Communication, Reading and Advanced Writing

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UNIVER
SITY
UNIVER DURANGO
STUDY CENTER
LICENSED AT
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
I Semester
SABATINO MIXED SYSTEM
ADVANCED COMMUNICATION, READING AND WRITING
I Karol Patricia González Carvajal
MAY – AUGUST 2017

COMMUNICATION, READING AND
WRITING
ADVANCED.
INDEX .
I. GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT.
II. COMMUNICATION PROCESS.
III. COMMUNICATION IN PUBLIC.
IV. FORMAL COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES.
V. READING COMPREHENSION.
VI. DISCURSIVE GENRES.
VII. DRAFTING.
VIII. TOPICS WRITING.
IX. ORAL COMMUNICATION.
X. ELOQUENT ORAL EXPRESSION.
XI. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
2 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

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1.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT.

Apply the tools and techniques to optimize reading activity, as well as oral and
written expression to increase the competitiveness of the professional in their work
activity.
1.2. COMMUNICATION PROCESS.
1.2.1. Communication objective.

When we are preparing an upcoming speech, intervention, talk, etc. It is essential that we
reflect, first of all, on what our objective is, that is, what we want to achieve and who we
want to address . Based on this, we must decide on the different aspects that will end up
shaping our actions.
So, before thinking about what we want to say, we have to ask ourselves three basic
questions:
4- Why do I address the public?

5- What do I want to achieve?
6- What do I want the recipients to do or feel next?
The objectives can be classified into :
7- Inform - teach - train .

8- Stimulate - encourage - motivate.
9- Persuade - convince.
10-Find out - debate - negotiate.
11-Amuse - entertain.
It is normal that there are several general objectives, but it is essential that one, concrete
and achievable one, prevail over the others.
1.2.2. Communication concept.

Communication is defined as a process in which a sender and a receiver intervene, in a
specific environment (physical or virtual) through which the transmission and exchange of
ideas and information, understandable between the parties, is achieved.
From the etymological understanding of the word communication, the concept of “sharing
something, putting something in common” emerges, thus constituting a phenomenon
inherent to the relationship between living beings and their environment.
As a process it translates into the issuance of physical or virtual acts such as; sounds,
gestures, signs, use of technologies, etc., which aim to understand a message to a
receiver, who will be able to receive or assimilate it depending on whether they are capable
of doing so, this process becomes interactive, by obtaining a response, thus changing the
roles between receivers and senders.
3 MTRA. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ CARVAJAL
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Among human beings, the act of communication arises from their psychic capacity,
manifesting itself through thought, language and social conditions, which enable the
possibility of establishing an exchange through messages, in order to influence others or in
turn be influenced.
The connection is basic for the process and translates into the meeting or unification of two
or more people in a specific space and time, and can be developed through different forms,
such as; face to face (physical), at a distance through communications technologies
themselves or having an impersonal nature, when it is massive, as in the case of television
broadcasts intended for a large general audience.
1.2.3. Communication elements.

The elements or factors of human communication are:
J- Source: It is the place from which the information, the data, the content that will be
sent emanates, in conclusion: from where the primary message is born.
4- Issuer or encoder: It is the point (person, organization...) that chooses and selects
the appropriate signs to transmit its message.
5- Receiver or decoder: It is the point (person, organization...) to which the message

is intended, it carries out a process inverse to that of the sender since it is
responsible for deciphering and interpreting what the sender wants to make known.
There are two types of receiver, the passive one, which is the one who only receives
the message, and the active receiver or perceiver, since it is the person who not
only receives the message but perceives it and stores it.
6- Code: It is the set of rules specific to each system of signs and symbols that the
sender will use to transmit his message, to combine them arbitrarily because it has
to be in an appropriate way so that the receiver can capture it.
7- Message : It is the content of the information (sent content): the set of ideas,
feelings, events expressed by the sender and that the sender wishes to transmit to
the receiver so that they are captured in the way the sender desires.
The message is the information.
8- Channel: It is the medium through which information-communication is transmitted,

establishing a connection between the sender and the receiver.
9- Situation: It is the time and place in which the communicative act is carried out.
10- Interference or barrier: Any disturbance that the signal suffers in the
communication process can occur in any of its elements. They are sound distortions
in conversation, or the distortion of the television image, the alteration of writing on a
trip, the speaker's aphonia, the listener's deafness, defective spelling, the receiver's
distraction, the student who does not answer even if it is silent. Also often called
noise

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11- Feedback: It is the necessary condition for the interactivity of the
communication process, as long as a response (attitude, behavior...) is received,
whether desired or not. Achieving the interaction between the transmitter and the
reciever. It can be positive (when it encourages communication) or negative (when it
seeks to change the topic or end communication). If there is no feedback, then there
is only information but no communication.
1.2.4. The structure of the communication process.
1.2.5. Communication barriers.

A communication barrier is understood as all those factors that prevent communication,
deforming the message or hindering the process through which communicative processes
are carried out.
Semantic barriers.
They have to do with the meaning of the words; When we do not specify their meaning,
they lend themselves to different interpretations and thus the receiver does not interpret
what the sender said, but rather what his cultural context tells him.
Ex: This is really a pain .

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Physiological barriers.
They prevent the sending or receiving of a message with clarity and precision, due to the
physiological defects of the sender or receiver. Such defects can affect any of the senses.
Either in whole or in part.
Ex. Deafness - phoniatric deficiencies (deaf-mute)
Psychological barriers.
There are many mental factors that prevent you from accepting or understanding an idea.
Some of them are:
J- Not taking into account the point of view of others

4- Suspicion or aversion
J- Worry or emotions unrelated to work
+ Shyness
J- Insufficient explanations
4- Overvaluing oneself.
Physical barriers .
Distance and excess noise make communication difficult, as well as interference on the
radio or telephone. It is necessary to try to eliminate them as much as possible.
Administrative barriers .
They are those that originate from inadequate organizational structures, poor planning and
poor operation of the channels.
They can be saved by:
a) Advance clarification of any idea, before communicating it.
b) Interest in feedback, to verify if the message was received well or not, if the recipient's
reaction is the desired one.
c) Specification of the true purpose of the information to be communicated.
d) Knowledge of the precise meaning of concepts, to eliminate misunderstandings.
e) Use of simple and direct language.
f) Use of multiple communication channels, in order to ensure that the information reaches
where we have intended.
g) Timely use of situations to transmit the message, since the emotional circumstances in
which the recipient finds himself can alter the content of the message.

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h) Reinforcement of words with actions. Generally, this point is greatly neglected.
1.2.6. Cybernetics applied in communication.

Communication is an emerging reality, a sui generis state of affairs. It arises through a
synthesis of three different selections, the selection of information, the selection of the
expression of this information and the selective understanding of this expression and its
information.
The distinction of the three components (information, expression and understanding) is not
new. All of this begins with an understanding of communication in terms of action and, thus,
conceives the communication process as a successful or unsuccessful transmission of
messages, information or expectations of understanding.
Thus, the three components (information, expression and understanding) should not be
interpreted as functions, acts or horizons of validity claims, although one can admit that
they are possible ways of applying them.
Thus there is no information, expression and understanding outside of communication, and

not simply in the causal sense for which information is the cause of expression and
expression is the cause of understanding but rather in the circular sense. of reciprocal
presupposition.
Communication in cybernetics will be an alternative to the extent that it assumes the

complexity of these processes, if together with the language of the medium, the codes of
perception and recognition, the enunciation devices of what is popular, codes and devices
in which They materialize and express, already confused, the popular memory and the
mass imagination;
Cybernetics is considered the science of control and communication.
It has to do with aspects of the systems such as entropy or the natural tendency to
maintain balance and negentropy or the tendency to recover the lost balance, homeostatic
regulation that allows the normal functioning of the system and, finally, feedback. that uses
the results or products of the system to improve its operation.
1.2.7. Neurolinguistic programming in communication.

Neurolinguistic programming ( NLP ) is a model of interpersonal communication that
fundamentally addresses the relationship between successful behaviors and subjective
experiences.
Understanding how we understand information and process it, attending to non-

verbal language reactions and anticipating are key to achieving more effective
communication .
NLP deals with the influence that language has on our mental programming and other
functions of our nervous system, as well as the linguistic patterns we use. It is a system to

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systematically prepare ("program") our mind (neuro), and ensure that it effectively
communicates what we think with what we do (linguistics), thus achieving congruence and
effective communication through a strategy that is focuses on human development.
Also the way we understand language has different physiological reactions. Using
words with positive connotations would contribute to our mood, since when
processing certain information that contains words that have previously been given
a positive meaning, they would increase our activation with a more positive reaction.
This information that we know words provide would facilitate our knowledge of the
information coding process and optimize our communication capacity. It puts the art of
choosing and directing in our hands. It gives us the key to communicate effectively in our
personal relationships, eliminating the barriers that prevent us from making ourselves
understood correctly, it reveals to us the “Metaprograms” under which we unconsciously
function and that we have created ourselves based on our lived circumstances. Managing
to break our self-imposed limitations in order to achieve success in our objectives.
Whatever we do, even when we are silent we will always transmit a message and
that message, no matter how impartial you want to be, will always generate a
conscious or unconscious reaction in the recipient.
1.2.8. Classification of communication.

The types of communication have been advancing in parallel with the growing capacity of
people to configure their physical world and with their increasing degree of
interdependence.
J- Verbal and Written Communication.
The communication process requires a wide repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and
interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing and
evaluating.
Verbal communication or dialogue represents a reciprocal conversation between two
parties. However, both verbal and written communication formats depend on human
language.
Human language can be described as a system of symbols and rules of grammar by the
parameters by which the symbols are manipulated. The language is learned right from the
human race through childhood.
In most human languages, the patterns of sound use of symbols allow communication with
others. There are thousands of human languages that share certain properties.
To develop this aspect, we start from the conception of Roger Malicot, who points out that
“communication is the circulation of thought on three levels: the first, one-dimensional (with
oneself); the second, the two-dimensional (with the others); and the third, the three-
dimensional (me with others, the context and the environment).”

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Below we will indicate each of them:
a) Intrapersonal Communication - Unidimensional.
b) Interpersonal Communication - Two-dimensional.
c) Mass Communication - Three Dimensional.
d) Upward communication.
e) Descending communication.
f) Horizontal communication.
4- Intrapersonal Communication.
Part of the famous verse by the Spanish poet Antonio Machado is quoted below.
“I talk to the man who always goes with me.”
Through it a deep and personal conversation is manifested. A sender is a receiver of his
own message. The speaker is, at the same time, the audience.
Now, reflect for a moment and answer:
Have you talked to yourself, as if you were thinking out loud?
Your answer should have been affirmative, because all human beings communicate
internally. They use intrapersonal communication. Let's see the meaning of this term:
According to what can be seen in the analysis of this word, this type of communication
occurs within the individual, intrapersonal communication is intimate and limited; It occurs
through monologue.
The monologue is an expressive form. It is the speech that a sender or speaker addresses
to himself. It is also used in dramatic and narrative works to reveal states of consciousness,
together with their respective psychic processes.
It is expressed in the first person. Hence, the emphasis on the issuer and the
predominance of exclamatory expressions.
4- Interpersonal Communication.
When two or more people talk, it is said that there is a communication relationship. This
relationship is called interpersonal and it is the type of communication that most people
practice most of the time.
Interpersonal communication is the most primary, direct and personal form of
communication. It offers the opportunity for you and other people to see each other, share
ideas, interrupt or suspend dialogue.
Dialogue is the most complete form of communication between men. It is opposed to the
counterpart, since it does place emphasis on the recipient of the message, it refers

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simultaneously to several frames of reference and very frequently uses interrogative
sentences. Likewise, it allows the externalization of ideas through conversation.
4- Mass Communication.
As civilization grew and became powerful, the need arose for new means of
communication, in harmony with that development. Thus, when man sought his own
transcendence, he used instruments that allowed the extension of his senses.
The development of mass media has raised new ways of facing the world, which
constitutes a challenge for modern man. The man is subjected to a continuous
bombardment of messages, from which he cannot escape.
The problems raised by the mass media are profound and reflect the transformation of our
world. Today's man is a participant in this transformation.
The problem for human beings, at the current moment, is to be able to establish
communication that has almost been lost due to the unilateral bombardment to which they
are subjected by the persuasive action of the mass media.
Thus, today's man comes to constitute himself in masses, due to the transformation of
society, into a consumer society and where only the mass production of symbols and
messages prevails. Machine and society march together, but not in parallel to man, who
has remained on the periphery within his own symbolic environment.
4- Ascending Communication.
From superior to subordinate. That which descends from higher administrative units to
lower units (from manager to assistant manager, from unit head to section head, etc.). The
message generally contains orders, instructions, regulations, etc.
4- Descending Communication.
From subordinate to superior. It is contrary to the previous one. It goes from lower
administrative units to higher units. The message usually contains reports, account
relationships, requests, etc.
4- Horizontal Communication.
Between people of equal hierarchical level. It circulates in the company between units of
the same administrative hierarchy (from manager to manager, from section to section).
4- Non-Verbal Communication.
This category of communication includes communication through sending and receiving
messages without words, which are transmitted through facial expressions, eye contact,
gestures, posture or body language.
4- Visual communication.
As the name suggests, this type of communication is through visual aids. This method of
transmitting ideas and information is mainly related to two-dimensional images that include
signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, color and electronic resources.
This form of communication with a visual effect emphasizes the concept that a visual

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message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person.
The most common ways to present visual information are video and television. Here, the
focus is on the presentation of text, images, diagrams and photographs integrated on a
computer screen. This category of communication is widely used by graphic designers.
4- Gestural Communication.
In this code, the sender transmits his messages through gestures, using his body. It could
be similar to visual communication, since it is a sign or communicative signal that the
receiver must also receive through sight.
But we should not get confused, because what distinguishes this type of code is its origin.
This consists of the sender making gestures to transmit the message, however, the other
corresponds to any signal that only needs to be seen. An example of gestural
communication is the language of the deaf and dumb.
4- Audiovisual Communication.
It is transmitted through the view. To capture the message, the receiver must see the signal
that the sender sends him. We should not confuse seeing with reading.
Regarding the relationship with written communication, it must also be seen; But that is not
enough, because you have to know how to read and know the language to understand the
message. On the other hand, when we communicate with visual communication, just
seeing is enough.
A typical example of visual communication is that of most traffic signs, which are used
instead of written signs so that it is much easier to capture the message even if we do not
know how to read or write or if we do not know the language in which a sign might be
written.
4- Auditory Communication.
It is also called acoustic or sound communication.
It is transmitted through the ear, that is, the receiver must hear the signal to receive and
understand the message.
Auditory communication, the signal is more universal and does not include words or
anything linguistic nor visual elements.
1.3. COMMUNICATION IN PUBLIC.
1.3.1. The effective communicator and credibility.

