done by the car?
Yes v f 2 =0

11. A 2000 kg small plane increases its speed from 100 km/h to 270
km/h. What resulting work was required to achieve this in SUEU
units?

12. An 18 kg bicycle travels at 18 m/s on a level road (( f =0.4). What

work is required to stop it and what is the braking distance?
Yes v f4 =0

13. What is the initial kinetic energy of a 500 g hammer moving at

49.2 ft/s just before hitting the head of a nail. What work was
done by the head of the hammer?

PROPOSED TASK EXERCISES

1. A 2000 kg train with a speed of 30 m/s decreases its speed to 10

m/s. Determine the change in kinetic energy.

3. Two stones of equal mass are thrown, but one with twice the speed
of the other. Which will have the greatest kinetic energy? Demonstrate
and explain why?

4. Two racing cars of the same mass, 1800 kg, take the final straight to
the finish line, one at 80 km/h and the other at 82 km/h. What is the
difference in kinetic energy of these cars?

5. What is the mass of a person walking with a speed of 4 m/s with a

kinetic energy of 600 J.

6. A 4389.4 lb m car that has a kinetic energy of 91052 ft-lb f , calculate

the speed of the car in SI units.

4 What is the speed of a 10 kg bicycle whose kinetic energy is 70 J.

7. A 10780 N car travels at a speed of 49.2 mi/h, what is its kinetic
energy in SI AND SUEU?

8. A 2643.7 lb f car increases its speed from 50 km/h to 70 km/h. What

resulting work was required to achieve this?

9. What work at the SUEU was required for a 784 N athlete to increase
his speed from 6.56 ft/s to 16.4 ft/s.

10. A 6860 N cart travels at 18 mi/h on a level road ( μ f =0.8). What

work is required to stop it and what is the stopping distance?

11. What is the work and friction force required to brake a train car of
3946.88 lb f traveling at 28 m/s on level tracks ( μ f =0.9).

SESSION 30 and 31:

UNIT IV: WORK AND ENERGY

4.3- Potential energy

Consider an object that is at a certain height from the surface, while it is

at the highest point, the anergy of the system has the potential to
convert into kinetic energy, but it does not do so until the object is
allowed to fall. Consequently, the energy storage mechanism before
the book is released is called potential energy. It will be found that the
potential energy of a system is only associated with specific types of
forces acting between members of a system. The amount of potential
energy in the system is determined by its configuration. Moving the
members of the system to different positions or rotating them changes
their configuration and therefore their potential energy.

The external force F necessary to lift the body must be at least equal to
the weight W. Then, the work done by the system is given by:

Work = Wh = mgh

This amount of work can also be done by the body after falling a
distance h. Therefore, the body has a potential energy equal in
magnitude to the external work necessary to raise it. This energy does
not come from the Earth-body system, but rather results from the work
done on the system by an external agent.

Based on the above, the potential energy U is determined from:

Where W and m are, respectively, the weight and mass of an object

located at a distance h above a reference point.

The potential energy depends on the choice of a specific reference

level. The gravitational potential energy in the case of an airplane is
very different when it is measured relative to the top of a mountain, a
skyscraper or sea level. The ability to do work is much greater if the
plane falls to sea level. Potential energy has a physical meaning only
when a reference level is established.

Now consider in more detail an object moving downward, near the

Earth's surface. The work done by the gravitational force on the object
does not depend on whether it falls vertically or slides down a steeply
inclined plane. All that matters is the change in elevation of the object.
However, the transformation of energy into internal energy due to
friction in that plane depends on the distance the object slides. In other
words, the trajectory makes no difference when considering the work
invested by the gravitational force, but it does make a difference when
considering the energy transformation due to frictional forces. This
variable path dependence can be used to classify forces as
conservative or non-conservative. Of the two forces mentioned, the
gravitational force is conservative and the friction force is non-
conservative.

Conservative force: It is one whose work depends only on the initial

and final positions of the particle and not on the trajectory that it has
described to go from the initial position to the final position.
Non-conservative force: These are those in which the work done by
them is different from zero along a closed path. This type of work is
dependent on the path taken, so the longer the distance, the greater
the work done.

Formulas:
; ;
Where:
Class exercises:
1. A 1020 N beam is raised to a height of 200 m. Calculate its
potential energy.

2. A 0.171 slug microwave is 1 m above a table that is also 70 cm

from the floor. Determine the potential energy with respect to the
top of the table and with respect to the floor.

3. What will be the height to which a 10,000-g beam must be lifted

by means of a forklift until its potential energy is 221.26 ft.lb f

relative to the floor?

4. A 3 kg block is suspended 3.5 m above a well and then dropped.

The bottom of the well is 5 m below street level. With respect to
the street, what is the potential energy of the block at each of
those locations? What is the change in terms of potential energy?

5. A child holds a 20 g ball 50 cm from the ground and lets it fall,

which collides with a piece of furniture 15 cm from the ground.
Calculate the change in potential energy in this situation?

6. A projectile at a certain instant develops a speed of 43 m/s. If its

potential energy at that point is equal to half its kinetic energy,
 what is its height above ground level.

7. What will be the mass of a weight that is lifted to 23 m by a forklift

with a potential energy of 12300 J?

8. A force of 870 N is required to compress a spring a distance of

3.5 cm. What is the value of the work done by the spring? What
is the change in potential energy of the compressed spring?

9. The potential energy of a sled that is pushed up a slope to a

vertical height of 122 m is 1500 J. It then continues its movement
in the same direction, descending to a vertical height of 50 m,
generating a change in potential energy of 800 J. What is the
final potential energy?
10. A stone is thrown from a height of 82.1 ft. If its potential energy
at that point is its kinetic energy, what is its speed?

11. A 46.6 slug beam is raised to a height of 60 m. Calculate its

potential energy.
12. What will be the height to which a 20 kg piece of furniture must
be lifted by means of a forklift with a potential energy of 560 J?

13. A 2-ton object is raised to a height of 141 ft. Calculate its

potential energy.

14. The potential energy of an object that is pushed up a slope is

4500 J. Then it continues descending in the same direction,
generating a change in potential energy of 1400 J. What is the
final potential energy?
Suggested homework exercises

1. A 6-ton load is lifted with an industrial crane through 8 floors of a

building. What is the potential energy upon reaching the top floor
if the height of each floor is 2.3 m?

2. What is the mass of a ball that is thrown to a height of 25 m due

to a potential energy of 120 J.

3. A 30 kg toolbox is raised up an inclined ramp of 35 with the

horizontal at a distance of 15 m. What potential energy will it have
when it reaches the top?

4. What will be the height to which a 2-slug profile must be raised by

means of a forklift until its potential energy is 450 J relative to the
floor?

5. A 132.18 lb f wrecking ball is 5 m above a window of a building

being demolished that is also 2.8 m above the floor. Determine
the potential energy with respect to the top of the window and
with respect to the floor.

6. A 7.84 N bucket is suspended 4.92 ft above a water well and then

dropped. The bottom of the well is 22.96 ft below ground level.
With respect to the ground, what is the potential energy of the
bucket at each of those locations? What is the change in terms of
potential energy?
7. A force of 237 lbf is required to compress a spring a distance of 50
cm. What is the value of the work done by the spring? What is the
change in potential energy of the compressed spring?

8. What will be the height in relation to the floor to which a 580 kg

object must be lifted by means of a forklift until its potential energy
is 9000 J? Give the answer in the SUEU.

9. A ball is thrown from a height of 20 m. If its potential energy at

that point is 1/4 its kinetic energy, what is its speed?

10. An object at a certain instant develops a speed of 73.82 mi/h. If

its potential energy at that point is 1/3 its kinetic energy, what is its
height above ground level.
 SESSION 31 and 32:

UNIT IV: WORK AND ENERGY

4.4- Conservation of Energy and Power

The concept of energy is one of the most important topics in science

and engineering. Energy is present in the Universe in various forms.
Every physical process that occurs in the Universe involves energy and
energy transfers or transformations. Unfortunately, despite its extreme
importance, energy is not easy to define.

However, according to the effect that energy performs, it can be defined

based on its function and for the effects that concern us we can say
that an object that has energy is capable of exerting a force on another
object to do work on it. he. On the contrary, if we do work on an object,
we have provided it with an amount of energy equal to the work done.

Energy conservation

The principle of conservation of energy extends beyond physics and is

applied to biological organisms, technological systems, and engineering
situations. In isolated systems, energy does not cross the system
boundary. For such systems the total energy of the system is constant.
If no non-conservative forces act within the system, conservation of
mechanical energy is applied to solve various problems. It is
recognized that energy can cross the boundaries of a system in
different quantities. The rate of energy transfer is described by the
amount of power. So far there has only been one way to transfer
energy to a system: work.

