Module 6

Development of Water Sources

WATER SUPPLY-Groundwater:

Groundwater Supplies
• Groundwater is both an important direct source of supply that is tapped by
wells and a significant indirect source, since surface streams are often supplied
by subterranean water.
• Groundwater is water at which pressure is equal or greater than atmospheric
pressure beyond the soil surface.
• It is a major source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture and industry,
especially in arid or semiarid areas, where surface water is limited.
• Because groundwater is filtered by flow through the formation, it generally
requires little treatment for use as a water supply.
• Its manifestations are the channel flow during dry season and occurrence of
springs.

Vertical Zones of Subsurface Water

1. Soil Water Zone. Extends from the ground surface down through the major
root zone, which varies with soil type and vegetation.
2. Vadose Zone. Extends from the lower edge of the soil water zone to the upper
limit of the capillary zone. This zone is partially saturated and water is held in
place by capillary forces.
Spring Formation by Contact
Spring Formation by Fracture/Tubular
3. Capillary Zone. Extends from the water table up to the limit of capillary rise,
which varies inversely with the pore size of the soil (i.e. 2.5 cm for fine gravel
to more than 200 cm for silt.
4. Saturated Zone. Zone beneath the water table. All voids are filled with water.
Properties of Groundwater

• Aquifer. A saturated permeable geologic unit that can transmit significant

quantities of water under ordinary hydraulic gradient. There are three types of
aquifer which are the unconfined, confined and leaky.
• Aquitard. Saturated but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater
movement and does not yield water freely to wells but may transmit
appreciable water to adjacent aquifers.
• Aquiclude. A geologic formation which has no interconnected openings and
cannot hold or transmit water.
• Piezometric Surface. Hydrostatic pressure level of water in the aquifer, defined
by the water level that occurs in a lined penetrating well.
• Well. A vertical hole dug into the earth penetrating an aquifer.
• Porosity, n. Measure of the capacity of a formation to contain water. Ratio of
the volume of voids Vv to the total volume V.

V r where, rm = density of (oven-dried) soil grains

n = v = 1- b rb = bulk density (original volume)
V rm
• Specific Retention, Sr. Ability or capacity of aquifer to retain water. Volume of
water retained over bulk volume.
Vr where, Vr = volume of water retained
Sr =
V V = total volume

• Specific Yield, Sy. - volume of water released from an unconfined aquifer per
unit surface area per unit head decline in the water table. Difference between
porosity and specific retention.
where, Sr = specific retention
S y = n - Sr n = porosity

• Storage Coefficient, S. Volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes

into storage per unit surface area per unit change in piezometric head.
• Hydraulic Conductivity, K. Ability of an aquifer or formation to transmit water.

Groundwater Movement

Darcy’s Law:
• The flow rate through porous media is proportional to the head loss and
inversely proportional to the length of the flow path.
 where, K = hydraulic conductivity, a measure of
the permeability of the porous media
Q dh V = average discharge velocity through
V =- = -K
A dL the entire cross section of the
column (Darcy velocity)
Negative sign (-) indicates that the flow of water is in the direction of
decreasing head.

Hydraulic Conductivity, K:
• Rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a
unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.

V where, dh/dL = hydraulic gradient

K =-
dh dL V = average discharge velocity

Seepage Velocity, Vs:

• Actual flow thru the pore spaces.
Q where, n = porosity
Vs =
nA Vs = seepage velocity
Transmissivity, T:
• Rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a
unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.