Speaking in front of an audience is an activity that many people fear and that leads to high
levels of anxiety.

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The awareness of being evaluated makes many people feel insecure and threatened in
their self-esteem, to the point that it is considered one of the most difficult social situations.
You have to identify which person is the most pleasing when they speak, the person who
excites, convinces, exhorts, inspires their audience and of course good body expression
makes them a good speaker.
Each person has a characteristic that differentiates them from the other and that difference
is dominated by personality, the effective communicator knows how to listen.
Effective communicator must have the following personal skills:
4- Channel nervousness
4- Commit to your ideas
4- Cultivate a receptive attitude.
You have the following technical knowledge:
4- Manage non-verbal communication (voice, body action and body and facial
gestures),
4- Analyze the public
4- Select the theme
4- Prepare the message
4- Search information
4- Practice the speech
4- Answer the questions
The good speaker has credibility with his audience, knows how to channel his nervous
energy in a positive way and knows how to listen.
The good speaker knows his audience, he knows the topics he can discuss with a certain
audience and how to approach them. His non-verbal behavior is appropriate and he knows
how to read the non-verbal behavior of his audience.
The good speaker has basic knowledge of the communication process, which allows him to
gain credibility from his audience with each message he presents.
Other characteristics of the effective communicator are:

4- Originality
J- Creativity
4- Dynamism
4- Looseness
1.3.2. Elements for effective communication.
Human relationships are an art, that is why they can be "natural", spontaneous, learning it
implies mastering theory and practice, it is not enough to know (know, investigate or study).
In them, dealing with our fellow human beings is impulsive, almost automatic. It is
translated into actions and words not subject to control, but to the state of mind we have at
a moment.

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To achieve good effective communication we must take into account a series of factors and
characteristics so that the message we want to transmit is effective:
4- Clarity – Messages should be clear, easily decoded, and unambiguous.
J- Accuracy : the information transmitted in the message must be accurate and

complete .
J- Objectivity : the information transmitted by the sender must be truthful, authentic,

as impartial as possible, that is, objective.
5- Timely : the message must be transmitted at the precise moment , that is, the one
in which the appropriate effect arises for the purpose to be achieved.
6- Interesting : the message must be attractive to the Receiver, thus achieving greater
motivation and involvement.
7- Flexibility: It is a characteristic through which personnel demonstrate sensitivity to

changing conditions, and may be able to adapt to unexpected situations.
Flexibility is an advantage in communication. Sometimes, even if we want to

communicate a message to another person or a group, we realize that there are
unusual circumstances and that it is not the best time to give a message.
8- Empathy: it is knowing how to put yourself in the place of others, it is so essential to

relate to us that lacking it distances us and cuts us off from communicating with
others, we have to put ourselves in the place of others, if you don't know, you have
time to learn it. .
Putting yourself in someone else's place is not what you would do if you were to go
through that person's circumstances, having empathy is understanding that each
person thinks and feels in a certain way and that circumstances do not make the
person feel. well, but his way of facing life.
J- Receptivity: it is the talent to receive stimuli and an inclination to capture messages

and responses. Receptivity is an important component in the communication
process. Receptivity is an internal, personal condition that allows them to be
sensitive to certain traces of communication that reach them in the course of their
daily activities.
J- Learn to listen: listen to yourself. Resist distractions, both external (TV, cell phone)
and internal (what we think, what worries us). Try to grasp the content of the verbal
message and retain the important points internally.
Not all of us are excellent communicators and we do not follow the processes established
here. But with certain key points and with the interest that we put in communication
situations we can carry out these processes effectively.

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1.3.3. Non-verbal communication.
Man has been using this type of non-verbal communication for more than a million years.
This type of communication has only begun to be studied a few decades ago.
Researcher Albert Mehrabian broke down the impact of a message into percentages: 7% is
verbal, 38% vocal (tone, nuances and other characteristics) and 55% signals and gestures.
The verbal component is used to communicate information and the non-verbal component
is used to communicate personal states and attitudes.
This researcher, Albert Mehrabian, states that in a face-to-face conversation the verbal
component is 35% and more than 65% is non-verbal communication.
Many gestures used are common in most countries, although others can mean different
things depending on where we are .
The basic gestures tend to be the most universalized: shaking the head to affirm or deny
something, frowning as a sign of anger, shrugging the shoulders to indicate that we do not
understand or comprehend something, etc. Other times, there are gestures that are
inherited from the animal kingdom, such as showing one's teeth as a sign of anger
(aggression).
Even if you know what a certain gesture can mean, do not make the mistake of interpreting
it in isolation; It's easy to make a mistake.
Gestures can be faked, but not the entire body acts in the same way. The eyebrows, the
laugh, the pupil of the eyes and other small details will surely give us away.
As a general rule, when we are lying or forcing a situation, the body gives us away. That is
why personal situations are better resolved face to face than by telephone or other means
where the body can be hidden and an important part of the message (the non-verbal part)
can be lost.
1.4. FORMAL COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES.
1.4.1. Persuasive speech.

Persuasive speech is the process of influencing an audience to feel, believe or act in
accordance with the position defended by the speaker. Perhaps this is the most demanding
challenge of public speaking.
4- Persuasive speeches are designed to establish or change opinions, or to stimulate

an audience into action. Even though a speech objective written to establish or
change an opinion may result in listeners acting on that belief, your main interest
now will be to get them to agree with you that the opinion expressed is reasonable.
5- You are more likely to persuade if your arguments fit the audience members' initial
attitude, so it is crucial to evaluate the direction and strength of their attitudes before

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giving the speech. An attitude is "a general or constant feeling, positive or negative,
that one has toward a person, thing, or issue."
6- You are more likely to be able to convince an audience if your speech contains good
reasons and solid evidence that support the objective of the presentation.
7- You are more likely to convince your audience if your language motivates them.
8- You are more likely to convince your audience when they find your arguments
credible.
1.4.2. Interview
The interview is a journalistic text in which the ideas and opinions of a character are made
known through a dialogue between the person interviewed and the interviewer.
Broadly speaking, and according to their purpose, we distinguish two types of interviews.
Although, sometimes, there is a mixture of both.
4- Profile or personality interview.
Its objective is to present the portrait of a character. The interest is focused on the
person themselves, their qualities, their opinions, their career and biography, both
professional and human.
This type of interview allows for greater formal freedom. In this case, comments and
descriptions can be included, as well as biographical data of the character being
addressed.

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5- Statement, information or objective interview.
Its purpose is to inform the public of what a person who is an expert in a certain subject
or with a relevant position thinks about a specific topic. In this case it is the topic that is
current.
J- Mixed interview. It is the one that combines elements of the personality interview
and the statements interview.
Interview structure
In general, the interview is structured in three parts: the title, the introduction of the person
interviewed and a series of questions and answers.
6- Qualification. It must be attractive to arouse the interest of readers. If the person

interviewed is known, it is enough to select his name or one of the statements made
in the interview as the title.
7- Presentation. Next, the interviewer offers precise information about the person who
is going to be interviewed or makes a brief introduction or summary of what the
interview will discuss with the circumstances or reason for their statements.
8- Dialogue. Finally, the dialogue between the interviewer and the interviewee is
reproduced.
1.4.3. Exposure.
Exposition is used to present the content of a topic with the intention of explaining and
developing a series of ideas and thus transmitting it clearly and convincingly to others.
Texts in which exposition predominates are called expository texts.
Exhibition Features
The exposition is a type of speech whose primary purpose is to transmit information . It

is one of the manifestations of expression typical of didactic texts. This purpose can be
achieved in very different ways, whether in oral or written language.
For the characteristic informative purpose of the exhibition to be fulfilled satisfactorily, the
expository text must meet a series of qualities, among which are clarity , order and
objectivity .
Every expository text, in fact, must present its contents in a way that is understandable to
the interlocutor (clarity), organized according to a certain criterion (order) and without
unjustified personal evaluations (objectivity).
The elements of the exhibition
Expository speech takes place in a communication situation that is determined by three

elements: the sender, the receiver and the relationship established between them.
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J- The sender must have sufficient knowledge about the topic of the exhibition and the
will to transmit that knowledge in an objective manner that is, at the same time,
understandable to its potential recipient; You can try to influence the behavior of
others, as well as inform.
It can be individual or collective, and individual or institutional.
4- The recipient is the person or group to whom the exhibition is directed. The tone
and lexicon must be adapted to the nature and level of knowledge of the recipients.
You may be an expert on the subject, completely ignorant of it, or possess some
knowledge about it.
The objective with which you approach the text will depend on this level of
knowledge: find initial information on a topic, expand what you already know or
access the latest research in the discipline in which you are a specialist.
J- The relationship between sender and receiver is basic for information to be

transmitted effectively.
The sender must adapt his presentation to the type of receiver he is going to
address: only in this way will he be able to give his intervention the appropriate level
and tone.
Sort the information in the paragraph
The information can be ordered in the paragraph according to different structures:
J- Deductive structure. The main idea is stated at the beginning, and is then
explained, demonstrated or developed.
Example:
Scientific advances are extremely beneficial to humanity. Firstly, because they
allow us to combat numerous diseases. And, secondly, because they make our
existence more comfortable.
4- Inductive structure. The most relevant information is set out at the end of the
paragraph and is presented as a conclusion to what was said previously.
Example:
Scientific advances make it possible to combat numerous diseases. On the other
hand, they make our existence more comfortable. We can conclude, therefore,
that the development of science is extremely beneficial for humanity.
4- Parallel structure. The paragraph is organized as a succession of ideas that are

not subordinated to each other.
Example:
Scientific advances make it possible to combat numerous diseases. On the other
hand, they make our existence more comfortable. Furthermore, they allow us to
dream of a future in which human beings will be absolute masters of their
destiny.

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Linguistic resources of the exhibition
Depending on the form the exhibition takes, specific connectors are used:
4- In narrative expositions, temporal or ordinal connectors predominate ( first,

then, finally... ).
J- Expositions in descriptive form abound in spatial connectors ( in front, above...

), contrast connectors ( unlike, on the contrary... ) and distributive connectors (
on the one hand, on the other hand... )
J- The presentations in argumentative form present cause-effect as characteristic

connectors ( because, so that... )
Exhibition classes
The exhibition can be organized according to different textual and thematic schemes. If you
look at its form, it can be narrative, descriptive or argumentative; If the point of view
focuses on the content, it will be scientific, didactic or journalistic.
Textual classification of the exhibition
The word expose refers, among other things, to the idea of explaining something or talking
about something so that others know it. Thus, we can define exposition as the type of
speech that aims to transmit information. Clarity, order and objectivity are the main
characteristics of expository prose.
J- The exhibition in narrative form . When the topic to be presented involves a

temporal development, the presentation is done in narrative form.
4- The exhibition in descriptive form . The descriptive form is typical of exhibitions that
focus on the characterization of a certain reality that is presented to the recipient; It
is also frequent in classifications or comparisons.
4- The presentation in argumentative form . The presentation in argumentative form is

distinguished by the reasoned analysis of the topic, which leads to establishing
causal relationships.
Expository texts can also be classified according to their theme:

EXHIBITION MODALITIES CHARACTERISTICS
Scientific Specialized subject. It demands order, rigor and precision.

Didactics Knowledge topics. Precise order, clarity and accuracy.
Divulgative It is aimed at the general public. It deals with topics of interest
and has a simple and clear style.
Humanistic It demands thoughtful analysis, order, clarity and dialectical
development.
Journalism Presided over by a mastery of objectivity, clarity and accuracy
in the information it transmits.

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1.4.4. Demonstration.
Demonstration is a deductive process, which can be defined as: presenting reasons
logically linked to specific facts that confirm certain statements.
Within the instruction cycle, the demonstration does not constitute an isolated phase, but
only a procedure that initiates or complements the new operation: it presupposes a
theoretical study prior or after its presentation.
1.4.5. Round table.

A table is a piece of furniture that has legs and is made up of boards. Its purpose is to
serve as a support for different things, allowing a person to write or eat about it.
The concept of a round table is based on this piece of furniture to refer to a mode of
communication between several individuals. It is an event where a certain number of
subjects meet to develop a debate around a certain topic.
The notion of a round table is symbolic since it does not refer to the furniture, but to the
nonexistence of hierarchies or privileged positions within the framework of the debate. This
means that, in a round table, all participants have the same rights and opportunities to
express their opinion.
Viewers of a roundtable discussion can also participate in the activity, usually by asking
questions of the speakers and contributing to the debate.
The round tables usually have a coordinator who makes an introduction to the topic and is
responsible for establishing the order of the participation, in addition to introducing the
speakers and organizing questions from the public.
The coordinator has the obligation to direct the debate impartially, without favoring any
participant.
We can point out, finally, that the Round Table is the one that appears in the old English
legend starring King Arthur, which states that when he began his reign in Camelot (Britain)
he founded a type of discussion that was called the round table. , with the characteristics
that we have previously mentioned.
Its participants were a group of men who belonged to an order of chivalry who, according
to the story, were spread around this table to discuss the different issues that affected their
domains.
The table at which they met had been a gift from the king of Leodegrance (father of
Guinevere, Arthur's wife). It had capacity for 150 people, although not all of its seats were
always filled, and when everyone was seated around it, hierarchies disappeared.