Due to the aforementioned, very frequently, at relatively low speeds an

exchange between potential and kinetic energies takes place.

Conservation of energy

Suppose a mass m is lifted to a height h and then dropped. An external

force has increased the energy of the system, giving it a potential
energy U = mgh at the highest point. This is the total energy available
to the system and cannot be changed unless faced with an external
resistance force. As the mass falls, its potential energy decreases
because the height above the ground is reduced. The loss of potential
energy reappears in the form of kinetic energy of motion. In the
absence of air resistance, the total energy (E p + E c ) remains the
same. The potential energy continues to be transformed into kinetic
energy until the mass reaches the floor (h = 0).
The mechanical energy E mec of a system is the sum of its potential
energy E p and the kinetic energy E c of the objects that compose it:

Total energy = kinetic energy — potential energy — constant

When the system is isolated and only conservative forces act on the
objects of the system. That is to say:

In an isolated system, where only conservative forces cause energy

changes, the kinetic and potential energy can change, but their sum,
the mechanical energy E mec of the system, cannot change. This result is
called the principle of conservation of mechanical energy.

The principle of conservation of mechanical energy allows us to solve

problems that would be very difficult using Newton's laws alone.
Whenever this principle is applied, it is convenient to think about the
beginning and the end of the process in question. At any of these
points, if there is speed v, there is kinetic energy: if there is height,
there is potential energy. If we assign the subscripts 0 and f to the start
and end points, respectively, we can write:

Of course, this equation strictly applies only in cases where there are
no frictional forces and no energy is added to the system.
Power

The speed with which a force does work is the power due to the force.
If a force does a quantity of work W in a quantity of time Δt, the average
power due to the force during that time interval is:

The instantaneous power P is the instantaneous speed with which work

is done, which we can write as:

The SI unit of power is the joule per second. This unit is used so
frequently that it has a special name, the watt (W), in honor of James
Watt, who greatly improved the speed with which steam engines can do
work.

1 W - 1 J/s

In SUEU units, the pound-foot per second (ft Ib/s) is used and no
particular name is given to this unit.

The watt and foot-pound per second have the disadvantage of being
units that are too small for most industrial purposes. Therefore, the
kilowatt (kW) and the horsepower (hp) are used, which are defined as:
 1 kW = 1000 W

1 hp = 550 ft ■ Ib/s

In the United States, the watt and kilowatt are used almost exclusively
in relation to electrical energy; horsepower is reserved for mechanical
energy. This practice is simply a convention and is in no way
mandatory. It is perfectly correct to talk about a 0.08 hp light bulb or
show a 238 kW motor. The conversion factors are:
1 hp = 746 W = 0.746

Since work is done continuously, it is useful to have an expression for

power that includes velocity. So,

_work_Fx p = p- = Fv
F
~ ts t t
Where:

Then v is the speed of the body on which the parallel force F is applied.
Class exercises:
1. A 0.8 kg sphere is thrown upward and has a speed of 40 m/s.
Calculate the initial value of the kinetic and potential energy if the
height is 15 m.

2. A truck carries a translational kinetic energy of 5x10 5 J and stops

after traveling 28 m. Calculate the magnitude of the force that
acts to stop.

3. A mass of 10 kg is at a height of 20 m. Calculate the potential

energy and kinetic energy if it acquires an initial speed of 30 m/s

4. A car weighs 2500 N and goes down a slope with an angle of 30

and acquires a speed of 80 km/h. What will be the kinetic and
potential energy after 60 m?
6. We wish to lift a 150 kg tool box at constant speed to a floor 25 m
above the surface. The crane that loads the box uses an average
power of 600 W. How long does it take to do the job?

7. A 10 kg body slides from a height of 15 m. If it starts from rest,

5 A 19 kg body is thrown vertically upward with a
speed of 40 m/s. Determine the maximum height it reaches.
 what is the speed of the body.

8. An industrial piece of equipment having a total mass of 3500 kg is

lifted by an elevator and raised to a height of 180 m in a period of
30 s. Express the average power in both SI and SUEU units.

9. A 60-kg wrecking ball is propelled laterally until it is 2.3 m above

its lowest position. Neglecting friction, what will be its velocity
when it returns to its lowest point?

10. A horizontal jaw crusher with a fixed jaw lifts the 20 kg movable
jaw to a height of 7 m and is dropped. What are the potential and
kinetic energies of the jaw when it has fallen to a point 2 m from
the level of the fixed jaw?

11. What initial velocity must be imparted to a 2 kg hammer to raise

it to a height of 2 m? What is the total energy at any point along
its path?
 12. A 12 kg cart has an initial speed of 10 m/s on its way down.
Neglect friction and calculate the velocity when the block reaches
point B and at point C.

13. The conveyor belt of an automatic station lifts 800 tons of ore to
a height of 70 ft in 1 hour.
What average power is required for this, in horsepower?

14. A 70 kW motor is used to lift a load of 600 kg. What is the

average speed during the climb?

Suggested homework exercises

1. What is the speed of a 50 kg weight descending from a height of

20 m, if it starts from rest.

2. An 8 kg block is dropped from a height of 33 m if it acquires an

initial velocity of 15 m/s. What is its kinetic and potential energy?
3. What initial velocity must be imparted to a 33 lb f block to raise it
to a height of 4 m? What is the total energy at any point along its
path?

4. A 39.6 lb f cart has an initial velocity of 16.4 ft/s on its way down.
Neglect friction and calculate the velocity when the block reaches
point B and at point C.

5. How high can a 0.804 hp motor lift a 250 kg object in 7 s?

6. An 80-kg worker runs up a flight of stairs and ascends 8 m in 15

s. What is the average power it has developed?

7. A 5500 (ftlb)/s motor is used to lift a 110 kg load. What is the

average speed during the climb?

8. What is the power needed to move the conveyor belt of a factory

if the mass it moves is 70 kg at 13 m/s.
 9. A 25 kg box slides from a height of 7 m. If it starts from rest, what
is the speed of the body.

10. The power of a car is 150 hp and its mass is 1100 kg. What is
the speed it can reach with this power?

SESSIONS 33 AND 34:

UNIT V: Types of Movements

5.1 Momentum and its conservation

The linear momentum of a particle or an object that is modeled as a

particle of mass m moving with a velocity is defined as the product of
the mass and velocity of the particle:

Linear momentum is a vector quantity because it is equal to the product

of a scale quantity m and a scalar quantity . Its direction is along and its
SI unit is kg

As seen from its definition, the concept of momentum provides a

quantitative distinction between heavy and light particles that move at
the same speed. For example, the momentum of a bowling ball is much
greater than that of a tennis ball moving with the same speed. Newton
called the product m momentum.

Using Newton's second law of motion, the linear momentum of a

particle can be related to the resultant force acting on the particle. It
starts with Newton's second law and replaces the definition of
acceleration:
In Newton's second law, the mass m is assumed constant. Because of
that, we can take m inside the derivative operation to obtain.

This equation shows that the rate of change of the linear momentum of
a particle with time is equal to the net force acting on the particle.

When the system is isolated:

If we apply the derivative with respect to time to the total momentum,

we conclude that the total momentum of an isolated system for two
particles must remain constant.

Therefore, when the system is isolated, the following is true:

• The momentum of a system of two particles subject only to their
mutual interaction remains constant.
Where y are the initial values and y are the final values of the
momentum for the two particles in the time interval during which the
particles affect each other.

This result is known as the law of conservation of linear momentum,

where it can be extended to any number of particles in an isolated
system. It is considered one of the most important laws of mechanics:

Whenever two or more particles interact in a system

isolated, the total momentum of the system remains
constant.
• Even though this principle has been demonstrated for two
particles, it holds for any system of particles.

Impulse and Momentum of Movement:

According to what was seen above, where the momentum of a particle

changes if a net force acts on the particle, the Impulse is defined, a
vector quantity that is not a property of the particle; rather, it is a
measure of the degree to which the external force changes the
particle's momentum.
Impulse-momentum theorem:

The change in momentum of a particle is equal to the momentum of the

net force acting on the particle:

This statement is equivalent to Newton's second law. When it is said

that a particle is given an impulse, it means that momentum is
transferred from an external agent to said particle. The left side of the
above equation represents the change in momentum of the system.
The right side is a measure of how much momentum crosses the
system boundary due to the net force applied to the system.

