The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a functional theory of

language - one that focuses on language as a means of communication. The goal of language
teaching is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as “communicative competence.”

For Chomsky, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers
possess that enable them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a language. It was
based on a cognitive view of language. Hymes held that such a view of linguistic theory was
sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen as part of a more general theory incorporating
communication and culture. Hymes’s theory of communicative competence was a definition
of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech
community. In Hymes’s view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires
both knowledge and ability for language use with respect to the following:

1. whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible

2. whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of

implementation available

3. whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in

relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated

4. whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its
doing entails

Seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language:

1. The instrumental function: using language to get things

2. The regulatory function: using language to control the behaviour of others

3. The interactional function: using language to create interaction with others

4. The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meanings

5. The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover

6. The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination

7. The representational function: using language to communicate information.

Learning a second language now was similarly viewed by proponents of CLT as acquiring the
linguistic means to perform these seven basic kinds of functions.

A more pedagogically influential analysis of communicative competence was preented in an

important paper by Canale and Swain, in which four dimensions of communicative
competence are identified: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence refers to what Chomsky
calls linguistic competence and what Hymes intends by what is “formally possible.” It is the
domain of grammatical and lexical capacity. Sociolinguistic competence refers to an
understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role
relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for
their interaction. Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message
elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in
relationship to the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies
that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect
communication. The usefulness of the notion of communicative competence is seen in the
many attempts that have been made to refine the original notion of communicative
competence since it was first introduced. Sociocultural learning theory has replaced earlier
views of communicative competence in many current accounts of second language learning
because of its more comprehensive understanding of the role of social context in discourse.

Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow:

1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

2. The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication.

3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

5. Communicative competence entails knowing how to use language for a range of different
purposes and functions as well as the following dimensions of language knowledge:

• Knowing how to vary use of language according to the setting and the participants

(e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately
for written as opposed to spoken communication)

• Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports,
interviews, conversations)

• Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language

knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies).

Elements of an underlying learning theory can be discerned in some CLT practices, however.
One such element might be described as the communication principle: activities that involve
real communication promote learning. A second element is the task principle: activities in
which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning. A third element is
the meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning.

Other learning theories that can be cited to support CLT are the creative-construction
hypothesis, and particularly interactional theory and sociocultural learning theory. From these
perspectives language learning is seen to result from processes of the following kind:

• Interaction between the learner and users of the language

• Collaborative creation of meaning

• Creating meaningful and purposeful interaction through language

• Negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or her interlocutor arrive at understanding

• Learning through attending to the feedback learners get when they use the language

• Paying attention to the language one hears (the input) and trying to incorporate new forms
into one’s developing communicative competence

• Trying out and experimenting with different ways of saying things

• Learning as social mediation between the learner and another during which socially acquired
knowledge becomes internal to the learner

• Learning facilitated through scaffolding by an expert or fellow learner

• Learning through collaborative dialogue centring on structured cooperative tasks.

The syllabus also specifies the grammar, vocabulary, functions, and other skills used to
achieve these learning outcomes. In the case of courses developed for learners with more
specific needs, objectives will be specific to the contexts of teaching and learning. These
needs may be in the domains of listening, speaking, reading, or writing, each of which can be
approached from a communicative perspective. Curriculum or instructional objectives for a
particular course would reflect specific aspects of communicative competence according to
the learner’s proficiency level and communicative needs.

The notional-functional syllabus

The early influential syllabus model, known as the notional syllabus (Wilkins 1976), was later
expanded by the Council of Europe into the Threshold Level English (Van Ek and Alexander
1980). This syllabus aimed to specify the requirements for achieving communicative
proficiency in a foreign language, going beyond mere grammar and vocabulary. It outlined
various aspects of language use, including:

1. **Purposes:** Consideration of why learners want to acquire the target language, such as
for business, travel, or in the hotel industry.

2. **Settings:** Understanding the contexts in which learners will use the language, such as
in an office, on an airplane, or in a store.