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1.4.6. Seminar.
Seminar, from the Latin seminarius , is a class or didactic meeting where a specialist
interacts with the attendees in common work to disseminate knowledge or develop
research.
The seminar is a specialized meeting, of a technical or academic nature, that attempts to

develop an in-depth study on a certain subject. Generally, it is established that a seminar
must last a minimum of two hours and have at least fifty participants.
Specifically, we can establish that the meaning of launching any seminar is for those
attending it to enter fully and thoroughly into a specific subject. But not only that, but also
study it from a much more practical point of view, which will become a tool of great
professional help for them.
Seminars of this type were invented in the 18th century. Specifically, the students of the
German University of Göttingen did so with the clear objective of being able to carry out a
series of initiatives that would perfectly unite teaching itself and also research.
Learning in a seminar is active, since participants must search for and process information
within the framework of reciprocal collaboration among themselves and through interaction
with the specialist.
For example: “I signed up for a seminar on corporate social responsibility that will be held
next week ,” “ I'm nervous: my boss left me in charge of a training seminar for our clients . ”
1.5. READING COMPREHENSION.
1.5.1. Paragraph.
Paragraphs are a set of words and sentences integrated in a logical manner, harmoniously
related to each other and around a central idea.
The paragraph begins with a capital letter, it is made up of a variable number of lines,
which are made up of the main and secondary sentences that make up the paragraph. It
begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop that separates it from other paragraphs
within the same text.
Characteristics that paragraphs have:
They are made up of a main sentence.- Within a paragraph there is a main sentence,
which is continued by one or more other sentences that are secondary sentences, 20
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The main sentence is usually called the topic sentence, since it is the one that mentions the
topic or the aspects that the paragraph deals with, it concentrates the main idea and its
meaning.
Secondary sentences.- Secondary sentences are those that follow the main sentence and
make up the rest of the paragraph. They are responsible for substantiating, complementing
and expanding what is stated in the main sentence. There must be a logical relationship,
continuity, coherence, and consistency of ideas between the main sentence and the
secondary sentences.
Size.- Paragraphs vary in size depending on what they deal with, and may consist of only
one or two words, consist of one line or several and become extensive, such is the case of
the novel “lion hunter”, which is made up of only two paragraphs.
There are several types of paragraphs, which are usually combined with each other within
the same text.
Among them we can count the following:
Argumentative paragraphs.- They are those that are used to present an argument aimed
at supporting an opinion or refuting another, and have the purpose of causing the
persuasion of the reader. These paragraphs are typical of argumentative texts (essays,
philosophical books, political speeches). , etc.).
Expository paragraphs.- They are typical of the different expository texts, they are used
for example in the composition of scientific essays, within legal and educational texts
among others, the purpose of these paragraphs is to present an idea or given concept and
its explanation either in the same paragraph or in the paragraphs that follow it.
Enumeration paragraphs.- In these paragraphs an enumeration is made, whether of

ideas, events, things, citations are listed, or various steps in a process such as, for
example, in the case of cooking recipes, where the steps and procedures to follow, as well
as in various scientific or technical books. They are also used to classify and rank a topic in
order of importance. They can be made up of words only or include numbers within the
enumeration with which, for example, a list of ideas or a count of topics is made.
Explanatory paragraphs.- These are those that are intended to clarify a part of the text,
this is the case of the notes found in some books, and that clarify or correct points and
details that were presented in the main body of a text, they are usually at the end of the
book in a special “notes” and “clarifications” section, or at the bottom of the text to which
they refer. They are usually written in a smaller font, in bold or italic letters, starting with a
symbol “*” or a number “1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
Narrative paragraphs.- They are very characteristic of some literary genres such as
novels, stories, chronicles, journalistic texts, historical texts and others, in which facts and
events are written chronologically. They are used in works where a narrator chronicles a
story, and may be interspersed with other types of paragraphs, as is the case with dialogue
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Dialogue Paragraphs.- These are paragraphs written in the form of dialogue, in which
several characters or speakers interact. They are common, for example, in novels, stories
and written interviews.
1.5.2. Denotation and Connotation.

At the request of linguistics, the word denotation is the one used to designate the most
basic meaning that a word has and as such, all individuals who speak the language know
it.
That is, denotation is the direct meaning, the formal and most widespread reference that a
word has, as it appears in a language dictionary of the language in question.
That is, with regard to the denotation there will be no contradictions in any way, since what
it expresses is the universal meaning of a term about which there is a convention.
Meanwhile, it should be noted that words have two meanings, on the one hand the
aforementioned denotative and on the other hand the connotative, which will be
determined by the value, emotion and feeling that people apply to the term in question as a
consequence of the formal meaning. to which the word is associated.
Thus, for example, the word rape, whose literal meaning involves the action and result of
violating, which implies breaking a law or sexually abusing someone, is that for most
people, the word will have a negative connotation. , that is, it is a term that proposes an
unpleasant question and therefore its connotation will go in that same sense.
Another example to further clarify the issue is birthday, which is a word that most people
associate with celebration, joy, however, it can happen that it evokes sad memories for an
individual and therefore the connotation of the word changes. positive type that always
revolves around the word.
All terms in a language have these two faces: connotation and denotation, prioritizing the
characteristics and contexts of the sender and receiver and the objective, respectively. The
denotative aspect of a word hardly changes over time, however, this change can affect the
connotation that can be attributed to it.
From the above, then, it follows that the word connotation is the opposite concept of the
term at hand.
1.5.3. Reading strategies.

The reading.
Reading is the most important practice for studying. In literature subjects, reading takes up
90% of the time dedicated to personal study. Most of the knowledge is acquired through
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By reading the words are recognized, the author's thoughts are captured and contrasted
with one's own thoughts, critically. In some way a dialogue is established with the author.
Laín Entralgo defined reading as "silent conversation between the reader and the author."
Three types of reading can be distinguished: one that is distracting, shallow, in which the
plot is of interest but not the establishment of knowledge; Another reading is informative,
with which the aim is to have a general overview of the topic, and even of an entire book;
and finally, study or formative reading, which is the slowest and most profound and aims to
understand a specific topic.
Reading process.
The main purpose is for you to know the language and its use better and better; that you
use the levels and styles appropriate to each communicative situation; In your oral
presentations and written texts, use various strategies to maintain the interest of those who
listen or read you.
You are expected to apply the knowledge acquired about the communicative process and
the functions of language, so that it also serves you in the texts you read.
Each text is different and, therefore, needs a particular strategy to approach it; that is, a set
of rules and recommendations to understand it properly.
READING PURPOSES
Before starting a reading it is important to recognize the final destination or objective of the
activity; This will give us a starting point to approach the text and the first step of the
strategy or planning to understand it.
Every time you approach a text it is necessary to recognize:
J- The source or the medium: that is, what is the platform of the text? Where is it
located? For example: newspaper, magazine, internet, book.
J- Its extension: How long is it?
4- Graphic or paralinguistic marks: does it contain photographs, tables, maps?
J- Objective of reading: pleasure, collect specific data, give an opinion, apply
knowledge, etc.
J- Author of the work.
ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Once the reading strategy is defined, read the title. Through it you can get a first
approximation of the topic in question. “No one faces a text with absolute innocence” says
the Spanish academic Julián Moreiro (1953) and this implies that when we arrive at the text
we do so with prior knowledge.
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The ideas we have before reading can be related to the topic, author, title of the work, etc.
This has to do with our personal and cultural history, education and level of knowledge
around the subject.
Before starting reading there are a series of questions that you can ask yourself, these will
give you more clues about the text and will help you have a better understanding of it:
4- Where is this information located?

J- In what year was the book or article published?
4- Who is the author?
4- What is the publisher that publishes it?
4- What is the purpose of reading?
The title gives us the first clue about the topic, from this you must ask yourself:
4- What can it refer to?

4- Do you know or have you heard about the matter? If so, what do you know? And if
you have never heard anything, it is best to do a brief investigation of the topic in
question.
For example, if you read a title like “Dietary challenges faced with GMOs,” you may
not know what the term GMOs means, so it is advisable to research it before
starting reading.
4- What do you already know regarding the topic?

4- Now, start reading and compare the information you already knew with that of the
text.
DETERMINING THE MEANING OF WORDS
In order to understand the text clearly, it is necessary that there are no gaps or gaps while
you read. Many times, if we do not know a word, this not only interrupts reading but also
causes a void of information in the data that the text reveals to us.
Reading is one of the best ways to expand our lexicon and learn new terms and concepts;
However, to get rid of those that we do not know, you can do any of the following
techniques:
Infer from the context: if there is an unknown word in a sentence, try to read again what it
is about or what the common thread of the text is and if you understand the general
meaning you can intuit the meaning of a word that you had not heard before.
Discover the meaning by its prefix: another way to deduce the meaning of a word is to
recognize the Latin or Greek prefix with which it begins, since Spanish contains numerous
particles (morphemes) derived from these languages and every time we encounter one of
them , we can say that we already have part of the meaning of the word.
Search the dictionary: if you cannot infer the meaning of the word from the context or the
Greco-Latin prefix, it is important that you stop for a moment and look in a dictionary –

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printed or online – to what this concept refers to. This way you can classify and clear up
doubts along the way while reading.
IDENTIFICATION OF MAIN IDEAS
The internal structure of the paragraph is made up of a sentence that contains the basic
information or the fundamental idea; and by secondary sentences, which expand the
information or give more details about the main idea.
4- Secondary sentences can be subordinate or coordinated, depending on their

importance compared to the main one.
4- Subordinate clauses: they necessarily depend on the main clause.
4- Coordinated sentences: they have the same value as the main sentence, they
serve to compare or contrast an idea.
4- Secondary sentences are linked to the main sentence through punctuation marks
such as commas (,), semicolons (;), or full stops (.), or links such as conjunctions
and prepositions.
To determine the main idea of a paragraph it is important to recognize:
4- What is the main sentence of said paragraph?

4- Keywords that denote important ideas.
The main sentence does not always coincide textually, that is, identically with the main
idea; Sometimes you have to infer it and for that you can use keywords.
SUPERVISION AND REGULATION OF OWN UNDERSTANDING.
In order to properly understand a text, certain conditions are necessary that you must
consider and that we recommend below:
Place. Choose a place where the conditions are favorable for reading, a place that is well
lit, without annoying ambient noise and that is not subject to constant foot traffic.
Position. Get a comfortable chair or armchair where you can read without falling asleep
and where the text is at least 30 cm away from your eyes.
Auxiliaries. Have a dictionary, pencil, and notebook on hand to make notes or mark the
most important things.
Attention. By isolating external distractors (music, people, pets, television), we can focus
our attention on reading.
Concentration. Each reading is a journey into the author's world; Therefore, now just
concentrate and let yourself be carried as far as its lyrics direct you.

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1.5.4. Coherence mechanisms.

Coherence mechanisms are links that help connect the parts of a text to give it meaning
and unity.
The importance of coherence mechanisms is that they put order in the text since they
relate one idea to another.
MARKERS
Coherence mechanisms are expressed through textual markers, which are words or
expressions that indicate a relationship between sentences or even between paragraphs.
They are used to link one idea with another and give cohesion and meaning to the text.
Markers are the equivalent of the glue that holds the paragraph together, creating bridges
between the main sentence and the supporting sentences.
In addition, they allow us to have a clear and logical understanding of the text.
Markers can be conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs and adverbial phrases, for example,
and are classified according to the relationship they express between one sentence and
another.
CAUSE
Cause markers refer to the origin that led to a certain consequence; The sentences that
link will reveal to us the reason for some action or effect. They are the following: because,
since, since, since, because of, since.
Examples:
4- The film festival was canceled since there was not enough budget for its
organization.
4- The neighbors have been protesting for six months because the work does not have
construction permits.
CERTAINTY
Certainty mechanisms or markers express secure knowledge about what is stated and
serve to reinforce a statement. They are: indeed, in fact, indeed.
Examples:
4- Indeed, Mr. Secretary, the accused has not paid the fine.
4- A healthy diet has variety as its main characteristic; In fact, a varied dish is more
colorful and tastier.
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CONDITION
Condition markers imply a requirement that must be met for some action to occur. It refers
to: yes, whenever, as long as.
Example:
J- I'll give you a ride as long as you help me do my homework.
CONSEQUENCE
Consequence markers refer to the result obtained after carrying out some particular action
or fact, such as the following: thus, in this way, then, and, therefore, in this way, as a
consequence, since, so that , for, in order that.
Examples:
J- I think, therefore I am. (Descartes).
J- In order to avoid courts, I propose that we reach an agreement.
OPPOSITION
Opposition mechanisms indicate a contrast of opinions or ideas. They are as follows:

against, but, however, however, rather, although, except, or.
Example:
4- You go or I go.
1.5.5. Discursive modes.

When you think of a speech, what do you refer to? Most likely to a public talk chaired, for
example, by a politician.
However, in the literary field, speech has a broader meaning and refers to expressing an
idea, whether spoken or written, with an intention. According to the literature academy
Helena Beristaín (1927), discourse is “language put into action.”
Does a request for permission to go to a party sound the same to you as the grocery list?
Probably not. Each text has a different intention and according to this, it has a different
organization and expression.
Discursive modes refer to the way in which a text expresses something according to a
particular intentionality.