T = Kb where, b = thickness of aquifer

Intrinsic Permeability, k:
• Ability to transmit fluid. Property of the medium only. It is independent of
fluid properties. Possesses units of area, 1 darcy = 0.987 µm2.
where, µ = dynamic viscosity
Kµ µV
k= =- Kµb r = density of water
rg dh / dL g = gravitational constant
Example No. 1: Two piezometers were installed in a confined aquifer as shown in
the figure below. The piezometers were installed 1,000 m apart. The head at
piezometer A was measured as 42.1 m and the head at piezometer B was
measured as 38.3 m. The aquifer has a saturated thickness of 10.5 m, hydraulic
conductivity of 83.7 m/day, and effective porosity of 0.38. Determine the: (a)
darcy velocity or specific discharge, (b) discharge rate through the aquifer in
m3/day per meter of aquifer width, (c) pore or seepage velocity, and (d) average
time to travel from piezometer A to piezometer B.
Example No. 2: Two additional
piezometers were installed
above and below the upper
aquitard at each location A
and B. The readings on the
piezometers are shown on the
sketch below. Determine the
flow thru the aquitard if it is a
recharge or discharge at
locations A and B. Measure
the recharge or discharge
rate at A and B per km2 area
of aquifer. The hydraulic
conductivity of the aquitard is
0.00837 m/day.
Anisotrophic Aquifer
• Geologic systems having hydraulic conductivity differs in one or more directions
due to the processes of deposition and layering that occur.
• In the typical field situation in alluvial deposits, we find the hydraulic
conductivity in the vertical direction Kz to be less than the value in the
horizontal direction Kx.

Parallel Flow (Horizontal Flow) Thru Layers:

where,
K x eq =
å Ki di Ki = K in layer i
åd i di = thickness of layer i

Perpendicular Flow (Vertical) Thru Layers:

where,
K z eq =
å di Ki = K in layer i
åd i Ki di = thickness of layer i
Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
• Laboratory tests: Constant Head and Falling Head Permeameters
• Field tests: Pump Tests, Slug Tests, and Tracer Tests
• A permeameter is used in the laboratory to measure K by maintaining flow
through a small column of material and material and measuring flow rate and
head loss.

Constant Head Permeameter:

where,
K = hydraulic conductivity
VL V = volume flowing in time t
K= A = sectional area of sample
Ath
h = head (constant)
L = length

Falling Head Permeameter:

where,
K = hydraulic conductivity
r = radius of pipe
r 2 L æ h1 ö rc = radius of core sample
K = 2 lnçç ÷÷
rc t è h2 ø h1 = head at time 1
h2 = head at time 2
L = length
 GENERAL FLOW EQUATIONS
Case 1: Dupuit Equation - Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer Between Two
Water Bodies:

q=
K
2L
(2
ho - hL
2
)
Dupuit Equation

2
h 2 = ho -
x
L
( 2
ho - hL
2
)
Dupuit Parabola
Case 2: Dupuit Equation with Recharge:

q=
K
(
2 2
)
æ Lö
ho - hL + W ç x - ÷ h = ho
2 2
+
(h
L
2
- ho
2
) x + Wx (L - x )
2L è 2ø L K
Dupuit Equation w/ Recharge Dupuit Parabola w/ Recharge
STEADY WELL HYDRAULICS

Case 1: Steady Radial Flow to a Well- Unconfined:

 æ h 2 2 - h12 ö Q æ r2 ö
Q = pK çç ÷ K= çç ÷÷
è ln (r2 r 1 ) ø
÷ (
p h2 - h1
2 2
)
ln
è r1 ø

Flow Equation Hydraulic Conductivity

Case 2: Steady Radial Flow to a Well- Confined:

 æ h -h ö Q ær ö
Q = 2pKbçç 2 1 ÷÷ K= lnçç 2 ÷÷
è ln (r2 r 1 ) ø 2pb(h2 - h1 ) è r1 ø

Flow Equation Hydraulic Conductivity

Seatwork No. 2:
(a) A soil sample is installed in a set-up as shown
on the right Figure. The length of the sample
is 0.1 m, and it has a cross-sectional area of
0.05 m2. The water pressure applied on the
sample is 2 m, and a flow rate of 2.0 m3/day is
observed. What is the hydraulic conductivity
(coefficient of permeability)?
(b) A confined aquifer is 6 m thick and the
coefficient of permeability in the soil is
2m3/day-m2. The wells are 100 m apart, and
the difference in the water elevation in the
wells is 3.0 m. Find the average (Darcy)
velocity through the aquifer and the flow rate
per meter width of aquifer.
Example No. 3: A well is 0.2 m in diameter and pumps from an unconfined aquifer 30
m deep at an equilibrium (steady-state) rate of 1000 m3 per day. Two observation
wells are located at distances 50 and 100m, and they have been drawn down by 0.3
and 0.2 m, respectively. What is the hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of
permeability) and estimated drawdown at the well?
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• https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-
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• https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/earths-fresh-water
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