3. **Roles:** Identification of the socially defined roles learners will assume in the target
language, and the roles of their interlocutors (e.g., as a traveler, salesperson, student).
4. **Communicative Events:** Recognition of the types of events learners will participate in,
such as everyday situations, vocational/professional settings, or academic situations.

5. **Language Functions:** Identification of the functions learners will perform with or

through the language, such as making introductions, giving explanations, or describing plans.

6. **Notions or Concepts:** Understanding the notions or concepts learners will need to talk
about, such as leisure, finance, history, or religion.

7. **Discourse Skills:** Recognition of the discourse and rhetorical skills involved, including
storytelling or giving effective business presentations.

8. **Language Varieties:** Awareness of the variety or varieties of the target language

needed, such as American, Australian, or British English.

9. **Language Levels:** Determination of the spoken and written language levels that
learners need to reach.

10. **Grammar and Vocabulary:** Specification of the grammatical and lexical content or
vocabulary required for effective communication.

In essence, the goal was to develop learners' communicative competence by considering a

comprehensive range of language use aspects beyond isolated language items.

Other syllabus proposals

Type

1. structures plus functions

2. functional spiral around a structural core

3. structural, functional, instrumental

4. functional
5. notional

6. interactional

7. task-based

8. learner-generated

Prabhu believed that a task-based approach was the most appropriate model for syllabus
design in CLT because meaningful tasks can encourage the development of communicative
competence through information-sharing.

The only form of syllabus which is compatible with and can support communicational
teaching seems to be a purely procedural one - which lists, in more or less detail, the types of
tasks to be attempted in the classroom and suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the
same kind.

In Task-Based Language Teaching, an approach seen as an extension of Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT), the syllabus is structured around tasks. Some radical proposals
suggest abolishing traditional syllabus concepts, arguing that learners should be fully aware of
their needs and learning pace, creating a personal syllabus through communication and
learning in the classroom. This learner-centric approach contrasts with more conservative
views, such as Brumfit's, which favor a grammatically based syllabus grouping notions,
functions, and communicational activities.

English for Specific Purposes

Advocates of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) recognized the importance of

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) for learners who needed English in specific occupational
or educational contexts, such as nurses, engineers, flight attendants, pilots, and biologists.
Instead of focusing solely on general English skills, ESP targeted the specific language and
communication skills required for particular roles. This approach led to the practice of needs
analysis, involving methods like observation, surveys, interviews, and language sample
analysis to determine learners' communication needs in specific settings. Needs analysis
aimed to identify differences in vocabulary, grammar, text types, functions, and required
skills for specific purposes. Munby's Communicative Syllabus Design (1978) provided a
model for conducting needs analysis in ESP course design. As a result, ESP courses tailored
to the language needs of various professions began to emerge, serving university students,
nurses, engineers, restaurant staff, doctors, hotel staff, airline pilots, and others.

Types of learning and teaching activities

As well as rethinking the nature of a syllabus, the Communicative Approach to teaching

prompted a rethinking of classroom teaching methodology. It was argued that learners learn a
language through the process of communicating in it, and that communication that is
meaningful to the learner provides a better opportunity for learning than a grammarbased
approach. Activities were needed that reflected the following principles:
• Make real communication the focus of language learning.

• Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know.

• Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the learner is building up his or her
communicative competence.

• Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.

• Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together, since they usually
occur together in the real world.

• Let students induce or discover grammar rules.

Functional communication activities include such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures
and noting similarities and differences; working out a likely sequence of events in a set of
pictures; discovering missing features in a map or picture; one learner communicating behind
a screen to another learner and giving instructions on how to draw a picture or shape, or how
to complete a map; following directions; and solving problems from shared clues. Social
interaction activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays,
simulations, skits, improvisations, and debates.