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According to the author's purpose, we can classify the discursive modes into: definition,
demonstration, comparison, specification, enumeration, refutation, exemplification,
reference, recapitulation, amplification and synthesis.
DEFINITION
The discursive mode of definition seeks to detail the characteristics that make a concept
unique. Answer the question What is it?
DEMONSTRATION
The discursive mode of demonstration seeks to provide information that supports the
author's position. It is common to use statistics or hard data – numbers or figures – to
demonstrate that the author's result is correct.
COMPARISON
The discursive mode of comparison implies the existence of two or more ideas or
elements that are contrasted in the text, exposing the characteristics of each one and
highlighting both their differences and their coincidences.
SPECIFICATION
The discursive mode of specification has to do with grounding an idea to a particular

element. Some of the markers that can precede a specification are: particularly, especially,
specifically, and specifically.
ENUMERATION
The discursive mode of enumeration expresses a concatenation of elements generally

separated by a conjunction or a comma (,).
REFUTATION
The discursive mode of refutation involves the denial of an idea or element of the text with
arguments to support said denial. Normally, in the structure of a refutation, the idea to be
refuted is first presented and then denied by demonstrating facts or data that support the
author's idea.
EXEMPLIFICATION
In the discursive mode of exemplification , the author mentions various elements to

demonstrate or illustrate a main idea. Another objective of exemplification is to give clarity
to the reader about the idea that you want to demonstrate.
REFERENCE
The discursive mode of reference seeks to demonstrate an idea through a textual quote or
paraphrase.
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The verbatim quote implies the exact repetition of another person's words and, in a text, it
must always be enclosed in quotation marks (" "); while paraphrase is expressed through
the approximate repetition of another's words and should not be enclosed in quotation
marks.
RECAPITULATION
The discursive mode of recapitulation returns some idea the author has mentioned
previously in the text. Some of the textual markers that can be used in this discursive mode
are: recapitulating, resuming, as mentioned above.
AMPLIFICATION
The discursive mode of amplification aims to make the reader aware of more elements to
expand their panorama of the idea that the author wants to communicate.
SYNTHESIS
The discursive mode of synthesis seeks to summarize the main idea of a text to reinforce
and expose the author's position in a clear and concise manner; Therefore, it is common to
find it in the concluding or closing paragraph. You can use one of the following markers: in
summary, as a conclusion or to conclude
1.5.6. Paraphrase.
Paraphrasing is an intellectual operation that consists of translating into our own words the
ideas that another person has expressed orally or in writing, in order to replace the
information with a more personalized language and achieve better understanding.
The most common thing when paraphrasing is to replace only some words with synonyms
and change the order of some phrases without altering their meaning. The other way to
paraphrase is by reconstructing the wording in a more summarized way, but without losing
the essence of the information or the original message.
It is very important to remember that paraphrasing can be useful as a study strategy and
for documentary research, but never to attribute the ideas of others. In fact, paraphrasing
can be considered an initial step in understanding texts that can later lead us to the
analysis and writing of our own material.
Once we have paraphrased several authors and have reflected, we can reach our own
conclusions to write original documents. Paraphrasing can also be used to make
contextual quotes.
The basic steps to write a paraphrase are as follows.
4- General reading of the text to be paraphrased.
4- Underlining words or phrases susceptible to change.
4- Reading each paragraph and replacing words and phrases in writing.

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J- Reading the paraphrase and comparing it with the original text to verify that the
central ideas have not been lost.
1.5.7. Types of texts.

When writing any type of text we have to know how to define its meaning or in fact how we
can describe it. It is not the same to refer to a story, plot, characters or words from a
descriptive, narrative, argumentative or expository way, so we want to define their
differences below.
The writer's fundamental tool when approaching a narrative is the text. If we stick to its
basic definition, we understand by text the linguistic unit formed by a set of statements with
an internal structure; Among the types of text we can find:
Descriptive text : It is one in which the characteristics of an object prevail statically,

without the passage of time.
Narrative text : It is one in which we find a story of events developed in a specific time or
place and carried out by real or imaginary characters, following a temporal or casual order,
this can be written in prose or verse.
Argumentative text : It is one in which the reasons for or against a certain “position” or
“thesis” are presented, in order to convince the interlocutor through different arguments.
Expository text : It is the text in which certain facts or realities are presented, in a neutral
and objective way.
1.5.8. Analysis of informative texts.
The analysis of an informative text consists of knowing how to answer, based on the text
itself, the six fundamental questions:
Who? Subject of the information.
That? The fact, what has happened.
As? That is, the method, the way the event occurs.
Where? The site, the place where the event occurred.
When? Time factor (year, day, hour or minute)
Because? The cause, a fundamental element that gives us the reason for what has
happened.

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1.6. DISCURSIVE GENRES.
1.6.1. Summary.
The summary consists of reducing a text in such a way that it only contains important
issues, which will be characterized by: fidelity in the words, important points adequately
highlighted and that there is a connection between them.
The summary is not only beneficial because it stimulates the ability to synthesize, but it is
also essential to improve written expression, which is decisive in an exam.
Likewise, the logical organization of thought that writing requires is the best method to
deepen understanding. That is why you should never limit yourself to copying fragments.
We have to write in our own words after reflecting.
The specific objective of summaries is the synthetic and objective representation of what
has been read or heard.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUMMARY :
J- Order in ideas.
1- Clarity.
J- Conciseness.
4- They must be personal.
J- Use abbreviations, codes and signs.
1.6.2. Review.
The Review is a very brief article or writing, almost always corresponding to a publication in
which an event, a literary or scientific work, among other alternatives, will be described in a
concise and succinct manner.
We mostly find reviews in the media such as magazines, newspapers and they generally
deal with the same topics, books, recently released movies, exhibitions and events.
The objective is to bring the public closer to these events, highlight their values, make them
aware of them and also awaken their interest so that they themselves come to see them,
read them and participate in them.
A review will be considered correct and fulfills its function when it reflects the critical
evaluation and interpretation of the person who wrote it.
Also, the term is used to refer to that note of the distinctive features, whether of a person, a
thing or an animal.
And finally, the word is often used as a synonym for short story.

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1.6.3. Rehearsal.
An essay is a prose writing, generally brief, that presents with depth, maturity and
sensitivity, a personal interpretation on any topic, be it philosophical, scientific, historical,
literary, etc.
It is not defined by the object about which one writes but by the writer's attitude towards it;
Deep down, it could be a hypothesis, an idea being tested.
The essay is the product of long meditations and reflections, the essential thing is its sense
of exploration, its audacity and originality, it is the effect of the adventure of thought.
Types of essay
Literary essay : The term "essay" applied to a literary genre was chosen by the French
writer Miguel de Montaigne (1533-1592) to name his book: Essais. Some of the conditions
that the literary essay must satisfy is variety and thematic freedom. The literary theme
corresponds more to a problem of form than of substance.
Scientific essay : One of the borders between science and poetry is in the essay. It has
been called a "literary-scientific" genre because it is based on scientific reasoning and
artistic imagination.
Scientific creation is rooted, like poetics, in the imaginative capacity, this cannot be totally
ignored; However, it does not depart from nature or logic.
The essay shares one of its essential purposes with science: to explore reality more
thoroughly, to get closer to the "truth" of things. It shares originality, intensity and
expressive beauty with art.
According to the author's communicative intention, essays can be classified as expository,

argumentative, critical and poetic.
a) The expository essay, as its name indicates, exposes ideas about a topic, presenting
information about it and qualifying this information with the author's interpretation and
interesting personal opinions about the topic in question.
b) The purpose of the argumentative essay is to defend a thesis with arguments that can
be based on quotes or references, specific data from investigative experiences, historical,
political, or other allusions, epistemological foundations.

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c) The critical essay describes or analyzes a fact, phenomenon, work or situation, issuing
a considered judgment.
d) The poetic essay expresses the sensitivity of its author, using literary language.
Parts of an essay
Introduction or approach: It is one of the fundamental parts of the essay, to be able to

captivate, trap or enchant the reader. This is done from an opinion, a question, a
hypothesis or a metaphorical thought.
Development: It has to do with the argumentative process of the main, secondary and
peripheral ideas, which, accompanied by quotes, examples, evidence and records, will
support the main thesis of the essay.
Conclusion: If at the beginning of the essay, a thesis is presented, a hypothesis must be

developed in order to be able to verify or disprove it through the argumentative process.
The Length of the essay : with respect to the length of the essay, we could propose that it
is relative, since an argumentative essay may require a greater number of pages than an
expository, critical or poetic essay. Some authors propose ranges between 3 or 10 sheets.
In this regard, it is necessary to clarify that whatever the length, there must be a thesis
statement, in its respective development of pros and cons, as well as the corresponding
syntheses, since the essay is a complete piece of writing.
The Style: In the essay there is not really a defined style, but many depending on the
character of the author. But there is an essential condition that we must all meet: clarity of
expression and transparency that can give the reader a greater understanding of the
authenticity of the thought expressed by the essayist.
It must be playful, that is, pleasant, entertaining, agile, attractive, libertarian and, as far as
possible, with a high dose of humor. In this way the essay must catch and enchant the
reader.
A good essay, in relation to stylistic rules, should be:
1. Concise and clear: The essay is delimited and hierarchical in its components and
contents. It is necessary to classify and work on the hierarchical dominations of the text so
that it is clear and precise. On the other hand, if there are many ideas the text becomes
confusing; The essay must be clear so that the writer's thoughts penetrate effortlessly into
the reader's mind.
2. Precise: It is necessary to use precise and unambiguous terms. Many writers believe
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that synonyms do not have the same meaning, since they depend on the context and
culture. Example: Lazy, idle.
3. Coherent: The direction and unity of the essay are largely determined by the logical
articulation that we give to the sentences and paragraphs. The essay must have at least
two basic plans; the level of content and that of its linguistic expression. Concepts through
phrases, propositions through sentences and subtopics through paragraphs.
4. Consistent : An essay acquires consistency in its body when, when presenting

arguments, it does not admit contradictions, thus causing the text to be natural,
spontaneous, clear and precise.
5. Supported : It is widely used, since argumentative essays, in which the hypothesis and
main theses must be developed with argumentative depth, unlike the expository essay
which is schematic in nature, since it only describes with simple evidence, which often do
not require processes of theoretical confrontation or experimental demonstrations.
6. Purpose : the essay should act as an engine of reflection, generator of doubt and
suspicion, producer of new ideas.
The essay was done to dilute the designs of Aristotelian logic and introduce us to the world
of fuzzy logic where we can not only talk about a truth or a falsehood, but about a
possibility or an uncertainty.
1.6.4. Comment.
It is an opinion, opinion, judgment or consideration that someone makes about another
person or something. This mention can be developed orally or in writing.
J- For example: “When judging another person's work, destructive comments are
never welcome . ”
J- “The coach promised to explain the reason for his decision but clarified that he will
not accept any type of comment from those present . ”
J- “The singer's comment outraged the public.”
The comment implies a response or an interaction with what was raised. Thanks to the
Internet, readers, listeners or viewers can very easily make comments and express their
opinions on websites and blogs.
In this way, it is common for there to be a back-and-forth, known as feedback, between

content producers and receivers.
A commentary, on the other hand, is the explanation of a text to facilitate its understanding.
In this way, the reader can simply understand the meaning of the work in question.
The expression “no comments” , finally, is used as an abrupt closure to define or settle the
issue being talked about: “The president of the company announced that there will be 34
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a salary cut even though the company has increased its profits. No comment" .
Likewise, it is a phrase that any person accused of a crime can use when giving a
statement.
1.7. DRAFTING.
1.7.1. Concept and qualities of writing.

The word redaction comes from the Latin term redactĭo and refers to the action and effect
of writing ( putting in writing something that happened, agreed or thought previously).
Writing requires textual coherence and cohesion. Since the order of the words within a
sentence can modify the author's intention, it is necessary for the writer to organize in his
mind the ideas he wants to transfer to paper or computer .
The next logical step is that, once this mental organization has been established, the main
and secondary ideas are identified, so that when writing they appear in order and
according to the importance of each one. If the author does not manage to organize his
text in a logical and careful manner, the writing will be of no interest to the reader.
On the other hand, the newsroom is also the office or physical place where writing is done .
For example: “I have to be in the newsroom in fifteen minutes,” a phrase that a journalist
can mention to refer to his or her workplace.
The term editorial office also allows us to name the group of editors who work for a
periodical publication:
“the newspaper's editorial staff has expressed its rejection

to the declarations issued by the national authorities . ”
Finally, it should be noted that an essay is a written composition on some topic.
This acceptance of the concept is usually used in educational centers, where writing
constitutes an exercise or practice that a student must carry out.
1.7.2. Elements and resources necessary to prepare a paragraph
The paragraph
The paragraph is a graphic and meaning unit included between two points and apart. Two
important variants can be considered: *Formal Paragraph - *Conceptual Paragraph.

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• The formal paragraph generally begins with an indentation and a capital letter and
ends with a full stop.
• The conceptual paragraph : contains ideas that are linked to each other, and in
addition, a hierarchy is established between them. All based on a base called
central idea .
Development Methods
There are several methods of writing a paragraph. When preparing a paragraph, details
based on a description must be taken into account in order to convey a clear idea to the
reader. Another important factor is the definition, if required, for the preparation of the
paragraph.
The basic thing is to define in a concrete way and with an established order the object,
animal, science or thing that you want to develop. Thus, subsequent sentences should
emphasize other qualities and differential factors.
It is also important to develop criteria such as antithesis, comparison and examples to give
versatility to the paragraph.
Finally, defining causes and consequences, working on the argument, which is nothing
more than the set of facts and narratives that revolve around the main idea, will conclude
the proper development of a paragraph.
Paragraph Qualities
Writing is writing clearly, fully, briefly and original. Therefore, when writing a paragraph,
certain qualities must be taken into account that will help the clear and precise presentation
of the message. To achieve this, we must seek unity of meaning and coherence.
J- Unit of meaning : Determines the writing criteria of a paragraph. All

sentences in a paragraph must be related to the main sentence so that it can
be said that there is unity of meaning.
That is to say, all the ideas that make it up must deal with the same topic or
issue.
4- Coherence : It consists of following the logical order of the ideas that make
up the paragraph.
That is, all the sentences follow one another in a logical and natural order;
helping to maintain the main idea throughout the paragraph.
1.7.3. Grammatical rules in writing.

Grammar is the study of the rules and principles that govern the use of languages and the
organization of words within sentences and other types of syntactic constituents.
This is also the name given to the set of rules and principles that govern the use of a
specific language; Thus, each language has its own grammar.

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Grammar is part of the general study of language called linguistics.
Classically, the study of language is divided into four levels:
J- Phonetic-phonological level.
4- Syntactic-morphological level.
J- Lexical-semantic level.
4- Pragmatic level.
Sometimes the use of the term grammar is restricted to the rules and principles that define
the second of these levels.
However, the separation of levels is not completely clear because certain grammatical
rules are made at the phonetic-phonological level and there are also semantic parameters
or criteria that serve to decide when a certain construction is grammatical.
Phonetics : is the branch of linguistics that studies the production and perception of the
sounds of a language in its physical manifestations. Its main branches are: experimental
phonetics, articulatory phonetics, phonetics and acoustic phonetics.
Morphology : is the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words to
delimit, define and classify their units, the classes of words to which it gives rise
(inflectional morphology) and the formation of new words (lexical morphology).
Syntax : is a subdiscipline of linguistics and an important part of grammatical analysis that

is responsible for the study of the rules that govern the combinatorics of constituents and
the formation of units superior to them, such as phrases and sentences.
Syntax, therefore, studies the ways in which words are combined, as well as the
syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships between them.
Semantics : is the study of the meaning of language expressions, that is, the meaning
attributable to syntactically well-formed expressions. Syntax studies only the rules and
principles on how to construct semantically interpretable expressions from simpler
expressions, but in itself it does not allow attributing meanings.
Semantics examines the way meanings were attributed to words, their modifications over
time and even their changes for new meanings.