Class exercises:

1. A 50 kg bowling player who is at rest throws a 11 kg ball, if the

surface where the player is standing is very slippery, what is the
speed that the player acquires after throwing the bowling ball with
a speed of 6 m/s?
2. A 72 kg archer who is at rest on ice shoots a 0.7 kg arrow at 33
m/s. What is the speed that the archer acquires after shooting the
arrow?

3. In a crash test, a 1200 kg car collides with a wall. The speeds are
-10 m/s and 1.5 m/ respectively.
If the collision lasts 0.2 s, find the impulse caused by the collision
and the average force exerted on the car.

4. A 5 kg particle has a speed of (2+5). Find the X and Y

components of its momentum and the magnitude of its
momentum.

5. A 10 g ball is dropped from a height of 5 m and bounces to a

height of 3.2 m. What is the change in its linear momentum during
the collision with the floor?
6. A 0.5 kg ball is dropped from rest to a height of 3 m. It bounces
off the ground to reach a height of 0.7 m. What momentum does
the ground give to the ball?

7. A 200 g baseball is moving toward the batter with a speed of 15

m/s, and when batted, it leaves in the opposite direction with a
speed of 25 m/s. What is the average momentum and force
exerted on the baseball? ball, if the bat was in contact with the
ball for a period of 0.015 seconds.

8. A 0.3 kg ball is dropped from a 25 m building. It bounces up to a

height of 13 m. What is the linear momentum?

9. A 110 g projectile hits a wall with a speed of 88 m/s, piercing it 3

cm. Calculate the average force that the wall exerts on the
projectile and how long it takes to penetrate that length.
10. A girl bounces a ball on the ground, the linear momentum
generated by the ground on the ball is 3.7 kgm/s during 1/660
second of contact. What is the magnitude of the average force
exerted by the ground on the ball?

11. A baseball player claims that he can throw a baseball with as

much Momentum as a 1.8 g bullet moving with a speed of 900
m/s. A baseball has a mass of 0.15 kg. What must be its speed
for the baseball player's statement to be true?

12. A gun fires a 30 g bullet at a speed of 650 m/s, if the gun can fire
50 bullets/minute, what is the average force the shooter must
exert to prevent the gun from moving?

13. A 0.35 kg soccer ball is thrown with a speed of 8 m/s. The

goalkeeper, who is at rest, catches it in 0.07 seconds. What is the
momentum given to the ball? What is the average force exerted
on the archer?
 14. A car stops suddenly and accelerates again from zero to 3 m/s
in 0.5 seconds. What linear impulse and average force does the
80 kg driver experience?

Proposed homework exercises :

1. A child throws the 0.2 kg ball at 5 m/s to another child who returns
it with a speed of 7 m/s. What is the impulse received by the ball
and the average force exerted by the child who returned it, if he
was in contact with it for 0.005 seconds?

2. A 60 kg swimmer jumps off a diving board from a height of 8 m,

30 seconds pass for the water to reduce its speed to zero. What
is the average force that the water exerts on the swimmer?

3. A 9.3 kg bowling ball collides with a 1.8 kg pine tree; the pine tree
flies forward with a speed of 4 m/s. If the ball continues forward
with a speed of 2 m/s, what was the initial speed of the ball?

4. A 570 kg motorcycle collides with a wall. The speeds are -7 m/s

and 0.6 m/s respectively. If the collision lasts 0.33 s, find the
impulse caused by the collision and the average force exerted on
the car.

5. A 300 g volleyball is dropped from a height of 8 m and bounces to

a height of 5.2 m. What is the change in its linear momentum
during the collision with the floor?
 6. A 31 g bullet hits a wall with a speed of 90 m/s, piercing it 5.5 cm.
Calculate the average force that the wall exerts on the projectile
and how long it takes to penetrate that length.

7. A child throws a ball and collides with a person, the linear impulse
generated by the person to the ball is 1.4 kgm/s during 2 seconds
of contact. What is the magnitude of the average force exerted by
the ground on the ball?

8. A gun fires 28 g bullets at a speed of 780 m/s, if the gun can fire
35 bullets/minute, what is the average force that the shooter must
exert to prevent the gun from moving?

9. A 0.8 kg soccer ball is thrown with a speed of 15 m/s. The

goalkeeper, who is at rest, catches it in 0.03 seconds. What is the
momentum given to the ball? What is the average force exerted
on the archer?

10. A 9 kg bowling ball collides with another 9.5 kg bowling ball

which is moving forward with a speed of 3.3 m/s. If the first ball
continues forward with a speed of 2.8 m/s, what was the initial
speed of the ball?

SESSION 35 and 36:

UNIT V: Types of Movements

5.2. One-Dimensional and Dimensional Collisions

This topic will discuss the collision of two particle-like bodies, but we will
focus on only one of the bodies at a time. The total kinetic energy of the
system formed by two colliding bodies will also be analyzed. If it turns
out that that total does not change with the collision, then the kinetic
energy of the system is conserved (it is the same before and after the
collision). That collision is called an elastic collision . In ordinary
collisions of common bodies, for example, of two cars or a ball and a
bat, part of the energy is always transformed from kinetic energy to
other forms of energy, for example, to thermal energy or sound energy.
Thus, the kinetic energy of the system is not conserved. This collision is
called an inelastic collision .

However, in some situations, we can approximate a collision of

common bodies as elastic. Suppose we drop a ball on a hard floor. If
the collision between the ball and the floor were elastic, the ball would
not lose kinetic energy from the collision and would bounce back to its
original height. However, the actual height of the bounce is somewhat
short, which shows that at least some of the kinetic energy is lost in the
collision and so that collision is somewhat inelastic. Even so, we could
choose to ignore the small loss of kinetic energy to approximate the
collision as elastic.

The inelastic collision of two bodies always involves a loss in the kinetic
energy of the system. The greatest loss occurs if the bodies stick
together, in which case the collision is called a completely inelastic
collision. The collision of a baseball and a bat is inelastic, but the
collision of a putty ball and a bat is completely inelastic because the
putty sticks to the bat.
Inelastic collisions in one dimension:

Befor
e

The figure shows two bodies before and after having a collision in one
dimension, therefore we can cancel the arrows that indicate vectors
and use components along the axis, indicating the direction with their
sign. The bodies form a system, which is closed and isolated, so the
law of conservation of linear momentum can be written for this system:

Completely inelastic collisions in one dimension:

The figure shows two bodies before and after experiencing a

completely inelastic collision (meaning they stick together). The body
with mass m 2 is initially at rest (v 2i =0). We can refer to that body as the
target and the incoming body as the projectile. After the collision, the
stuck bodies move with speed V. For this situation, we can rewrite the
equation as:

mV,, = (m, + m2)v

m-m2

Elastic collisions in one dimension:

As mentioned above, common collisions are inelastic, but we can
approximate some of them as being elastic; That is, we can
approximate that the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is
conserved and is not transformed into other forms of energy:

In an elastic collision, the kinetic energy of each of the colliding bodies

may change, but the total kinetic energy of the system does not
change.

Stationary target:

In the figure you can see two bodies before and after having a of
collision in one dimension, like a head-on collision between billiard
balls. The projectile of mass m 1 and speed v 1i moves towards a target
body of mass m 2 that is initially at rest v 2i =0. Suppose this two-body
system is closed and isolated. Then the net linear momentum of the
system is conserved:
m, v,. = m,V,/+ m,V2/ (linear moment)

If the collision is also elastic, then the total kinetic energy is conserved:

1m,v?, = 1m, v?,+ 2mgv2, (kinetic energy ).

With the previous equations we can find these two unknowns:
 m, —m,
V,=—.------------v, m1 + m

Special situations:

1. Equal masses: If m 1 =m 2 So

2. A solid object: A solid object means that m 2 m 1 So

3. A solid projectile: This is the opposite case, i.e. m 2 m 1 So,

and

Moving target:
Now that we have examined the elastic collision of a projectile and a
stationary target, we will examine the situation in which both bodies are
in motion before they experience an elastic collision.

Conservation of linear momentum is written as:

mv,+m2V2=m¡V/++m2V2/.