One of the goals of second language learning is to develop fluency, accuracy, and appropriacy
in language use. Fluency is natural language use occurring when a speaker engages in
meaningful interaction and maintains comprehensible and ongoing communication despite
limitations in his or her communicative competence. In CLT fluency was addressed through
classroom activities in which students must correct misunderstandings and work to avoid
communication breakdowns. Fluency practice can be contrasted with accuracy practice,
which focuses on creating correct examples of language use. The differences between these
two kinds of activities may be summarized as follows:

Activities focusing on fluency

• reflect natural use of language;

• concentrate on achieving communication through negotiation of meaning;

• require meaningful use of language;

• require the use of communication strategics;

• produce language that may not be predictable;

• seek to link language use to context.

Activities focusing on accuracy

• reflect classroom use of language;

• concentrate on the formation of correct examples of language;

• practice language out of context;

• practice small samples of language;

• do not require meaningful communication;

• control choice of language.

Teachers were advised to strike a balance between fluency activities and accuracy activities,
using the latter to support the former.

Accuracy work could be implemented before or after fluency tasks, depending on students'
needs.

Teachers could assign accuracy work based on observed grammatical or pronunciation issues
during fluency tasks or focus on appropriacy of language use.

Dialogues, grammar exercises, and pronunciation drills remained part of textbooks and
classroom materials but were integrated into a sequence of activities alternating between
accuracy and fluency tasks.

Classroom dynamics shifted from predominantly teacher-centered instruction to increased use

of small-group work.

Small-group activities often involved an "information gap," where students negotiated to

obtain information they lacked.

Pair and group activities provided learners with more opportunities to use the language and
develop fluency.

• Jig-saw activities. The class is divided into groups and each group has part of the
information needed to complete an activity. The class must fit the pieces together to complete

the whole.

• Task-completion activities. Puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom

tasks in which the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task.

• Information-gathering activities. Student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches

in which students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.

• Opinion-sharing activities. Activities where students compare values, opinions, beliefs,

such as a ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance when

choosing a date or spouse.

• Information-transfer activities. Taking information that is presented in one form, and

representing it in a different form. For example, students may read instructions on how

to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or they may read information
about a subject and then represent it as a graph.

• Reasoning gap activities. Deriving some new information from given information

through the process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example, working out a

teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class timetables.

• Role plays. Students arc assigned roles and improvise a scene or exchange based on given

information or clues.

Learner Roles

1. Learners were required to engage in classroom activities with a cooperative learning

approach rather than an individualistic one.

2. Students needed to get accustomed to listening to their peers in group or pair tasks, moving
away from relying solely on the teacher as a model.

3. There was an expectation for students to take more responsibility for their own learning.

4. In pure Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), there might be no traditional textbook,

grammar rules are not explicitly presented, classroom arrangement is unconventional, and
students interact primarily with each other rather than the teacher.

5. Correction of errors in CLT could be absent or infrequent, although modified forms aimed
to balance fluency and accuracy.

6. The cooperative learning approach stressed in CLT might be unfamiliar to learners.

7. CLT methodologists recommended that learners recognize failed communication as a joint

responsibility and not solely the fault of the speaker or listener.

8. Successful communication was viewed as a joint accomplishment that both parties

contributed to and acknowledged.

Teacher Roles

1. In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), new classroom activities suggested new

roles for teachers.

2. Teachers were expected to take on the roles of facilitators and monitors in the classroom.

3. Instead of being a model for correct speech and writing, teachers' primary responsibility
shifted from ensuring error-free sentences to facilitating language learning.
4. Teachers had to develop a different perspective on learners' errors and their own role in
supporting language acquisition.

1. In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), the teacher has two primary roles.

2. The first role is to facilitate communication among all participants in the classroom,
including students and various activities and texts.

3. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group,
closely related to the objectives of the first role.

4. These roles imply several secondary roles for the teacher, including organizing resources,
serving as a resource, guiding classroom procedures and activities.

5. Another role for the teacher is that of a researcher and learner, contributing knowledge,
abilities, and experiences related to learning and organizational capacities.