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Lexicography is another part of semantics that tries to describe the meaning of the words
of a language at a given time, and usually exhibits its result in the creation of dictionaries.
Etymology : is the study of the origin of words, the reason for their existence, their
meaning and their form, according to the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE). The origin of
words is studied, when they are incorporated into a language, from what source, and how
their form and meaning have changed. In languages with a long written history, etymology
is a discipline related to logic and historical language that studies the origin of words by
studying their original meaning and form, as well as the possible changes suffered over
time.
Furthermore, using comparative linguistics methods, information can be reconstructed from

languages that are too old to obtain any direct source, such as writing. Thus, by analyzing
other related languages, linguists can make inferences about the language from which they
originate, and its vocabulary.
1.7.4. Stylistic rules in writing.

Style is the effort through which intelligence and imagination find the nuances, the
relationships of expressions and images, in ideas and words or in the relationships
between them. Style should be considered objectively and subjectively.
From a subjective point of view, style is a person's characteristic way of writing.

Objectively, style refers to its qualification. And so we talk about good and bad style, clear
or confusing, dense or fluid, simple or convoluted, etc.
STYLISTIC . It is the science of style, that is, the critical and analytical investigation of the
main qualities that good style must have. Which involves the scientific analysis of the main
defects that must be avoided or vices of bad style.
PRIMORDIAL QUALITIES OF GOOD STYLE
4- CLARITY . It means expression within the reach of a man of average culture.

It also means clear thinking, well-digested concepts, clean exposition, that is,
with correct syntax and vocabulary or lexicon within the reach of the majority.
4- CONCISION. By virtue of which we will only use those words that are
absolutely precise to express what we want.
1- SIMPLICITY AND NATURALITY . They refer to both the construction, the

composition of what we write, and the words we use.
• Simplicity is fleeing from the convoluted, the artificial, the

complicated.
• Naturalness is not writing in a conceptual way, but saying

naturally what is natural
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Four rules of stylistics
J- Put one thing after the other and don't look around.
J- Don't entertain yourself.
J- If a noun needs an adjective, let's not burden it with two.
J- The biggest enemy of style is slowness.
1.7.5. Clarity and coherence of the writing.
COHERENCE
It is a grammatical means of internal relationship between words. In Spanish there are two
types of agreement:
4- Agreement between the noun and adjective that consists of the equality of the
gender and the number of these two grammatical categories.
4- Agreement between the verb of a sentence and the noun, the core of the noun
phrase. In this case the equality must be of number and person.
COHESION
It is the property that a text has when its development does not present unnecessary
repetitions and is not confusing for the receiver. Cohesion is a characteristic of all well-
formed text, consisting of the different phrases being connected to each other through
various linguistic procedures that allow each phrase to be interpreted in relation to the
others .
PARAGRAPH.
Part of a writing that is considered to have sufficient unity to be able to separate it by

means of a pause that is indicated with the separate period. It is a unit of written text in
which a certain idea is developed that presents information in an organized and coherent
manner.
SIMPLICITY
We must remember that we write for others, not for ourselves. Therefore, using common
domain words makes it even easier for the reader to understand the text and for the author
to write. However, care must be taken not to be ignorant or overly learned.
PRECISION.

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Use words that communicate exactly, without a doubt, what you want to say. It corresponds
to the context: The text must focus on what is interesting without detours or additions.
CLARITY
Corresponds to the code. You have to write with maximum simplicity so that the code does
not act as a filter, but rather allows the message to pass through.
CONNECTORS
RELATIONSHIP CONNECTORS
And, also, in addition, more, even, on the
ADDITION
other hand, above all, another aspect.
But, however, on the contrary, although,
OPPOSITION
nevertheless.
Because, therefore, for this reason, since,
CAUSE EFFECT therefore, so that, therefore, consequently,
this indicates.
Afterwards, later, before, immediately in the
TIME
meantime, subsequently, now, later.
EXTENSION For example, in other words, that is.
As much as, in the same way, equally, in the

COMPARISON
same way, likewise, in the same way.
EMPHASIS Above all, certainly, what is worse.

Finally, in summary, in conclusion, to finish,
SUMMARY OR CONCLUSION
for conclusion, etc.
First, second, next, then, Next, next, first,

ORDER lastly, still, at the end, at the beginning, at the
beginning, soon.
Yet, decisively, in fact, actually, decisively, in

PREAFFIRMATION
spite of everything, in any case, precisely
On the other hand, on the other hand, on the

CONTRAST
contrary, in another way, on the other hand.
CONDITION If, suppose, of course, whenever, given that.
Such as, as case typical, in

EXAMPLES
representation of, as a sample, for example.

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1.7.6. Ambiguity in what was expressed.
There are many words that have more than one meaning (polysemy) and there are also
sentences that lend themselves to more than one interpretation. When writing any text,
care must be taken to ensure that the exposition is precise and clear ; relevant and
sufficient information , coherent structure , so that the words, phrases or sentences
used do not have two or more interpretations; If the above is not met, the text may lead to
misunderstandings, that is, be ambiguous.
Ambiguities can occur due to inappropriate use of punctuation or incorrect sentence

construction.
In the following sentence, punctuation has not been used correctly (the semicolon in bold):
All students must fill out an entry form in which they write down their information as well as
their full name ; of their parent or guardian, their complete address and a telephone
number where they can be reached.
The corrected sentence could be:
All students must fill out an entry form in which they write down their information, as well as
the full name of their parent or guardian, their full address and a telephone number where
they can be reached.
In this other one, the ambiguity is also highlighted in bold:
Arrive at school on time (...) there will be no delays, only in special cases in which the
student has to attend medical consultations or due to family problems, the parent or
guardian with his/her ID will be able to bring his/her child .
The corrected sentence could be:
Arrive at school on time (...) there will be no delays, only in special cases in which the
student has to attend medical appointments or due to family problems, the parent or
guardian may bring their child. The student must carry their school ID.
Ambiguity represents an obstacle to clearly expressing ideas. Sometimes this problem is

caused by the use of terms that are too general or by a pronoun that could refer to any of
two or more words cited.
For example, in the following rule: “When a student physically attacks a classmate, his
permanence in school will be decided by the management”, it is not clear if the
management will decide on the permanence in school of the aggressor student or the
attacked classmate. .

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To avoid the ambiguity problem, it is recommended:
a) Take care of the appropriate use of possessive and reflexive pronouns

(particularly the pronoun his ),
b) Place the plugins near the respective cores.
When we cannot determine the meaning of a word or sentence from the context, we say
that the signs are being used ambiguously .
1.7.7. Lack of simplicity and precision in expression.

Simplicity is using words or phrases that are easy to understand. Everything artificial, false
or complicated is contrary to simplicity.
Simplicity is authenticity, good faith. A simple text inspires confidence due to its sincerity. A
simple text is a credible text. Just as one of the great human virtues is simplicity, so too
must style be true.
Simplicity is the guarantee of truth. The lack of simplicity causes rejection and distrust of
the text as artificial and lying.
Precision is a quality that does not allow verbosity. It requires logical rigor in ideas.
Subject your text to the following indicators:
4- Do I use the right terms in the right places?

4- Every time you use a synonym, did you remember that no synonym has the same
meaning?
4- Is the main idea well explained?
4- And the secondary ideas that complement it?
4- Does each of your paragraphs constitute a unit by itself?
4- Does each chapter or part constitute a unit in itself?
5- Did you reread your ideas to confirm that they were written with sense and clarity?
5.8.8. Special types of vocabulary.

Vocabulary . A more or less complex set of terms that make up a language or language.
Vocabulary varies for each language and has a significant characteristic of transforming
over time according to the addition or abandonment of some words.
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On the other hand, while vocabulary is a social invention whose main objective is
communication between individuals, individual vocabularies can also be generated that
have to do with the generation of more or less personalized terms that only the subject in
question can fully understand. .
Like most of the communicative creations of human beings, vocabulary could be described
as a dynamic structure that does not remain static but varies over time and with the
passage of generations, responsible for abandoning or adding words in the daily use of
language. .
The vocabulary of one language may be similar to that of another language, but it will
never be the same and while some languages are really complex when it comes to terms
and their meanings, others are considered much simpler and accessible.
Types of vocabularies
Active vocabulary
Furthermore, it must be emphasized that there are, therefore, two clearly differentiated
types of vocabulary. One of them is what is known as active vocabulary, and it is that which
a person not only understands on their own but also uses frequently when expressing
themselves.
Passive vocabulary
The second of them is what is called passive vocabulary. This, for its part, is one that
someone can understand without any problems and without help but that they are then not
able to use when expressing themselves, whether in writing or orally.
Jargon
A variant of standard language that uses special vocabulary with the aim of distinguishing
social groups or hiding the true meaning of concepts is known as jargon.
Specifically, we have to clarify that jargons can and are usually classified into two large
groups: those of a professional type, which, as their name indicates, are used specifically
in a specific field such as healthcare; and social ones, which are used in certain groups as
a way to understand each other exclusively.
5.8.9. Neologisms, barbarisms, solecisms and others.

Neologism , in general, is any new word and also a new meaning or phrase that is
introduced into a language.
Aism: Abusive or inappropriate use of the proposition “a”.
INCORRECT CORRECT
according in accordance with

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regarding regarding
from up to down from up to down
Barbarism : Vice that consists of the acceptance of words foreign to one's own language
(Americanisms from Latin American countries), ie: camping, show, smog, elite, ok.
Thingism: Abuse of the word “thing”, which attempts to designate everything.
SHAPES WITH THING FORMS WITH ANOTHER TERM

religion is your thing religion is your problem
works on the educational thing works on education issues
the thing is you have to go The thing is, you have to go.
Laismo, leismo and loismo : It consists of the misuse of tonal personal pronouns, “la”,
“le”, “lo”, instead of paying attention to the grammatical case, it is understood as the
determination in “o” or in “ to".
INCORRECT CORRECT
I gave her a gift I gave him a gift
I sent him a book I sent him a book
I met him in Madrid I met him in Madrid
Solecism: Syntactic vice that consists of failing to comply with the rules of construction of
the different parts of the sentence.
INCORRECT CORRECT
I forgot I forgot
gold watch gold watch
you need to come to your senses you need to come back to yourself
Same : Misuse of the pronoun itself.
INCORRECT CORRECT
They bought several books while They bought several books and while
paying for them… they were paying for them…..
I finished the delivery of titles, they I have finished delivering the titles,
will be sent... which will be sent….
Telecisms: Construction defects, derived from the poor translation of some TV programs
who try to use standard Spanish.
INCORRECT CORRECT
I'm going to tell you I'm going to tell them
they must be happy they must feel happy
it's good that you came I'm glad you came

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Blablism: Ideological barbarism that consists of verbosity or unnecessary detours in
expression.
Redundancies : The idea is to think about coming up with a new idea for propaganda.
Very extensive explanations : Mr. Pérez, the one in the gray suit, the one who is talking
to you, works at the electricity company, his wife in Mexico City, is the one who won the
raffle.
Detours: if you allow me to leave the office, although I know that there is a lot of work, I will
try, to the best of my ability, to verify or make a detailed account of each and every one of
the events that occurred.
5.8.10. Semantic and syntactic construction.

SEMANTICS
The study of the meaning of linguistic signs and their combinations is known as semantics.
It is linked to the meaning, sense and interpretation of words, expressions or symbols .
SYNTACTIC
It is a part of grammar that is responsible for studying the combination and order of words
in sentences. It describes the structure of language, and includes rules for combining
words to form sentences.
The importance of syntax in communication is based on the fact that it guides the proper
construction of sentences, resulting in coherent oral expression .
5.8.11. Rules of punctuation and connection of sentences.

Scoring rules.
The main punctuation marks used in the Spanish language are: period, comma, semicolon,
ellipsis, question marks, exclamation marks, parentheses, brackets, lines, quotation marks.
USE OF THE POINT
The period marks the pause with which the statement ends, after the period a capital letter
is always written. There are three types of points: the full stop, the full stop, and the final full
stop.
4- The full stop : separates statements that make up a paragraph, after the full stop
you continue writing on the same line, if the full stop is at the end of the line you
start on the next one without leaving an indent.
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4- The full stop : separates two different paragraphs, after the full stop it is written
on a different line, the first line must leave an indentation or interior space.
4- The full stop : it is the one that closes a text.
As a general rule, the period is also used after abbreviations, however there are numerous
exceptions, for example, the symbols of chemical elements and units of weight and
measurement are written without a period, nor do the cardinal points have this sign.
The periods in the abbreviations do not exclude the immediate presence of any other
punctuation mark; when the period is combined with parentheses or quotation marks, the
period is always placed after these signs. Do not write a period at the end of: titles and
subtitles of books, articles, chapters, works of art, etc., when they appear isolated.
COMMA USE
The comma indicates a brief pause that occurs within the statement, and is used to:
Isolate the vocative from the rest of the sentence.