The conservation of kinetic energy is written as:

Im, v2,+Im,v2, = 2m,v2,+ mgvy

Getting:

mm 2m2
MANUAL OF PHYSICS I.....................................................................................................1
Displacement - Ax -XX.......................................................................................................31
Gm.............................................................................................................................106
V-vf...........................................................................................................................106
F
~ ts t t...................................................................................................................143
1m,v?, = 1m, v?,+ 2mgv2, (kinetic energy ).........................................................160
Im, v2,+Im,v2, = 2m,v2,+ mgvy.....................................................................................................162
P 1+P,....................................................................................................................163
-
- m +m2 m 2 + m2

Collisions in two dimensions:

When two bodies collide, the momentum between them determines the
directions in which they can move. In particular, when the collision is
not head-on, the bodies do not end up moving along their initial axis.
For these two-dimensional collisions in a closed and isolated system,
the total linear momentum must still be conserved:
 P 1+P, -P v +P 2 f

If the collision is also elastic (a special case), then the total kinetic
energy is also conserved:

K1i+ K2i= Kg+

It is often more useful to analyze a collision in two dimensions if we

write it in terms of components over an xy coordinate system. For
example, the figure shows an inclined (not head-on) collision between a
projectile body and a target body initially at rest. The impulses between
the bodies have deflected the bodies at angles with respect to the x-
axis, along which the projectile was initially moving.

Components along the x axis:

m,Vu = m V COS •1 + m2Va/ cos 2

Components along the y-axis:

0= -mVgsin 01 -i- m2V2/sin 2.

We can also write the equation for the special case of an elastic
collision in terms of velocities:

2 m 1 v2; = 2m 1 v2, 4- 2 m v2, (kinetic energy).

Coefficient of restitution:

It is also called the percussion coefficient, and is a dimensionless

number proposed by Isaac Newton to be able to relate the relative
velocities of two bodies before and after colliding. Thus, the coefficient
of restitution is the ratio between these velocities, so that:

a) Elastic collisions
b) Inelastic collisions
c) Completely inelastic collisions

Class exercises:

1. A stationary 1550 kg vehicle is struck by another 1000 kg vehicle

from the rear and during the collision they become hooked. If the
vehicle of lesser mass had a speed of 15 m/s before the impact,
what is the speed of the two vehicles after the collision?
2. A 3 kg sphere is moving to the right at a speed of 5 m/s and
collides with another 5.5 kg sphere that is moving at 1.8 m/s in
the same direction and direction. After the collision the 5.5 kg
sphere moves at 4 m/s. Determine. The speed of the other
sphere after the collision.
3. A 60 kg body moves in a straight line with a speed of 2 m/s and
elastically collides with another 40 kg body with a speed of 3 m/s,
in the same direction. Determine the speed of both after the
collision.

4. Two skaters of 60 kg and 63 kg are skating on the ice rink. The

skater with less mass is initially at rest on the track and the skater
with greater mass moves with a speed v colliding with the other
skater, who travels 6 m until stopping. If the skater with the
greatest mass travels 3 m until he stops, in the same direction,
and both take 13 s to do so, what is the speed v of the skater
when he collides with the skater at rest?

5. Two inelastic bodies have a total mass of 15 kg, moving in

opposite directions with speeds of 2 m/s and -4
6. m/s. They collide and acquire a common speed of 0.5 m/s. What
is the ratio of the masses of the bodies?

7. Calculate the coefficient of restitution in the following collision:

8 m/s 3m/s 2m/s 4m/s

Before After

8. A sphere of 3 kg and 7 m/s collides with another sphere of 1.5 kg

that is at rest, continuing in the same direction at 5 m/s. Calculate
the speed of the first sphere and the coefficient of restitution.

9. A billiard ball at rest (blue) is hit by an identical one moving with a

speed v 1 = 5 m/s (red), and the latter is deflected by an angle 1 =
20º from its initial direction. The ball that was at rest acquires a
speed that forms an angle 2 = –33º with the initial speed v 1 . Find
the speed of each ball after the collision.
10. An 8 g pellet is fired horizontally against a 7 kg block at rest.
The pellet has a speed of 188 m/s before penetrating the block,
while after passing through it its speed is 70 m/s. The block
moves 20 cm due to the impact. Calculate the speed of the block
after impact.

11. A billiard ball with a speed of 170 g and 3 m/s hits another ball of
the same mass that was at rest, continuing its path in the same
direction, but now with a speed of 1.3 m/s. Calculate the
coefficient of restitution.

12. Two balls of 5 kg and 1 kg move in opposite directions at 4 m/s

and 12 m/s respectively, colliding with a coefficient of restitution
of 0.4. Calculate the speeds of the balls after the collision.
13. A 5 gram bullet collides with a 15 g pendulum at rest, leaving the
bullet embedded in the pendulum, if the pendulum-bullet system
reaches a height of 65 cm. Calculate the speed of the bullet
before entering the pendulum.
 14. A 450 kg forklift moves at a speed of 5 m/s and hits another
smaller 300 kg forklift that was at rest continuing its path in the
same direction, but now with a speed of 2.7 m/s. Calculate the
coefficient of restitution.

15. Calculate the coefficient of restitution of a marble at rest (blue)

that is hit by an identical marble with a speed v = 2.5 m/s (red),
and the latter is deviated by an angle 1 = 15º from its initial
direction. The ball that was at rest acquires a speed that forms an
angle 2 = –28º with the initial speed v 1 .
Proposed homework exercises:

1. A 5 lb block on an ice rink and with a speed of 1.7 m/s collides

with a 148 lb skater who is at rest, causing him to move in the
same direction at 0.8 m/s. Calculate the speed of the block and
the coefficient of restitution.

2. A stationary 99 kg vehicle is struck by another 1100 kg vehicle

 from the rear and during the collision they become hooked. If the
vehicle of lesser mass had a speed of 23 m/s before the impact,
what is the speed of the two vehicles after the collision?

3. Calculate the coefficient of restitution in the following collision:

4. A marble at rest (blue) is hit by an identical marble moving with a

speed v 1 = 0.7 m/s (red), and the latter is deflected by an angle 1

= 35º from its initial direction. The marble that was at rest
acquires a speed that forms an angle 2 = –48º with the initial
speed v 1 . Find the speed of each ball after the collision.
Determine if the collision is elastic.

5. A 60 kg mountain bike at a speed of 6 m/s hits another bicycle

that was at rest continuing its path in the same direction, but now
with a speed of 3 m/s. Calculate the coefficient of restitution.
6. A 4.5 gram bullet collides with a 30 g pendulum at rest, leaving
the bullet embedded in the pendulum, if the pendulum-bullet
system reaches a height of 33 cm. Calculate the speed of the
bullet before entering the pendulum.

7. A stationary 1220 kg vehicle is struck by another 1100 kg vehicle

from the rear and during the collision they become hooked. If the
vehicle of lesser mass had a speed of 15 m/s before the impact,
what is the speed of the two vehicles after the collision?

8. A 10 kg sphere is moving to the right at a speed of 3 m/s and

collides with another 5.5 kg sphere that is moving at 1.8 m/s in
the same direction and direction. After the collision the 5.5 kg
sphere moves at 4 m/s. Determine. The speed of the other
sphere after the collision.

9. A 60 kg body moves in a straight line with a speed of 2 m/s and

elastically collides with another 40 kg body with a speed of 3 m/s,
in the same direction. Determine the speed of both after the
collision.

10. A 0.5 kg sphere is moving to the right at a speed of 8 m/s and

collides with another 2 kg sphere that is moving at 5 m/s in the
same direction and direction. After the collision the 2 kg sphere
moves at 6 m/s. Determine. The speed of the other sphere after
the collision.
 SESSIONS 37 AND 38:

UNIT V: Types of Movements

5.3. Center of Mass

We define the center of mass (cdm) of a system of particles to predict

the possible motion of the system.

The center of mass of a system of particles is the point that moves 1)

as if all the mass of the system were concentrated at one point and 2)
as if all external forces were applied at one point.

We will study how to determine the location of the center of mass of a

system of particles, both of few particles and of a large number of them.

particle system

The figure shows two particles of mass m 1 and m 2 separated by a

distance d. The origin of the x-axis is arbitrarily chosen to coincide with
the particle of mass m 1 . We define the position of the center of mass
of this system for two particles as:
 V

The following figure shows a more generalized situation, in which the

coordinate system has shifted to the left. The position of the center of
mass is now defined as:

We can extend this equation to a more general situation where n

particles are inserted along the x-axis.

If the particles are distributed in three dimensions, the center of mass

must be identified by three coordinates.

Where:
z=position on the z axis
M=sum of all the masses of the system

solid bodies
An ordinary object, for example a baseball bat, contains so many
particles (atoms) that they are best treated as a continuous distribution
of matter. The particles then become differential elements of mass. So
we will consider only uniform objects, as these have uniform density or
mass per unit volume; that is, the density is the same for any given
element of the object as for the entire object.

We substitute for each coordinate:

Class exercises:
1. Where is the center of mass of the following system of particles
whose masses are m 1 = 5.51 lb m , m 2 = 7.71 lb m and m 3 = 9.92
lb m .