Needs analyst

1. In CLT, the teacher has a responsibility for determining and responding to learner language
needs.

2. This can be done informally through one-to-one sessions, discussing the student's learning
style, assets, and goals.

3. It can also be done formally by administering needs assessment instruments, such as those
in Savignon (1983).

4. Formal assessments may include statements about motivations for studying the language,
with students rating their agreement on a scale.

5. Teachers then use these assessments to plan both group and individual instruction tailored
to the learners' needs.

Counselor

The teacher-counselor is expected to exemplify an effective communicator.

They aim to maximize the understanding between speaker intention and hearer interpretation.

This is achieved through the use of paraphrase, confirmation, and feedback.

Group process manager

1. In CLT, teachers need less teacher-centered classroom management skills.

2. The teacher's responsibility is to organize the classroom as a setting for communication and
communicative activities.

3. During activities, the teacher monitors, encourages, and suppresses the inclination to supply
gaps in lexis, grammar, and strategy.
4. Gaps are noted for later commentary and communicative practice.

5. After group activities, the teacher leads in debriefing, pointing out alternatives, extensions,
and assisting in self-correction discussion.

6. Some critics argue that this may be an unfamiliar role for teachers in certain cultures.

7. The focus on fluency and comprehensibility in CLT may cause anxiety for teachers
accustomed to error suppression and correction.

8. Teachers may see their primary function as preparing learners for standardized or other
tests.

9. A continuing concern is the potential negative effect of imperfect modeling and student
error in pair or group work, especially with low-level learners.

The role of instructional materials

Text-based materials

Numerous textbooks are designed to direct and support CLT.

Some textbooks have tables of contents suggesting a grading and sequencing of language
practice.

Some textbooks are written around a largely structural syllabus, with slight reformatting to
claim a communicative approach.

Others look different from previous language teaching texts.

Task-based materials

1. Games, role plays, simulations, and task-based communication activities are prepared to
support CLT classes.

2. These materials come in the form of one-of-a-kind items such as exercise handbooks, cue
cards, activity cards, pair-communication practice materials, and student-interaction practice
booklets.

3. Pair-communication materials typically have two sets for a pair of students, each set
containing different information.

4. Sometimes the information is complementary, requiring partners to fit their respective parts
into a composite whole.

5. Others assume different role relationships for partners (e.g., an interviewer and an
interviewee).

6. Some provide drills and practice material in interactional formats.

Realia-based materials
1. Proponents of CLT advocate using "authentic" and "from-life" materials in the classroom.

2. These materials can include language-based realia like signs, magazines, advertisements,
and newspapers.

3. Graphic and visual sources, such as maps, pictures, symbols, graphs, and charts, are also
recommended.

4. Communicative activities can be built around these materials.

5. Objects like a plastic model can be used to support communicative exercises, such as
assembling it from directions.

Technology-supported materials

1. CLT emphasizes organizing teaching around authentic and meaningful language use.

2. The goal is to develop fluent, accurate, and appropriate language use through a
communicative curriculum.

3. Authentic communication often involves reading and writing more than listening and
speaking.

4. Traditional classrooms use activities that involve negotiation of meaning and natural
language use.

5. Technology, like chat rooms, discussion boards, and teleconferencing, provides

opportunities for authentic interaction.

6. Learners can employ and expand their communicative resources using multimedia tools.

7. Computer-mediated communication aligns with CLT assumptions, promoting increased

student participation, access to comprehensible input, negotiation of meaning, group-based
learning, and a social learning environment.

Procedure

Because communication principles can be applied to teach any skill at any level, classroom
activities in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are diverse and flexible. While there
isn't a fixed typical procedure for a CLT lesson, it has roots in older teaching methods like
Situational Language Teaching and often follows a Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP)
format.

For instance, in teaching a function like "making a suggestion" to beginners, the lesson might
include:
1. Introducing a dialog related to the topic, discussing its context, and the language used.