Separate the members of an enumeration, except those that are preceded by
any of the conjunctions: y, e, o, u.
Separate grammatically equivalent members within the same statement, except
if they are preceded by the conjunctions and, e, nor, o, u. However, a comma is
placed in front of the conjunction when the sequence it heads expresses content
different from the previous elements or elements.
Point out that the verb has been omitted because it has been previously
mentioned or because it is understood.
Separate inverted terms from a person's full name or from a phrase that makes
up a list (bibliography, index...).
Its use is recommended when the period is long.
Furthermore, in a relation whose elements are separated by a semicolon, the
last element, before which the copulative conjunction appears, is preceded by a
comma or semicolon.
Statements that clarify or expand what is said in a sentence are written between
commas. In this case they are found: explanatory appositions, sentences
explanatory, any comment, explanation or precision of something, said, the
mention of an author or works cited.
A comma is placed after the anticipated block when the parts of a the order
statement are regularly inverted, prefixing elements that are they
postponed. usually
4- It is usual to place a comma before a conjunction or conjunctive phrase that joins
the propositions of a compound sentence.
4- Commas are placed when using phrases such as: this is, that is, that is, finally,
finally, therefore, therefore, instead, firstly. Also in adverbial forms such as:
generally, possibly, affectively, finally, ultimately,
as a rule, perhaps. If these expressions go at the beginning of the sentence,
they are separated from the rest by a comma, but if they go in the middle of the

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sentence they are written between commas.
J- A comma is also placed in the heading of the letters, between the place and the
date.
USE OF THE SEMICOLON
The semicolon indicates a pause greater than that marked by the comma and less than
that indicated by the period, the semicolon is used:
J- To separate the elements of an enumeration when dealing with complex

expressions that include commas in their writing.
J- To separate juxtaposed sentences, if they are very long or have commas in their
writing.
Sometimes, a full stop can be used instead of a semicolon. The choice may depend
on the link of meaning between the sentences, if this link is weak, the period
followed is preferred, if it is stronger, the period and the comma are preferable. It is
also correct, in these cases, to use a colon.
A semicolon is usually placed instead of a comma in front of conjunctions or
conjunctive phrases such as: but, more and although, as well as however, therefore,
therefore, in the end, etc., when the periods are very long or They have a comma in
their writing. If the length is extremely long, it is preferable to use the point and
followed.
USE OF THE TWO POINTS
Colons stop speech to draw attention to what follows, and these are used:
After stating an enumeration.

To close an enumeration, before the anaphoric that replaces them.
Before a textual quote.
After greeting formulas in letters and documents.
To signify the connection of meaning with related sentences, without the need to
use grammatical connection; These relationships can be: cause-effect;
conclusion or summary of the previous sentence; verification or explanation of
the previous sentence, which usually has a more general meaning.
Colons are also used to separate the exemplification from the rest of the
sentence.
In legal and administrative texts, a colon is placed after the verb, written with all
capital letters, which presents the fundamental objective of the document. The
first word of the text that follows this verb is always written with a capital letter,
and the text forms a different paragraph.
USE OF ELISSIVE POINTS
Ellipses (...) represent an interruption of the sentence or an imprecise ending, and are
used:
J- At the end of open or incomplete enumerations, with the same value as the word

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etcetera.
J- When you want to express that before what is going to follow there has been a
moment of doubt, fear or hesitation.
J- Sometimes the interruption of the statement serves to surprise the reader with
the unexpectedness of the output.
J- To leave a statement incomplete and in suspense.
4- When a verbatim quote, sentence or saying is reproduced, omitting a part.
J- Three ellipses are written within parentheses (…) or brackets ［ … ］ when when
literally transcribing a text a part of it is omitted.
A period is never written after the ellipsis, however other punctuation marks can be placed.
USE OF QUESTION AND EXCLAMATION MARKS
They are used to delimit direct interrogative or exclamatory statements, and interjections.
The way these signs are used is:
J- Two will be used, one to indicate the opening (i) and another to indicate the
closing (?!) These signs are placed at the beginning or end of the interrogative
and exclamatory statement respectively.
4- After the signs that indicate the closure of a question or exclamation, do not write
a period.
4- Vocatives and subordinate clauses when they occupy the first place in the
statement are written outside the question or exclamation, however if they are
placed at the end they are considered within them.
4- When several questions or exclamations are written in a row and these are brief,
you can choose to consider them independent sentences, with their
corresponding opening and closing signs, and with a capital letter at the
beginning of each of them, however it is also possible to consider the whole of
the questions or exclamations as a single statement, in this case it must be
separated by commas or semicolons, and only in the first the initial word will be
written with a capital letter.
USE OF PARENTHESES
Parentheses are used to enclose incidental or explanatory elements that are inserted into a
statement. They are used when:
4- The meaning of the speech is interrupted with a clarification or incidental

element, especially if it is long or has little relation to what came before or after.
4- If any data is inserted: dates, places, meanings of acronyms, the author or work
cited, etc.
4- You want to introduce some alternative in the text. An entire word or just one of
its segments can be enclosed in parentheses.
4- Complete words or missing elements missing from the originals are reconstructed
when transcribing text, such as codices or inscriptions with abbreviations.
4- Three points are enclosed to record that a fragment of the text that is transcribed
is omitted from the quote.

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4- They are written in sections headed by letters or numbers. Usually only the
closing parenthesis is written after these characters.
4- If the statement placed between parentheses is interrogative or exclamatory, the
signs corresponding to these are placed within the parentheses.
USE OF BRACKETS
As a general rule, brackets are used in a similar way to parentheses that incorporate
complementary or explanatory information. They are used when:
4- Some clarification is introduced within a text that is already enclosed in parentheses.

4- The last words of a verse do not fit in one line. In this case, it is only written with an
opening bracket.
4- We want to point out that a part of the text that is transcribed is missing; Three
points are written inside the brackets.
USE OF THE DASH OR LONG DASH
The stripe is used:
4- To contain clarifications that interrupt the speech. In this case, an opening line and a
closing line are always placed at the end. The lines can be replaced by parentheses
or commas, depending on how the writer perceives the degree of connection
between the elements.
4- To indicate each of the interventions in a dialogue, without mentioning the name of
the person or character to which it corresponds. To introduce or enclose the
narrator's comments or clarifications to the characters' interventions, a single line is
placed in front of the narrator's comment, without the need to close it with another,
when the character's words do not continue immediately after the comment.
4- Two lines are written, one opening and one closing, when the narrator's words
interrupt the character's intervention and it continues afterwards. If it is necessary to
place a punctuation mark behind the narrator's intervention, it will be placed after his
words and after the closing line (if any).
4- In some lists, such as alphabetical indexes or bibliographies, the dash serves to
indicate that a word is omitted in that line, whether it is a previously mentioned
concept or the name of an author that is repeated.
USE OF QUOTES
There are different types of quotation marks ("" "") that are used interchangeably, but they
alternate when they must be used in a text already enclosed in quotation marks. Quotation
marks are used:
4- To reproduce textual quotes.

4- To avoid repeating a text.
4- To indicate that a word or expression is improper, or from another language, or

that it is used ironically or with a special meaning.
4- To cite titles of articles, poems, paintings, etc.

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USE OF THE SCRIPT
Shorter than the dash, it is basically used to make divisions within a word, and also:
4- To separate the elements that make up compound words.

4- To divide a word at the end of a line if it does not fit completely.
4- When the hyphen is placed before a part of a word (syllable, morpheme, etc.) it
indicates that it is in final position. When the script is postponed to that same part, it
indicates that it is in the initial position. If the element in question is placed between
hyphens, it is understood that it is inside the word.
4- The hyphen is also used to join words with a link value similar to that of a preposition
or a conjunction.
CONNECTION OF PHRASES
To connect phrases within a text we can work, using conjunctions and prepositions as
appropriate.
The preposition
The preposition is a word that relates the elements of a sentence. Prepositions can indicate
origin, provenance, destination, direction, place, means, starting point, reason, etc.
The prepositions are: to, before, under, with, of, from, during, in, between, except,
towards, until, through, for, for, except, according to, without, on and after.
TO
address: I go home.
time: I arrived at eleven at night.
price: Potatoes are two pesos per kilo.
day: We are on January 1, 1999.
periodicity: Take it twice a week.
situation: It's on the right.
direct complement: Do you see Roberto?
indirect compliment: I gave it to José.
manner: We go on foot.
to indicate future: Are you going to travel to Barcelona next summer?
imperative: Shut up!
IN VIEW OF
situation: It was before me.
preference: First of all, Maria.

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regard: Given what José says, I remain silent.
LOW
place: The book was under the table.
mode: Under the direction of José Heredia.
WITH
half: He wrote with the pencil.
mode: Do it carefully.
company: I went with Inés.
reason: He got sick from the cold last night.
OF
origin: I'm from Cuba.
membership: This shirt is from José.
address: I left school at 11.
subject: The table is made of wood.
issue: We talk about the Chilean economy.
mode: Ernesto is the director.
time: Come on, it's already night.
content: Where is my history book?
time: Open from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
mode: I'm very tired, I came standing still on the bus.
FROM
time: The class is from 5 to 6:30.
place: The musicians can be seen very well from here.
DURING
time: What are you going to do during the night?
IN
place: She is at home.
half: He came by boat.
time: In spring I like to ride a bike.
price: He sold his yacht for 10 thousand dollars.
address: He entered his house.
mode: He told me in a tone that I didn't like at all.
BETWEEN
hour: Between two and three.
place: His house was between a cinema and a pharmacy.
imprecise place: I was in the crowd.
EXCEPT
exception: We will all go except José, he is a liar.
TOWARD
address: I looked towards the shore and there was no one there.
hour: She arrived around two in the morning.
UNTIL
limit: He reached the Pyrenees.
time limit: I was waiting for you until ten.
THROUGH
half: Through these rules, we will achieve better results.

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FOR
address: He left for Arica.
aim: He does it to do well in exams.
time: By tomorrow it will be done.
purpose: I bought it for Ernesto.
BY
place: We walked through the park.
cause: Let's drink to Vicente, he deserves it.
reason: If I do it, it's only for you.
indefinite time: In the morning, I'm always in a hurry.
price: I sold it to him for 15 thousand pesos.
half: We send the package by airplane.
approximate time: We'll see you in the winter.
mode: By force you will achieve nothing.
distribution: It costs two pencils per person.
speed: He was driving at least 180 kilometers per hour.
periodicity: We go to the gym twice a week.
EXCEPT
exception: Everyone will go except José.
ACCORDING TO
Mode We will do it as Roberto said.
WITHOUT
deprivation: He was unconscious.
ABOUT
place: The book is on the table.
approximate time: They arrived around two.
issue: We talked about current problems.
AFTER
time: After having slept all morning, he woke up happy.
The conjunctions
Along with prepositions, they are related elements of the sentence. Conjunctions can be
classified according to the elements they relate and the type of relationship established
between those elements.
4- Coordinating conjunctions
4- Complete conjunctions
4- Subordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
They unite functionally equivalent elements, that is, elements with the same function, be
they nouns, adjectives, subjects, circumstantial complements, "propositions", etc.
In the case of "propositions", a particularly significant relationship is not established

between them.
4- Copulative: and (e), nor
4- Adversarial: more, but, although, however, but, however, however.
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4- Distributive: well... well..., now... now..., be... be..., or...or...(u).
J- Disjunctives: or (u).
4- Explanatory: or (u), this is, that is, that is.
Complete conjunctions
They are what help us to unite the different elements that make up complex sentences.
Complex sentences are those in which there is a proposition that depends on an element
of the sentence in which they are integrated. We must remember here that relative and
relative-adverbial pronouns introduce subordinate adjective and circumstantial propositions
of place, time and manner.
4- They introduce a substantive subordinate clause. Complete conjunctions are very

few:
4- If they introduce an declarative proposition, the conjunction is (the) that. Ex: Elías
says he will go on vacation to Mexico. Your brother coming doesn't worry me.
4- If you introduce a total interrogative proposition, the conjunction is yes. Ex: Elías
asked if they were going on vacation to Mexico. If you pass or fail, it matters to me in
no small way.
Subordinating conjunctions
They are what we use to closely relate two or more simple sentences. With them, logical
relationships are expressed, such as condition, cause, consequence, concession,
comparison and purpose.
There will, therefore, be conditional, causal, consecutive, concessive, comparative and

final conjunctions. We will see only the most common ones, taking into account that we
must distinguish between conjunctions (a single word) and conjunctive phrases (two or
more words).
4- Conditionals: yes, provided that, as long as, as.

4- Causal: because, well, as, since, since, since, since
4- Consecutive: so, such, so much... that; then, so, so
4- Concessive: although, although, even though, although, etc.
4- Comparatives: more... than, as... as, less... than.
4- Finals: so that, that, in order that, in order to, with the intention that, etc.
1.7.12.Types of paragraphs.
There are different types of paragraphs, some of them are:
Argumentative: contains an idea that seeks to convince the recipient about something
that is denied or affirmed.
Conceptual: these paragraphs specify the thoughts of an author or the definition of a term,
which will be used throughout the entire text, making it essential to understand it. These
paragraphs are present in scientific and technical texts.
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Chronological: this type of paragraph expresses, in the order in which they happened, a
series of events.
Enumeration: this paragraph is made up of a series of characteristics that refer to the

same fact, object or subject and an organizing phrase that allows us to understand what is
being ordered.
Descriptive: this paragraph describes, following a logical criterion, an object, person or

event.
Explanatory: these paragraphs are useful to expand or specify the topic being discussed.
Expository: in these paragraphs certain information is presented in an orderly manner.
Narrative: these present facts or actions that occurred in an orderly manner.
Comparative: This paragraph presents similarities and differences between two or more
objects, events, or any phenomenon.
Cause-effect: as its name indicates, a fact and what caused it or the consequences that
may arise from it are presented.
Deductive: in this the main idea is placed at the beginning, to build it we start from a
generalization and then present specific cases.
Inductive: as opposed to the previous one, in these paragraphs the main idea is placed at
the end. In these, we start from specific cases to reach a generalization that concludes
what was stated.
Conclusion: these paragraphs express the closure of a section or a certain topic.
Closing: these paragraphs round out the general idea of the text and a summary of it.
These may include motivations for the recipient to join the ideas raised, conclusions from
the text or suggestions.
1.7.13. Types of writings.