2. Calculate where the center of mass is of the following system of

particles forming an equilateral triangle whose masses are m 1 =
0.8 kg, m 2 = 2.5 kg and m 3 = 5 kg (each square is 10 cm)
3. A system consists of three particles located as shown in the
figure whose masses are m 1 = 3 kg, m 2 = 3.5 kg, and m 3 = 5 kg.
Find the center of mass of the system.

4. Four solid spheres of m 1 = 8 kg, m 2 = 10 kg, m 3 = 15 kg and m 4

= 18 are located at the vertices of a square structure of side 1.5

m and negligible mass, as shown in the figure. Calculate the
position of the center of mass.
5. Where is the center of mass of the following system of particles
whose masses are m 1 = 3 kg, m 2 = 5 kg and m 3 = 6 kg.

18m X (m)

m1 m
4

6. Where is the center of mass of the following system of particles

whose masses are m 1 = 10 kg, m 2 = 11 kg and m 3 = 12 kg.
7. A system consists of three particles located as shown in the
figure whose masses are m 1 = 5 kg, m 2 = 10 kg and m 3 = 6 kg.
Find the center of mass of the system.
and (m)

8. Where is the center of mass of the following system of particles

whose masses are m 1 = 20 kg, m 2 = 25 kg and m 3 = 30 kg.
9. Find the position of the center of mass of the system formed by
the four points, A , B , C and D distributed according to the figure
if the masses have the following values m A = 250 g , m B = 75 g ,
m C =120 g , m D = 99 g .

10. Two professional rowers A (mass 75 kg ) and B (mass 88 kg )

are in a rowboat (mass 67 kg ). A is sitting in the center of the
boat, and B at one end 1.5 m from the center. Starting with the
boat at rest, both people exchange positions. How far has the
 boat moved when the two people exchanged?

11. A block of mass m 1 = 2 kg slides on a frictionless table with a

speed of 5 m/s . Directly in front of this block and moving in the
same direction with a speed of 2 m/s is another block of mass m
2 = 8 kg , connected to a spring of negligible mass. Calculate the
velocity of the center of mass before m 1 hits the spring.

12. Six masses of 10,23,13,18,20,15 grams are located respectively

at the points (2,3)(5,2) (4,6) (3,-1) (4,6) (-2 ,-2) . Find the center
of mass of the system.

13. At the vertices of a square structure of side 88 cm and negligible

mass, four solid spheres of m 1 = 15 g, m 2 = 50 g, m 3 = 110 g
and 4 = 180 g are located, as shown in the figure. Calculate the
position of the center of mass.
 14. Calculate the center of mass of the following system.

Proposed homework exercises:

1.Three masses, 5 kg, 8 kg and 10 kg, are located at positions (1,

0), (5, 0) and (9.0), respectively, in meters from the origin. Find
the center of mass of this system.
 2. Calculate the center of mass of the following system of particles
forming an equilateral triangle whose masses are m 1 = 0.5 kg, m 2 =
3.3 kg and m 3 = 5.2 kg (Each square is 0.5 cm).

3. Three weights, 3 kg, 5 kg and 8 kg, are located at positions (2, 0),
(4, 0) and (6.0), respectively, in meters from the origin. Find the
center of mass of this system.

4. Where is the center of mass of the following system of particles

whose masses are m 1 = 4 kg, m 2 = 9 kg and m 3 = 15 kg.
4 y(m)

15 m

15 m '(m)
5. Three masses of 1,3,4 grams are located respectively at the points
(1,3,4) (3,2,-1) (3,6,8). Find the center of mass of the system.

6. Calculate the center of mass of the following system.

7. Find the position of the center of mass of the system formed by the
four points, A , B , C and D distributed according to the figure if the
masses have the following values m A = 10 g , m B = 15 g , m C =20 g
, m D = 25 g .

8. At the vertices of a square structure of side 1 m and negligible mass,

four solid spheres of
9. m 1 = 1 g, m 2 = 5 g, m 3 = 8 g and 4 =10 g as shown in the figure.
Calculate the position of the center of mass.

10. A boy and his father of 55 kg and 70 kg respectively are in

a rowboat (50 kg). The child is sitting in the center of the boat,
and the dad is at one end 1.7 m from the center. Starting with the
boat at rest, both people exchange positions. How far has the
boat moved when the two people exchanged each other?

11. A system consists of three particles located as shown in the

figure whose masses are m 1 = 13 g, m 2 = 15 g and 3 = 33 g. Find
the center of mass of the system.
and (m)
 SESSION 39 and 40:

UNIT V: Types of Movements

5.4. Types of Movements

The classification of the types of movements is as follows:

1. According to your career

a) Linear: Movement that throughout its movement describes a

straight line in its trajectory.
 b) Angular: Movement that along its displacement
describes an angle in its path.
c) Combined: Describes movements that are not linear or angular
properly because they mix these two movements to a different
extent.

2. According to the evolution of the speed

a) Uniform: Motion where the magnitude of the velocity is

constant (does not vary with respect to time).
b) Uniformly accelerated (varied): Movement in which the magnitude
of the speed is variable (with respect to time) therefore the
acceleration is constant in this movement.

c) Variably accelerated: Movement where the magnitude of the

velocity and acceleration are variable (with respect to time). There is
no formula that generalizes speed at all points of the movement
trajectory . We can calculate the average speed and the
instantaneous speed .
d) Uniformly decelerated: Movement whose acceleration is constant
and negative, so that the speed decreases with time. The formulas
are the same as in the MRUA, but you have to pay attention that the
acceleration is negative.
e) Variably decelerated: Movement whose acceleration is variable
and negative, so that the speed decreases with the
time.

3. According to the dimensions

a) One dimension: Movement that is performed in only one

dimension.
b) Two dimensions: Movement that is carried out in two
dimensions.

c) Three dimensions: Movement that is carried out in three

dimensions.
 SESSIONS 41 AND 42:

UNIT VI: Kinematics and Rotational Dynamics

6.1 Rotation kinematics and its equations

Rotation kinematics analyzes the movement of a body about its same

axis.

The motion of an extended object, such as a wheel rotating around its

axis, cannot be explained by representing the object as a particle: at
any time different parts of the object have different linear velocities and
accelerations. However, the motion of an extended object is analyzed
by representing it as an object of particles, each with its own linear
velocity and acceleration.

When dealing with a rotating object, the explanation is greatly simplified

by assuming that the object is rigid. A rigid object is not deformable;
That is, the relative locations of all the particles of which it is composed
remain constant. All real objects are deformable to some extent;
However, the rigid object model is useful in many situations where
deformation is negligible.

Therefore, in this unit we will examine the rotation of a rigid body about
a fixed axis. A rigid body is one that can rotate with all its parts locked
together and without any change in its shape. A fixed axis means that
rotation occurs around an axis that does not move.

Angular Position:

Angular position can be defined as the location of a particle or body

with respect to an origin point or a rotational axis of a circular system.

Angular Displacement:
The angular displacement of a body describes the amount of rotation. If
point A on the rotating disk in the figure rotates on its axis to point B,
the angular displacement is denoted by the angle

The displacement can be calculated in different units as seen in

previous topics such as revolutions, sexagesimal degrees, but radians
are the units that will be used for this magnitude since they are part of
the International System.

s=
R

1 rad =
re
57.3 360
v
(to) (b)
Displacement measurement angular and a comparison of units.

As a particle moves along a circle from the reference line, which is at

an angle =0, it moves through an arc length s, as seen in the
 figure. The arc ratio s is related to angle I by:

As the particle in question on the rigid object travels from position A to

position B in a time interval, the reference line fixed to the object covers
an angle. This quantity is defined as the angular displacement of the
rigid object.

Angular Speed:

The speed at which this angular displacement occurs can vary. If the
rigid object rotates rapidly, this displacement can occur in a short time
interval. If you rotate slowly, this displacement occurs over a longer
time interval. These different rotation ratios are quantified by defining
the average angular speed as the ratio of the angular displacement of a
rigid object to the time interval during which the displacement occurs:
Angular speed has units of radians per second (rad/s), which can be
written as radians are dimensionless. It is considered positive when it
increases (counterclockwise movement) and negative when it
decreases (clockwise).

Angular acceleration:

If the instantaneous angular speed of an object changes in the time

interval , the object has an angular acceleration. The average angular
acceleration of a rotating rigid object is defined as the ratio of change in
angular speed with respect to the time interval during which the change
in angular speed occurs:

2
Angular acceleration has units of radians per second squared (rad/s )
-2
or simply s . Note that it is positive when a rigid object rotating
counterclockwise increases its speed or when a rigid object rotating
clockwise decreases its speed during a certain time interval.