As is well known, any text is a document that communicates graphically, or through written
language, some idea or event. In this sense, the types of texts are constructed from the
purposes, objectives or type of information that a document contains or transmits.
The types of writings are usually grouped into different sections or sets, which make up
documents that obviously share certain characteristics.
Depending on their type, the texts present a more or less well-defined structure. This is
manifested in the way information is presented and the type of language used.
For example, a scientific writing is much more formal and uses technical language, while a

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literary text is freer, creative, using symbolic language based on analogy.
Among the most common types of writing we can mention the following:
Informative : as its name indicates, it is a type of text whose purpose is to inform, either
explaining or simply communicating a fact. Although the language used to write them can
vary, they are generally easy-to-read texts written in semi-formal language.
Scientific : these are all those texts that are framed within a scientific community.
Therefore, they are frequently the result of some research. They usually present results,
give explanations, describe phenomena or facts, as well as discussions regarding scientific
concepts or perspectives. By their nature, scientific texts are aimed at a specialized
audience, scientists, so their language is technical.
Administrative : the content of this type of text focuses mainly on information or

communication related to some administrative activity. That is why their presentation
structure is very rigid, in addition to using formal, serious and direct language.
Legal : they are, as their name says, texts that are related to some event of a legal nature.
Therefore, different topics can be presented in them, as long as they maintain this
relationship between them, we can mention the sentences, the complaints or the minutes.
Advertising texts : these are texts whose purpose is to announce something or provide
information about a product or service. They tend to be very enjoyable, fun texts, and with
a great semantic and symbolic load.
Essays : It is a type of text whose purpose is to present information about some fact or
topic. They are generally associated with intellectual activity or with social or humanistic
disciplines such as history, philosophy or anthropology.
Literary : they are eminently creative texts, whose structure is usually free. These are
generally texts that talk about some fact or event, whether real or fictitious, based on an
artistic use of language. They are also characterized because their content is analogous,
narrative, descriptive or poetic.
1.7.14. Synonyms and antonyms.

Synonyms are words that have a similar or identical meaning, but have different writing
and spelling, although they refer to the same things. They must belong to the same
grammatical category.
For example, synonyms for disaster are calamity, devastation, ruin, catastrophe and
cataclysm.
Linguists usually distinguish between:
Total synonyms , which are words that have the same meaning in all linguistic contexts,
such as "micron" and "micron", leaving aside terminological considerations.

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Partial synonyms , words that have the same meaning in many linguistic contexts but not
all, as in the case of car and automobile: thus, we can say "My father got into a car" or "My
father got into a car", but Although we can say "The locomotive was pulling three cars" we
cannot say "The locomotive was pulling three cars." The speaker usually has to choose a
synonym depending on the context, there is a more appropriate word for each situation:
due to the geographical context: potato or potato.
Antonyms are words that have the opposite or opposite meaning. They must belong, like
synonyms, to the same grammatical category. For example, antonyms of "joy" are
"sadness", "depression", antonyms of "big" are "small" or "small", etc.
There are three kinds of antonyms:
Gradual : The two words are opposed gradually, there are other words that mean the
same thing to a different degree. Example: black and white (there is "gray"), cold and hot
(there is "temperate", "icy", "ice", "warm",...).
Complementary: The meaning of one eliminates that of the other. Example: alive and
dead (you cannot be alive and dead at the same time).
Reciprocal: The meaning of one implies that of the other. One cannot occur without the
other. Example: buy and sell (for someone to sell something another has to buy it, if one
doesn't buy the other doesn't sell, but you can't buy something if someone doesn't sell it to
you).
1.8. DRAFTING OF TOPICS.
1.8.1. Necessary rules and procedures.

Practical rules for good writing
J- Do not use fancy words. Between the word of popular and cult origin, always prefer
the best known. Also avoid excessive technicality and clarify the meaning of
technical terms when they are not in common use.
4- Beware of barbarisms and solecisms. As for the neologism, it is advisable to have

an open, broad criterion.
5- Don't forget that the Spanish language has a preference for the active voice.
6- Do not abuse subsections and parentheses. Adjust them and make sure they are
not excessive.
7- Avoid superfluous ideas and words. Cross out everything that is not related to the
main idea of the phrase or period.
8- Avoid excessive and profane repetitions; but keep in mind that sometimes repetition
is preferable to a fancy synonym. Repetition is legitimate when you want to focus

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attention on an idea and as long as it does not sound bad to the ear.
9- If, to avoid repetition, you use synonyms, make sure they are not too rare. Save the
reader the trouble of resorting to the Dictionary.
10- The construction of the Spanish sentence is not subject to fixed rules.
However, it is worth taking into account the syntactic order (subject, verb,
complements) and the logical order.
11- The logical order of the sentence requires that the ideas be placed according
to the order of thought.
12- Always highlight the main idea.
13- For proper cohesion between sentences, try to link the initial idea of a phrase
to the final idea of the previous phrase.
14- Harmonious construction requires avoiding offensive repetitions, cacophony

(bad sound), monotony (effect of poor vocabulary) and assonances and
consonances.
15- Try to maintain a level (your level). Do not rise too high and then fall
precipitously.
16- Always remember that direct speech is more powerful (it is more graphic)
than indirect speech.
17- Do not forget that language is a means of communication and that the
fundamental qualities of style are: clarity, conciseness, simplicity, naturalness and
originality.
18- The originality of the style lies, almost exclusively, in sincerity.
18.2.2. Concept about the titling of a writing according to the

dominant idea.
A piece of writing can guide its content from the title, in this way it can motivate or scare
away the reader. To captivate from the beginning it is important that the titles have
strength. Let's look at the types of titles that exist and when they are used depending on
the type of text and the intention of the writer.
Nature and properties. A title 1 seeks in the first instance to disturb the reader to attract
him to read the text. The title represents the most global vision of the work.
A title may be included in the following categories:
• Informative title : refers to the content of the topic, and the information it provides is
significant for the reader. Example: Basic educational needs in adults.

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• Guidance titles : refers to the effect of the topic, the information it provides provides
advice, suggestions and guidelines. Example: organize the schools of tomorrow
today.
• Provocative titles : they refer to the author's intention and the message arouses
curiosity in the reader. Example: Who said that the elderly don't learn?
• Discriminatory titles : they refer to the potential audience, and the message is
aimed at selecting a certain group of readers from among the many that the work
could find. Example: appropriate technology for rural housing. How to write a thesis.
• Imperative titles : refers to the content, and the message implies an order or
mandate. Example: pay your taxes on time.
When a title does not fit into any of these categories, it can be stated with a high degree of
certainty that it is meaningless or inappropriate; that is, neutral, too long, insufficient,
partial, fanciful or goes over the topic.
A well-crafted title has the following properties:
4- It must express clearly, precisely and briefly the deep substance of the topic. It is
preferable to use a subtitle rather than writing a title that is too long.
4- It must be appropriate, specific and vigorous.
4- It should not be so vague and ambiguous that it does not move or attract attention.
4- It must reflect the interest of the author.
Writing process
An effective title presents a dominant idea, which can be expressed in various ways and
can be accompanied by subordinate ideas.

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Writing a title can be developed through three approaches: the concrete approach, the
idealized approach, or the combined approach.
In the concrete approach, the statement revolves around the theme, the context or the
purposes and effects sought by the author.
The concrete approach presents the intangible satisfactions that the reader could derive
from reading the text. Example “creative life through reading”.
The idealized approach when the specific topic is dry and incomprehensible for the reader
to the point that someone has to explain and interpret the statement, it is better to resort to
the approach that idealizes the usefulness, service and enjoyment of the text.
In other words, it presents the intangible satisfactions that the reader could derive from
reading the text.
The combined approach can appeal to the specific meaning of the text, adding an
element that shows the benefits that will be obtained from reading it.
To choose a title, it is good practice to make a list of all the possible interpretations and
statements that can be made around the topic, its context or its purposes.
Criteria for evaluating a title
Once the title has been written, it must be reviewed to check if it has the following
properties:
YEA NO
a. Express the nature of the topic briefly, clearly and precisely. H
b. It is appropriate, specific and vigorous
c. It is interesting for the reader
d. It is suggestive and attracts attention
e. Contains something susceptible to misinterpretation
f. Can be stated in fewer words
g. The dominant idea stands out
1.8.3. Distinction between main and secondary ideas in the

elaboration of a topic.
A text is made up of paragraphs. In each paragraph you can distinguish an idea around
which information is organized.

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4- Main ideas express basic information about the main topic of the text or about some
essential aspect of the topic.
J- Secondary ideas, on the other hand, depend on a main idea, which they expand,
exemplify or demonstrate.
4.4.4. Exposition of topics .

Both in academic and work life, it is very common for us to be asked to talk about a
particular topic, including our opinion or position on it. The presentation involves the oral
and logical expression of the development of a topic in front of a group of people.
We can distinguish two ways to develop an oral presentation :
Colloquial: This is an informal chat between friends, family or colleagues to provide

information on a topic, including stating our position on it.
Formal: It is what we are asked to do at school or work to develop a topic in front of an

audience and with a particular objective. In this type of presentation it is very important to
have adequate preparation and knowledge of the topic to achieve effective communication.
4.4.5. Structure and writing of documents.
SEE ANNEX (MANUAL OF ADMINISTRATIVE DOCUMENTS)
4.4.6. Executive documents: official letter, memorandum, circular,

curriculum vitae .
These are the general data that a resume must contain, the structure may vary depending
on the format.
It is recommended to analyze the receiver, use direct, simple and clear language, avoid
repetitions, and use appropriate tones.
4- personal data.
4- academic preparation.
4- postgraduate studies.
4- special studies without degree.
4- professional experience.
4- social work institutions and/or clubs to which you belong or have belonged.
4- areas of personal interest.
4- personal hobbies.
4- personal references.
LETTER CIRCULAR.
.

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4- letterhead. 4- your identification (circular).

4- place and date. 4- letterhead.
4- recipient and address. 4- number.
4- text (idc structure). 4- recipient.
4- courtesy phrase. 4- text (idc structure).
4- signature, name and position. 4- courtesy phrase.
4- identification initials. 4- signature, name and position.
4- institution or company.
4- place and date.
4- external and internal circulation.
WARNING. MEMORANDUM.
4- your identification (notice). 4- your ID

4- letterhead. (memorandum).
4- collective recipient. 4- letterhead.
4- text. 4- place and date (it varieshis
4- courtesy phrase. placement).
4- signature, name and position. 4- who sends it.
4- institution or company. 4- to whom it is sent.
4- place and date. 4- text brief with
4- external and internal circulation. purposes
specific: remember, inform,
request, etc…
4- courtesy phrase.
4- signature.
4- internal circulation.
1.8.7. Technical documents: minutes, log, report types, minutes,

contracts and schedules.
The minutes of a speech, conference or meeting are when draft notes are taken to
account for what was discussed.
When copies of documents are filed, to keep a record of them, they are called minutes.
On the other hand, it can be a systematized list, which maintains an order, of various
elements, used for example in bars and restaurants to display their list of dishes, drinks
and desserts.
A log: is a notebook or publication that allows you to keep a written record of various
actions.
Its organization is chronological , which makes it easier to review the noted contents.

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Scientists often develop logs during their research to explain the process and share their
experiences with other specialists.
Blogs achieved great fame from the development of weblogs or blogs, which are virtual
blogs that are published on the Internet .
Acta: it is a concept that comes from the Latin language and that can be used with
reference to different types of documents.
The first meaning mentioned by the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE) refers
to the written record of what was discussed or approved in an assembly, a meeting or
another type of meeting.
In this sense, it allows certifying and validating what was treated.
This is a formal resource, which is used in meetings called through legal mechanisms.
Typically, these documents are kept in a minute book.
In this way, the minute book of a club, to cite one case, is made up of the minutes of the
different member meetings.
The minutes are also the official certificate of certain events or events.
Contract: is a term that names the agreement or pact, whether oral or written, between
parties that accept certain obligations and rights on a specific matter.
The document that reflects the conditions of this agreement is also called a contract.
In short, it is an agreement of wills that is expressed jointly between two or more people
(natural or legal).
Its clauses regulate the relationships between the signatories in a certain matter.
When determining the content of any type of contract, we would have to make it clear that
three fundamental elements must appear in it:
J- The data related to the subjects who subscribe it.
J- The pillars of the provision and consideration that are established.
J- The way in which the approval is given by the two parties involved.
There are many types of contracts that exist, however, among the most significant are the
following:
62 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ CARVAJAL
J- Private, which is carried out directly by the people who subscribe to it.
J- Public, which is authorized by public employees.

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J- Formal, this is the contract that, as established by the relevant legislation, has
a very specific form of consent on the part of the subjects involved in it.
J- Bilateral, which establishes that those who sign them assume a series of
obligations from that moment on.
One of the areas where the contract is most important is in the workplace, since it becomes
the mechanism by which a company acquires the services of a worker and this, in
exchange for a salary, assumes a series of tasks. .
Schedule is a concept used to refer to a calendar of work or activities.
Therefore, it is a very important tool in project management.
It can be a printed document or a digital application; In any case, include a list of activities
or tasks with their expected start and end dates.
In order to make a schedule, it is always recommended to take into account tips such as
having a calendar on hand, having all the tasks that must be included in it, and establishing
a basic timeline.
Within a multitude of fields, the use of a schedule is used as a tool for controlling and
managing activities.
Report is usually some type of document that presents information.
Said data, on the other hand, arise from a research task.
A scientist, for example, can write a report after making a discovery, explaining the steps
he followed and what his conclusions are about it.
Generally, the purpose of the report is, obviously, to inform, however, these writings may
include advice or other elements that aim at persuasion.
Reports, on the other hand, can be public or private depending on the disclosure objective.
Regarding the formats of the reports, they can be simple or complex according to their
structure and contents.
In terms of forecasting and future project implementation, it is established that what is

called the final research report is essential.
63 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ CARVAJAL
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This includes everything that has been the research process developed as well as the
results that have been obtained within it, it is essential that this document has a clearly
delimited and stipulated structure and organization since it will depend on it that the project
is understandable. It is considered appropriate, the need for it is seen and finally the green
light is given for its implementation.
Every final research report must inevitably have a set of sections containing the
corresponding cover page, the index, the introduction, the summary, the body of the work,
the conclusions reached, the stipulated recommendations, the annexes with additional
documentation but very important and, of course, the bibliography.
Thus, it is a very good option that they contain various materials such as photographs,
diagrams and data tables. Thanks to these tools, the contents that are presented and
developed will be more easily understood and that without forgetting another fundamental
aspect, the writing must be clear, concise and orderly.
1.9. ORAL COMMUNICATION.
1.9.1. Verbal communicative flow.