When a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis, each particle on the
object rotates through the same angle in a given time interval and has
the same angular speed and the same angular acceleration.
 SESSIONS 43 AND 44:

UNIT VI: Kinematics and Rotational Dynamics

6.2 . Rotation and Tangential Movement

If a net force acts on a rotating wheel to increase or reduce its speed,

that net force acts causes an acceleration along the direction of motion
and causes the wheel to rotate faster or slower, that is, it causes an
angular acceleration.

In pure translation, motion with a constant linear acceleration is an

important special case.
In pure rotation, the case of constant angular acceleration is also
important, and a parallel set of equations holds for this case. To solve a
simple problem involving constant angular acceleration, you can usually
use an equation from the angular list.

Tangential acceleration (at T ):

The tangential acceleration is the product of the angular acceleration

and the radius of the circle. The tangential acceleration is a vector that
is on the tangent of the point on the circle and whose direction is equal
to the direction of rotation.

a T = aR

Centripetal acceleration (a c ):

Centripetal (normal) acceleration is a magnitude related to the change

in direction of the speed of a moving particle when it travels a
curvilinear path.
 ay = aR

Tangential acceleration represents a change in tangential velocity,

while centripetal acceleration represents just a change in the direction
of motion.

Second law of motion in rotation

Starting from Newton's second law of motion:

F = ma T = sea

Both sides are multiplied by r:

Fr = (mr~)a

The quantity Fr is recognized as the torque produced by the force F

with respect to the axis of rotation.

//)C

Torsion
A similar equation can be derived for all other portions of the rotating
object. However, the angular acceleration will be constant for each
portion regardless of its mass or its distance from the axis. Therefore,
the resulting torque on the entire body is:

T—
the

Formulas:

Where:

∆θ=Change in displacement (rad)

Class exercises:

1. What is the moment of inertia of a 3m, 1.5kg rigid bar about an

axis perpendicular to the bar (y axis) and passing through its
center of mass.

2. Calculate the moment of inertia about the central axis of a uniform

cylinder 30 cm in diameter, 10 kg, and .5 m long.

3. The speed of a CD player on the surface at the point of the laser-

lens system is 5.4 km/h. Calculate:
a) The angular speed of the disk when the information is read
from the inner track (d=40mm) to the outer track (d=120mm).
b) The revolutions that the disc makes in 75 min and 30 sec.
4. Consider a uniform rigid bar of 800 g and 1.5 m. Find the moment
of inertia of the bar about an axis perpendicular to the bar through
one end.
5. A 750 g and 1.3 m bar is attached at one end to a pivot rotating
around the pivot in the vertical plane. The bar is released from
rest in the horizontal position. Calculate the initial angular
acceleration of the bar and the initial translational acceleration of
its rigid end.

2
6. A wheel of 40 cm diameter, 1.7 kg and 0.9 kg.m of inertia is
located on a horizontal axis and a light rope supporting a 5 kg
block is wound around the wheel. Calculate:
a) The angular acceleration of the wheel
b) The linear acceleration of the object
c) The tension in the rope

7. A wheel of 1.4 m diameter is in a vertical plane and rotates with

2
an angular acceleration of 6 rad/s , if the wheel starts from rest
and at that instant the edge of the wheel forms an angle of 45°
with the horizontal. Calculate 3 seconds later:
a) The angular speed of the wheel.
b) Tangential speed and acceleration c) Angular position

8. A wheel of 55 cm diameter, 2 kg and 0.7 kg of inertia is located

on a horizontal axis and a light rope that supports a 3 kg block is
 wound around the wheel. What is the angular acceleration of the
wheel?

9. What is the moment of inertia of a 5 m and 2.3 kg rigid bar in a

lathe about an axis perpendicular to the bar (Y axis) and passing
through its center of mass.

10. Calculate the moment of inertia about the central axis of a

uniform cylinder 50 cm in diameter, 15 kg, and .7 m long.

2
11. A wheel of 70 cm diameter, 1.5 kg and 0.5 kg.m of inertia is
located on a horizontal axis and a light rope that holds a 1 kg
block is wound around the wheel. What is the linear acceleration
of the object?

12. Consider a uniform rigid bar of 1.2 kg and 1.3 m. Find the
moment of inertia of the bar about an axis perpendicular to the
bar through one end.
 2
13. A wheel of 40 cm diameter, 1.7 kg and 0.9 kg.m of inertia is
located on a horizontal axis and a light rope that supports a 5 kg
block is wound around the wheel. What is the tension in the rope?

14. A wheel .70 m in diameter is in a vertical plane and rotates with

2
an angular acceleration of 8 rad/s , if the wheel starts from rest
and at that instant the edge of the wheel forms an angle of 35°
with the horizontal. Calculate 3 seconds later, what is the angular
speed of the wheel?
Proposed homework exercises:

1. What is the moment of inertia around the central axis of a bar and a
cylinder of 3 and 1.2 kg respectively, both of which are 1.5 m long and
the cylinder is 22 cm in diameter.

2. A ball .70 m in diameter is in a vertical plane and rotates with an

angular acceleration of 8 rad/s2, if the wheel starts from rest and at that
instant the edge of the ball forms an angle of 35° with the horizontal.
Calculate 7 seconds later, what is the tangential speed and
acceleration?

3. A tire .45 m in diameter is in a vertical plane and rotates with an

2
angular acceleration of 20 rad/s , if the wheel starts from rest and at
that instant the edge of the tire makes an angle of 20° with the
horizontal. Calculate 5 seconds later What is the angular position?
4. What is the moment of inertia around the central axis of a bar and a
cylinder of 10 and 3 kg respectively, both of which are 2 m long and the
cylinder is 50 cm in diameter.

5. - A wheel of 0.3 m diameter is in a vertical plane and rotates with an

2
angular acceleration of 9 rad/s , if the wheel starts from rest and at
that instant the edge of the wheel forms an angle of 55° with the
horizontal. Calculate 1 seconds later What is the tangential
acceleration?

6. What is the moment of inertia around the central axis of a bar and a
cylinder of 1.5 and 0.8 kg respectively, both of which are 1 m long and
the cylinder is 10 cm in diameter.

7. The speed of a CD player surface at the point of the laser-lens

system is 6.56 ft/s. Calculate:
a) The angular speed of the disk when the information is read
from the inner track (d=38 mm) to the outer track (d=110 mm).
b) The revolutions made by the disc in 67 min and 35 s.

8. A 1.98 lb m , 6.56 ft bar is attached at one end to a pivot rotating

around the pivot in the vertical plane. The bar is released from rest in
the horizontal position. Calculate the initial angular acceleration of the
bar and the initial translational acceleration of its rigid end.

2
9. A cylinder 1.65 ft in diameter with a mass of 4 kg and 1.2 kg.m of
inertia is located on a horizontal axis and a light rope supporting a block
of 0.479 slugs is wound around the wheel. Calculate:
 a) The angular acceleration of the wheel
b) The linear acceleration of the object
c) The tension in the rope
10. A wheel of 0.8 m diameter is in a vertical plane and rotates with an
2
angular acceleration of 3 rad/s , if the wheel starts from rest and at
that instant the edge of the wheel forms an angle of 30° with the
horizontal. Calculate 4 seconds later:
a) The angular speed of the wheel
b) Tangential speed and acceleration
c) The angular position

SESSIONS 45 AND 46:

UNIT VI: Kinematics and Rotational Dynamics

6.3. Inertia and Kinetic Energy

An object rotating about a fixed axis remains stationary in space, so

there is no kinetic energy associated with translational motion.
However, the individual particles that make up the rotating object move
through space; They follow circular paths. Consequently, with rotational
motion there is associated kinetic energy.

Suppose an object considered as a set of particles that rotates around

a fixed axis with an angular speed as follows:
shows the object of rotation in the figure and identifies a particle on the
object located at a distance from the axis of rotation. If the mass of said
particle is and its tangential speed is its kinetic energy is: rigid object
has the same angular speed the individual tangential speed
magnitudes depend on the distance from the axis of rotation. The total
kinetic energy of the rotating rigid object is the sum of the kinetic
energies of the individual particles:

Remember that although particle in the

each

Where it is factored from the sum because it is common to every

particle. This expression is simplified by defining the quantity in
parentheses as the moment of inertia I :

Therefore, rotational kinetic energy remains: Although this equation

refers to rotational kinetic energy, it is not a new form of energy. It is
ordinary kinetic energy because it is deduced from a formula about the
individual kinetic energies of the particles contained in the rigid object.
The moment of inertia is a measure of an object's resistance to
changes in its rotational motion, just as mass is a measure of an
object's tendency to resist changes in its translational motion.

Moment of inertia:

The moment of inertia or rotational inertia (symbol I) is a measure of the

rotational inertia of a body.

The moment of inertia reflects the mass distribution of a body or a

system of particles in rotation, with respect to an axis of rotation. The
moment of inertia only depends on the geometry of the body and the
position of the axis of rotation; but it does not depend on the forces
involved in the movement.

The moment of inertia reflects the mass distribution of a body or a

system of particles in rotation, with respect to an axis of rotation. The
moment of inertia only depends on the geometry of the body and the
position of the axis of rotation; but it does not depend on the forces
involved in the movement.

The moment of inertia plays a role analogous to that of the inertial mass
in the case of rectilinear and uniform motion. It is the scalar value of the
longitudinal angular momentum of a rigid solid.

For a point mass and an arbitrary axis, the moment of inertia is:

When you have a system of particles and an arbitrary axis, it is defined

as the sum of the products of the masses of the particles by the square
of the distance r of each particle to said axis.

For bodies that are not composed of separate masses, but are actually
continuous distributions of matter, moment of inertia calculations are
more difficult and are usually performed using tools such as integral
calculus. For some regular figures, their mathematical expressions
have been determined and are presented in the following figure:
Class exercises:

1. Two masses, one of 5 kg and the other of 10 kg, are joined by a 45

cm light bar. The system is rotated horizontally at 180 rpm around an
axis located 15 cm from the 10 kg mass. What is the moment of inertia
about this axis? What is the rotational kinetic energy?
2. What is the moment of inertia and rotational kinetic energy? For the
system in the figure, the weight of the bars that join the masses is
insignificant and they are concentrated at a point when the system
rotates with an angular velocity of 8 rad/s.

3. What is the rotational kinetic energy after 3 s of a bicycle wheel of

mass 1.5 kg and radius 80 cm. If it starts from rest and receives an
angular acceleration of 2.5 rad/s 2

4. Two weights, one of 3 kg and the other of 7 kg, are joined by a 50

cm light bar. The system is rotated horizontally at 70 rpm around an
axis located 10 cm from the 7 kg mass. What is the moment of inertia
about this axis?
5. Two weights, one of 5 kg and the other of 12 kg, are joined by a 40
cm light bar. The system is rotated horizontally at 100 rpm around an
axis located 15 cm from the 12 kg mass. What is the rotational kinetic
energy?

6. A 5 kg fan with a radius of 50 cm starts from rest and receives an

2
angular acceleration of 2.5 rad/s . What is the rotational kinetic energy
after 10 s.

7. What is the kinetic energy of a solid cylinder of 9 lb and radius 50

cm, rotating on its own axis at 20 rad/s.

8. A hockey puck of 170 g and 2 cm radius rotates on its own axis.

Determine the angular velocity if its kinetic energy is 25 J.

9. Calculate the angular velocity of the cone in the figure if it has a

kinetic energy of 330 J.
10. Calculate the kinetic energy of a rotating mill (hollow cylinder),
whose mass is 90 kg, which has an inner radius (R 2 ) of 80 cm and an
outer radius (R 1 ) of 1.5 m and rotates at 150 rpm.

11. Calculate the inertia of a grinding wheel if it has a kinetic energy of

200 J and rotates at 300 rpm.
12. Calculate the mass of a solid sphere 70 cm in diameter that rotates
on its own axis with a speed of 30 rad/s with a kinetic energy of 180 J.

13. Calculate the angular velocity of a rotary mill (hollow cylinder),

whose mass is 70 kg, which has an inner radius (R 2 ) of 90 cm and an
outer radius (R 1 ) of 120 cm with a kinetic energy of 1500 J.

14. Calculate the kinetic energy of a solid sphere of radius 60 cm and

230 g rotating on its own axis with a speed of 45 rpm.

Proposed homework exercises:

1. What must be the radius of a 4 kg circular disk if its moment of

inertia is required to be equal to that of a rod of

1.5 kg of mass and 3 m of length that oscillates supported at its

midpoint?
2. Two masses, one of 7 kg and the other of 15 kg, are joined by a
100 cm light bar. The system is rotated horizontally at 70 rpm
around an axis located 30 cm from the 7 kg mass. What is the
moment of inertia about this axis? What is the rotational kinetic
energy?

3. The wheel of a cart measures 80 cm in diameter and is mounted

on a central axle on which it rotates at 300 rev/min. The wheel
can be considered to be a circular hoop of mass 3 kg and each of
its 12 wooden spokes of 400 g can be considered as a thin rod
rotating on its ends. Calculate the moment of inertia of the entire
wheel. What is its rotational kinetic energy?

4. What must be the radius of a 10 kg circular disk if its moment of

inertia is required to be equal to that of a rod of mass 6 kg and
length 4 m that oscillates supported at its midpoint?

5. An industrial mill of 150 kg and 2 m radius starts from rest and

2
receives an angular acceleration of 30 rad/s . What is the
rotational kinetic energy after 0.33 min.

6. A child plays with a stone tied to a thread of 300 g and 0.5 m

radius if, it starts from the state of rest and receives an angular
2
acceleration of 10 rad/s . What is the rotational kinetic energy
after 15 s.
7. Calculate the kinetic energy of the cone in the figure.

8. Calculate the mass of a rotary mill (hollow cylinder) with an inner

radius (R 2 ) of 60 cm and an outer radius (R 1 ) of 90 cm that
rotates at 30 rad/s with a kinetic energy of 4500 J.

9. Two weights, one of 3 kg and the other of 7 kg, are joined by a 15

cm light bar. The system is rotated horizontally at 70 rpm around
an axis located 10 cm from the 7 kg mass.

What is the moment of inertia about this axis? What is the

rotational kinetic energy?

10. What is the rotational kinetic energy after 5 s of

A bicycle wheel of mass 1260 g and has a diameter of 140 cm. If
it starts from rest and receives an angular acceleration of 1.8
rad/s 2
 SESSIONS 47 AND 48:

UNIT VI: Kinematics and Rotational Dynamics

6.4. Translational and Rotational Balance

To analyze the relationship between rectilinear and angular motion of a

rotating object, first consider that a circular disk of radius R slides along
a horizontal surface without rotation or friction. As shown in the figure,
any piece of this disk will travel at a speed equal to the center of mass.

Now, suppose that the same disk rotates freely without sliding on the
same surface, as in the figure. More energy is required to maintain the
same horizontal speed, since now in addition to rotation there is
translation. Since there is no slip, the center of mass of the disk is
rotating relative to the contact point P with the same angular velocity as
the rotating disk. Thus, we can write a familiar relationship between the
tangential velocity of the center of mass of the disk and its rotational
speed .
Where or

When working with problems involving both rotation and translation, we

must remember to add the rotational kinetic energy K R to the
translational kinetic energy K T . For example, by applying the principle
of conservation of total energy, we know that the total of all types of
energy before an event must equal the total after the event plus any
losses due to friction or other dissipative forces.

Where:
Last initial

When a rigid body rotates around an axis, each particle of the

body moves in its own circle around the axis. As the
body is rigid, all particles make one revolution in the
same amount of time that is, they all have the same
angular velocity .

However, the further a particle is from the axis, the greater the
circumference of its circle and, therefore, the faster its linear velocity v
must be.

It is often necessary to relate the linear variables for a particular point

on a rotating body to the angular variables. The two sets of variables
are related by r, the perpendicular distance of the point from the axis of
rotation. The perpendicular distance is the distance between the point
and the axis of rotation, measured along a perpendicular to the axis. It
is also the radius r of the circle traveled by the point around the axis of
rotation.
Class exercises:

1. A wire is wound around a spool of 55 cm diameter. How many

revolutions of this reel are required for an object attached to the
cable to travel a rectilinear distance of 4 m?
 2. What is the arc length of a point located on the edge of a circle
whose radius is 4.3 m and moves at an angle of 28°.

3. An industrial wagon sits at the edge of a platform 15 m in diameter

and travels a distance of 8 m. What is the angular displacement in
revolutions, degrees and radians?

4. A hoop and a disc, both 10 kg and 50 cm in diameter, are

dropped down a ramp 50 m high, if they start from rest. Calculate
their final speeds.
 5. The wheel of a bicycle is 26 cm in diameter. If that wheel makes
35 revolutions, what rectilinear distance will it travel?

6. A bucket hangs from a rope wound with several turns on a

circular spool whose radius is 45 cm. The bucket starts from rest
and rises to a height of 15 m in 4 s. How many revolutions did the
reel turn?