When we put oral communication into practice, we enter into a relationship of reciprocity
with whoever is listening to us since they are continually guiding each other, and we also
make contact with the personality of the speaker.
We observe his gaze, we come into contact with his thoughts and we participate in the
spectacle in which the speaker represents himself.
Through oral communication, the passion or outburst that may be felt at a given moment is
transmitted. The only thing that is required is to speak in an expressive way since when we
communicate with words we do so through the tone of the voice, the disposition of the
shoulders, head tilt, etc.; even in silence, that is, in what we stop saying.
In the field of companies, oral communication is put into practice at all times: when
confirming or modifying plans, when discussing policies, when providing reports, when
giving orders, instructions, etc., so it is of utmost importance that the leader Possess skills
to present your ideas and desires with precision, speed and tact to obtain a timely and
correct response.
A person who needs to talk to others must become familiar with techniques that allow him
or her to express his or her ideas, feelings, and moods with a clarity and sequence that
facilitates complete perception of the message.
1.9.2. Verbal development.

The development of verbal behavior also plays a role in the process of text production and
editing. For example, when a person is in the process of learning another language, when
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saying a word in the new language, it requires a lot of attention to distinguish effective and
ineffective forms or patterns.
This allows you to avoid mistakes, but equally important is that appropriate responses are
reinforced.
Verbal development is important because language and communication are critical for
social learning and development.
1.9.3. Sender and receiver qualities (physical qualities, sensory

faculties).
4- They do not represent a barrier except: muteness, aphonia, etc.
1.9.4. Intellectual qualities .

J- Sensitivity. Ability to share the spectacle of life and men, emotions and passions.
4- Imagination. Source of inspiration to conceive ideas in new facets.
4- Memory. The first requirement of the oratorical mentality.
4- The deepest messages have always been and will be the product of meditation.
4- Laxity. Relaxation, serenity.
4- Possess general culture and general knowledge. Ingenuity can make up for the
lack of knowledge
1.9.5. Moral qualities: ethnic and axiological.

4- Respectful, active, of ethical values. Fair and virtuous. Lead by example
1.9.6. External manifestations of the sender (porture, posture,

gestures, voice, eye contact, gestures and physiognomy).
4- It is the action and effect of manifesting, discovering or putting something in sight.
4- Poise, posture, gestures, voice, use of gaze, gestures and physiognomy and even
attire, are external manifestations of the speaker, being the ways through which he
exhibits himself before his audience, and allow him to communicate your ideas or
feelings, with the broadest possible expressive force. “the discourse of the body”
4- It is essential to communicate the fervor of this passion.
4- It requires gestures, mimicry, and voice inflections, which reinforce it by naturally

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expressing our emotions, desires and intentions.
4- External manifestations are free and natural.
4- Purity of movements, absence of all movement. No tics or forced movements.
4- Variety.
4- Concordance, finally, means that every external manifestation must follow the course
of thought, progress in accordance with the expressive line of the text, adjust to the
vitality of the discourse, be carried out in coordination with all the movements of the
body and, finally, be done at the right time.
1.9.7. Types and forms of oral communication.
Verbal communication can be carried out in two ways: oral : through oral signs and spoken
words or written: through the graphic representation of signs.
There are multiple forms of oral communication. Screams, whistles, cries and laughter can
express different emotional situations and are one of the most primary forms of
communication.
The most evolved form of oral communication is articulate language, the structured sounds
that give rise to the syllables, words and sentences with which we communicate with
others.
Among the types of oral communication we can find:
Assembly Conference Debate Speech Dialogue Interview Exhibition Forums Panel

Meeting Symposium
4- Seminar
1.10. ELOQUENT ORAL EXPRESSION.

It is a set of techniques that determine the general guidelines that must be followed to
communicate effectively orally, that is, it is the way to express what one thinks without
barriers.
1.10.1. Mastery of the topic.

It is taken from the fact that the exhibitor handles the situation appropriately and naturally,
for which the following must be considered:
Start with the greeting, the introduction of the person and the topic, pointing out the
purpose because that guides and induces them to pay attention.
Give guidelines about questions at the same time or at the end of the presentation and
other guidelines, this is in order to avoid interruptions or frustration.

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Introduce the topic with a reflection or question that leads to addressing it, because that
allows you to gain confidence.
Explain the subject, do not give the speech or topic from memory, because it is boring and
tiring, and induces the listener to take their attention away from it, nor have a content sheet
in your hands because it reflects that you do not master the subject.
Use the film as a guide and to arouse interest, but do not read them because it causes
disinterest in the listener.
Answer each question to the entire audience, even if it is asked by a single person,
because it may be expanding or clarifying others who are silent; not establish dialogue.
Explain the meaning of technical or highly specialized terms so that the listener
understands and is not distracted.
Accept without problem that you do not know a topic, that arises from a question outside
the planned context, if applicable, because it gives the certainty that you know well what is
being explained.
1.10.2. Invigoration of the voice.

The proper projection and tone of voice is of vital importance.
We must use the tone of our voice depending on the space, number of people and
distance from the public.
The intonation must vary to arouse interest but in an appropriate way, according to what is
being explained or presented.
1.10.3. Coherence of expression.

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Coherence refers to the logic and agreement that the phrases of an expression have
among themselves.
Both in texts and oral expression, sentences must maintain thematic unity and be related to
each other.
It is very important to have clarity in your mind before an oral presentation.
For this, you must ask yourself:
J- What?, What do you want to say?, The message.
J- Who or who?, Who or who?, The recipients.
J- Will they listen to you?, Why?, What is the purpose of?, The objective.
J- Communicate this message? How? What words are the most appropriate?
The means to communicate this message.
Once you are clear about these elements, it will be much easier for the message to be
understandable to the recipients.
1.10.4. Time domain.

The presentation is oral, and public speaking is a very different communicative challenge
from writing.
For the public, reading a text (yours or someone else's) is different from listening to a
presentation.
When a text is dense, the reader can always approach it in parts, reread it, comment on it
with friends, etc.
But a dense exposition quickly bores the audience and is irrevocably lost.
Consequently, time is a primary factor, it is very convenient that you take this factor into
account which will allow you to adapt to the needs of the environment, public and area in
which you are located.
1.10.5. Clarity of expression.

He who is clear when articulating and producing speech speaks well, good pronunciation
combined with tone, intonation, intensity, and rhythm intervenes.
Naturalness, too, is one of the keys, monotony, automatism in reproduction makes the
speech tiresome; The speed that it sometimes takes prevents the understanding of many
parts of it.
Excessive slowness is at odds with the quality that every audience praises and demands
from a speaker.
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Those who do not have a good command of intonation and prosodic elements in general
do not know how to speak.
What does it imply? Express yourself in such a way that others easily grasp the meaning of
what is said.
Why is it important? The more clearly the information is presented, the more it will benefit
listeners.
Instead of just presenting facts, make sure your listeners understand what you are saying
to be an effective communicator.
The art of speaking clearly has many facets.
J- Simple words and style . Simple terms and short phrases are effective
vehicles of communication; a simple style will help the information be better
understood.
J- Explain uncommon terms: sometimes you will need to clarify the meaning
of terms unknown to the listeners, do not assume that they already know
them, but do not underestimate their intelligence either.
J- Give the necessary explanations : to clarify a matter, it may not be enough

to state the exact definition of a certain term.
How to achieve clarity? Use simple terms and prefer short sentences to express key ideas,
highlight only a few main points, explain less familiar expressions to listeners.
1.10.6. Organization of thought.
There are several tools that intervene in the organization of thought, which are schemes
that use labels, which aim to organize thought in a visual way.
Among them we can find:
4- Mind map: It is a method of analysis that allows you to easily organize your
thoughts and make the most of your mental abilities.
J- Table or comparative table: It is an organizer that is used to systematize

information and allows the elements of a topic to be contrasted.
5- Concept map: Allows you to represent a set of conceptual meanings included in a

structure and organize what you have learned hierarchically.
6- Flow Diagrams: It is a graphical representation of a process AND represented by a

different symbol that contains a brief description.

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1.10.7. Concrete ideas .
This is the name given to ideas that originate in the sensory source through observation
and direct contact with the objective world. They are created through the formation of
dream images of objects, animate and inanimate, rational and irrational.
The concrete thought that is the first that man acquires in the course of his existence, is
born from the relationship and direct contact between subject and object, source of the first
knowledge, constitutes the initial step in the ontogenetic evolution of thought.
Everything that the sensorium captures through the observation of the external world
whose objective is registered in consciousness, giving rise to the formation of ideas that
determine the individualization of things and beings; In the same way, knowledge is
acquired of what happens in one's own inner world and that coenesthesia is responsible for
informing consciousness.
These concrete ideas are developed through the formation of a mental image of the
perceived objective.
1.10.8. The argument.

To argue is to defend an idea by providing reasons that justify our position.
The ability to argue correctly is usually paired with the ability to influence people.
The elements of the argument are:
1- The object : is the topic on which the argument is made.
2- Thesis : position that the arguer has regarding the topic.
3- Arguments : reasons on which we base our position. They must be directly

related to the object of the argument and the thesis they defend.
The types of argument are:
+ Positive argumentation or proof, this consists of presenting arguments that

support our position on the subject of the argument.
4- Negative argumentation or refutation , this consists of providing arguments

that serve to reject arguments contrary to our position.
The argument classes:
J- Rational : they are based on ideas and truths accepted by society.
J- In fact : they are based on observable evidence.
J- Exemplification : those that are based on concrete examples.

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J- Authoritative: they are based on the opinion of a recognized person.
The argumentative text is a type of text that usually begins with the presentation of some
facts, that is, the exposition and continues with the reasons that justify a certain position
regarding those facts, it presents two elements.
J- Issuer: manifests itself in the first person.
J- Recipient : in the formulas that the sender includes to address him.
The structure of the argumentative text consists of the following elements.
J- Presentation , is the introduction that begins the speech, presents the topic
and attempts to capture the recipient's attention.
5- Statement of facts , is where you list and explain the facts that are
considered fundamental and present the thesis clearly.
6- Conclusion , is the final part, summarizes what has been stated and includes
the thesis and main arguments.
Argumentative logic to which reasoning must be subject to the laws of logic.
A bad argument often occurs as a consequence of the arguer's ignorance, but sometimes it
is resorted to consciously.
Errors in the argument can be listed as follows.
7- Incorrect arguments arise from poor use of argument logic:
8- Elevate the particular to the category of general.
9- Involve in vicious circles.
10-Establish false cause-effect relationships.
+ False arguments are modes of persuasion foreign to the argument's logic:
+ Appeal to the recipient's feelings.
+ Appeal to the importance, prestige or authority of the issuer.

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1.11. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
4- Advanced writing, a linguistic approach by Fidel Chávez Perez (2003), 3/a.

edition, pearson education publishing house, mexico.
4- Community Learning Center,
4- http://www.cca.org.mx/cca/cursos/escritura/html/modulo4/preescritura/conten
ido_defprop.htm .
4- Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language.
4- DIAZ, Rule (1.998). Language and
Communication.
Valencia: José Antonio Páez University.
GOMEZ, Alaric (1.996). Language and

Communication.
Caracas: Panapo,
MEDINA, Norah (1990). Basic Encyclopedia of the Spanish Language.
Valencia: Tatum.
General Studies I (1991). Language and Communication I.
Caracas: National Open University. (1.993). Language and communication.
Caracas: Conac
https://www.protocolo.org/social/conversar_hablar/comunicacion_no_verbal_
la_importancia_de_los_gestos_i.html
Principles of persuasive speech Communicate! Rudolph F. Verderver and
Kathleen S. Verderber. Edit Thomson Learning, Mexico 2006 page. 428 to
446 https://cmplenguayliteratura.wordpress.com/curso-0809/4%C2%BA-
that/1%C2%AA-evaluation/contents/the-exhibition-2/
http://www.imaginalee.org/promotores-de-la-lectura/entralee/estrategias-de-
Reading.html
+ Dechant EU and H. Smith. Psychology in teaching reading, Englewood Cliffs.
New Jersey, 1976. Díaz Barriga Frida and Javier Aguilar Villalobos. “
+ Learning strategies for understanding academic prose texts”, in Educational
Profiles, No. 41-42, Mexico, December, 1988
J- http://campusdigital.uag.mx/academia/hoy/parafrasis.cfm
4- Balmaseda Neyra, Osvaldo (2005). Teach and learn spelling. Havana . People and
Education Editorial .

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SABATINO MIXED SYSTEM

ADVANCED COMMUNICATION, READING AND WRITING

I Karol Patricia González Carvajal

MAY – AUGUST 2017

II. COMMUNICATION PROCESS.

III. COMMUNICATION IN PUBLIC.

IV. FORMAL COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUES.

VI. DISCURSIVE GENRES.

VIII. TOPICS WRITING.

IX. ORAL COMMUNICATION.

X. ELOQUENT ORAL EXPRESSION.

2 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

1.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT.

1.2. COMMUNICATION PROCESS.

1.2.1. Communication objective.

4- Why do I address the public?

The objectives can be classified into :

7- Inform - teach - train .

1.2.2. Communication concept.

1.2.3. Communication elements.

5- Receiver or decoder: It is the point (person, organization...) to which the message

8- Channel: It is the medium through which information-communication is transmitted,

4 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

1.2.4. The structure of the communication process.

1.2.5. Communication barriers.

Ex: This is really a pain .

5 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

Ex. Deafness - phoniatric deficiencies (deaf-mute)

Some of them are:

J- Not taking into account the point of view of others

They can be saved by:

a) Advance clarification of any idea, before communicating it.

c) Specification of the true purpose of the information to be communicated.

d) Knowledge of the precise meaning of concepts, to eliminate misunderstandings.

e) Use of simple and direct language.

6 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

1.2.6. Cybernetics applied in communication.

Thus there is no information, expression and understanding outside of communication, and

Communication in cybernetics will be an alternative to the extent that it assumes the

Cybernetics is considered the science of control and communication.

1.2.7. Neurolinguistic programming in communication.

Understanding how we understand information and process it, attending to non-

7 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

1.2.8. Classification of communication.

8 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

b) Interpersonal Communication - Two-dimensional.

c) Mass Communication - Three Dimensional.

9 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

10 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

1.3. COMMUNICATION IN PUBLIC.

1.3.1. The effective communicator and credibility.

11 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

Effective communicator must have the following personal skills:

You have the following technical knowledge:

Other characteristics of the effective communicator are:

12 PROF. KAROL PATRICIA GONZÁLEZ

4- Clarity – Messages should be clear, easily decoded, and unambiguous.

J- Accuracy : the information transmitted in the message must be accurate and