7. A 20 cm long steering wheel radius travels 60 in 2 seconds.

Determine the linear speed.

8. The belt in the figure does not slide on any of the pulleys. Pulley A,
with a radius of 15 cm, rotates at 88 rpm. Calculate the speed of a
particle on the belt and the angular velocity of pulley B, with a radius
of 25 cm.

9. A cyclist travels along a circular track with a radius of 56 m in a

 time of 20 seconds. If the radius of the tires of his bicycle is 50
cm, how many turns do the wheels make to travel that distance?
and What is the linear and angular speed of the cyclist?

10. A particle travels around a circle with a radius of 2 m with a

frequency of 15 Hz. Calculate the period, angular velocity and
acceleration.

11. A cyclist travels along a circular track with a radius of 90 m in a

time of 35 seconds, if the radius of the tires of his bicycle is 45
cm, what is the angular velocity of the wheels? and What is the
period and frequency of rotation of the wheels?

12. A car traveling at 80 km/h travels the perimeter of a circular track

in 45 seconds. Determine its radius. If the car has an acceleration
at any instant, determine its magnitude, direction and direction.
 13. What is the acceleration experienced by a child riding on the
edge of a carousel that is 6 m in diameter and that makes one
revolution every 5 seconds?

14. Calculate the angular velocity with which a wheel must rotate, so
that the points located 30 cm from its axis are subject to an
acceleration that is 120 times that of gravity.

Proposed homework exercises:

1. A wire is wound around a spool of 340 mm diameter. How many

revolutions of this reel are required for an object attached to the
cable to travel a rectilinear distance of 10 m?

2. A hoop and a disc, both 3 kg and 370 mm in diameter, are

dropped down a ramp 15 m high, if they start from rest. Calculate
their final speeds.

3. What is the arc length of a point located on the edge of a circle

whose radius is 5 m and moves at an angle of 33°.
4. An amusement ride cart sits on the edge of a platform 18 m in
diameter and travels a distance of 4 m. What is the angular
displacement in revolutions, degrees and radians?

5. What is the acceleration experienced by a person riding on the

edge of a car that is 12 m in diameter and that makes one
revolution every 9 seconds?

6. Calculate the angular velocity with which a wheel must rotate, so

that the points located 20 cm from its axis are subject to an
acceleration that is 50 times that of gravity.

7. A cyclist travels along a circular track of 120 m diameter in a time of

50 seconds, if the radius of the tires of his bicycle is 40 cm, what is
the angular velocity of the wheels? and What is the period and
frequency of rotation of the wheels?

8. The belt in the figure does not slide on any of the pulleys. Pulley A,
with a radius of 5 cm, rotates at 50 rpm. Calculate the speed of a
particle on the belt and the angular velocity of pulley B, with a
radius of 30 cm.
9. A racing car travels around a circular track with a radius of 75 m in a
time of 22 seconds. If the radius of the car's tires is 53 cm, how
many turns do the wheels make to travel that distance? and What
is the linear and angular velocity of the car?

10. A car traveling at 33 m/s travels the perimeter of a circular track

in 25 seconds. Determine its radius. If the car has an acceleration
at any instant, determine its magnitude.
 SESSIONS 49 AND 50:

UNIT VI: Kinematics and Rotational Dynamics

6.5. Torsion, angular movement and its conservation

The tendency of a force to turn an object about a certain axis is

measured by a quantity called torque (). Torque is a vector, but only its
magnitude will be considered here.

Consider the key in the figure that you want to turn about an axis
perpendicular to the page and through the center of the screw. The
applied force acts at an angle to the horizontal. The magnitude of the
torque associated with the force is defined by the expression:

Where r is the distance between the axis of rotation and the point of
application of and d is the perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation to the line of action of . (The line of action of a force is an
imaginary line that extends to both ends of the vector representing the
force. The dashed line extending from the tail of in the figure is part of
the line of action of .) From the right triangle in the figure that has the
key as its hypotenuse, we see that d =r sin . The quantity d is called the
moment arm (or lever arm) of .
A torca, whose name comes from the Latin word that means to twist ̎. It
can usually be identified as the turning or twisting action of force. When
a force is applied to an object, for example a screwdriver or torque
wrench, for the purpose of turning the object, a torque is applied. The
SI unit of torque is the newton-meter (N Note that the newton meter is
also the unit of work, however, torque and work are totally different
quantities and should not be confused. It is common for work to be
expressed in joules, but not in torque.

Formulas:

Where:
Class exercises:

1. An object has a weight with a magnitude of 940 N and is

suspended from the ceiling by two ropes as shown in the figure.
Determine the magnitude of the tension in each string.

2. A body has a weight whose magnitude is 750 N and is held by

two ropes as seen in the figure. Calculate the magnitude of the
tension in each of them.

3. Calculate the magnitude of the weight that must be applied so

that the bar remains in balance and determine the magnitude of
the tension
 4. on the rope that holds the bar, if its weight is negligible.

5. Calculate the magnitude of the tension and the magnitude of the

thrust of the
bar in the following truss as shown in the figure.

6. What are the forces exerted by the supports of a 1200 kg, 35 m

long bridge when a 170 kg trailer is on the bridge just 15 m from
the left end.
7. Calculate the tension of the rope that supports the following beam
and how far it is from point A. Consider the weight of the beam
negligible.

8. A rope is wound on a pulley 33 cm in diameter if a force of 100 N

is applied to the rope. What is the torque at the center of the
shaft?

9. The torque produced by a 200 mm diameter drum wound on a

cable is 10 Nm. Calculate the force on the cable wound around
the drum.

10. What is the torque produced in a nut if a person exerts a

force of 90 N on the end of a 30 cm wrench, if the pull makes an
angle of 80° with the handle of the wrench. Also calculate the
components of the force.
90N

11. A 60 kg cyclist moves the pedals in circles of radius r with a

 torque of 200 Nm. What is the radius of the circles that the pedals
describe?

12. A part of an iron machinery rotates about a point A. Determine

the resulting torque at this point due to the forces of 17.3 lb f and
19.1 lb f acting at the same time.

13. A 55 kg and 5 m long profile is supported by a cable, as shown

in the figure. If a 99 kg load is hung from the right end, what is the
tension T in the cable? What are the horizontal and vertical
components of the force exerted by the pivot?
 99kg

13. What are the forces exerted by the supports of a

500 kg bridge and 25 m in length when on the
bridge a car 120 kg just 10 m from the end
left.

14. What is the torque produced in a nut if a person exerts a force of 70

N on the end of a 10 cm spanner, if the pull makes an angle of 45° with
the handle of the spanner. Also calculate the components of the
force.

Proposed homework exercises

1. Calculate the tension magnitude and thrust magnitude of the bar in

the following truss as shown in the figure.

2. A body has a weight whose magnitude is 600 N and is held by two

ropes as seen in the figure. Calculate the magnitude of the tension in
each of them.

3. The torque produced by a 500 mm diameter industrial reel wound

on a cable is 50 Nm Calculate the force on the cable wound around the
reel.

4. A 17-kg tire rolls in circles of radius r with a torque of 44.25 lb. ft

What is the radius of the rim?

5. A cable is wound on a pulley 1.64 ft in diameter if a force of 180 N is

applied to the rope. What is the torque at the center of the shaft?
6. The torque produced by a 200 mm diameter spool wound on a
thread is 10 Nm. Calculate the force on the thread wound around the
spool.

7. A 120 kg industrial gear has a torque of 200 Nm. What is the radius
of the circles described by the gear?

8. What are the forces exerted by the supports of a bridge of 13.7

slugs and 10 m long when a 50 kg cart is on the bridge just 3 m from
the left end.

9. A 30 kg and 8 m long profile is supported by a cable, as shown in

the figure. If a 100 kg load is hung from the right end, what is the
tension T in the cable? What are the horizontal and vertical
components of the force exerted by the pivot?

100kg

10. A cable is wound on a pulley of 2 cm diameter if a force of 500 N is

applied to the rope. What is the torque at the center of the shaft?
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
The problems presented in this manual are authored by MC Janeth
Cervantes Sánchez and Eng. Jorge Salvador Herrera Lettuce.
They relied on the following books for some images.

• BOOK: Fundamentals of Physics authors HALLIDAY DAVID AND

RESNICK ROBERT Grupo Editorial Patria 2009
• BOOK: Fundamentals of Physics Frederick J. Bueche, Mc Graw
Hill, Volume 1
• BOOK: Physics Concepts and Applications, TIPPENS, McGraw
Hill, 2001