2. Practicing the dialog orally as a class or in groups, followed by the teacher's model.

3. Asking and answering questions based on the dialog's topic and personal experiences.

4. Studying expressions or structures related to the function with additional examples.

5. Discovering rules or patterns underlying the expression or structure.

6. Engaging in interpretative and oral recognition activities.

7. Moving towards oral production activities, starting from guided to freer communication.

8. Copying dialogs or modules if necessary, and checking written homework if assigned.

9. Evaluating learning through oral exercises.

These procedures share similarities with older teaching methods but are adapted and
expanded upon in CLT. While some CLT materials focus on functional language, they still
introduce new teaching points through dialogues and provide controlled practice before
moving to freer activities. Pair and group work are encouraged to reinforce language usage.

Savignon, a key figure in CLT, emphasized the importance of providing communicative

practice from the start of instruction, departing from the idea that learners must master
individual skills before applying them in communicative tasks. This approach has become
central in task-based teaching.

Conclusion

In this chapter, we've talked about Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and how it's
not just a method but an approach with various interpretations and criticisms. CLT focuses on
principles like:

1. **Learning by Doing**: Learners learn a language by using it to communicate.

2. **Real Communication**: Classroom activities should aim for authentic and meaningful
communication.

3. **Fluency Matters**: Being able to communicate smoothly is important.

4. **Integrated Skills**: Communication involves using different language skills together.

5. **Trial and Error Learning**: Learning involves trying things out and making mistakes.
CLT came about when traditional methods like Situational Language Teaching and
Audiolingualism weren't seen as effective anymore. It appealed to those who wanted a more
interactive and human-centered approach to teaching language.

Over time, CLT has gone through different phases, focusing on things like developing
communicative syllabuses, identifying learners' needs, and creating classroom activities that
promote communication.

Jacobs and Farrell pointed out that CLT sparked major changes in language teaching
approaches, like:

1. **Learner Autonomy**: Giving students more control over their learning.

2. **Social Learning**: Recognizing that learning is a social activity.

3. **Curriculum Integration**: Connecting language learning to other subjects.

4. **Meaningful Learning**: Emphasizing understanding over rote memorization.

5. **Diversity in Learning**: Acknowledging that students learn differently.

6. **Thinking Skills**: Using language to develop critical thinking.

7. **New Forms of Assessment**: Moving away from traditional tests.

8. **Teachers as Learners**: Viewing teachers as facilitators who learn alongside their

students.

While CLT principles are widely accepted, language teaching today is influenced by local
contexts and cultures. Global solutions might not always fit local needs, so research into local
practices is important to see how CLT ideas align with them.

Sure! Here's a simpler breakdown of those points:

1. **Learner Autonomy**: Letting students have more say in what and how they learn. They
can choose topics and ways to study, like working in small groups or assessing their own
progress.
2. **Social Learning**: Recognizing that learning isn't just about studying alone; it's about
interacting with others. Cooperative Language Learning emphasizes this, where students work
together. This idea also supports approaches like CLIL and Task-Based Language Teaching.

3. **Curricular Integration**: Connecting language learning with other subjects. English isn't
just a separate subject; it's linked to other parts of the curriculum. Text-Based Instruction does
this by helping students become fluent in different types of texts they might encounter in other
subjects.

4. **Focus on Meaning**: Seeing meaning as the main driver of learning. Content-Based

Instruction and CLIL focus on exploring meaning through the content of what's being learned,
making learning more meaningful.

5. **Diversity in Learning**: Understanding that students learn differently. Teaching should

account for these differences and help students develop their own learning strategies.

6. **Thinking Skills**: Using language to develop higher-level thinking skills like critical
and creative thinking. Language learning isn't just about learning words; it's about using
language to think and solve problems.

7. **Alternative Assessment**: Finding new ways to assess students beyond traditional tests.
Observations, interviews, and portfolios can give a better picture of what students can do in a
second language.

8. **Teachers as Co-Learners**: Seeing teachers as learners too, always trying new things
and learning alongside their students. This encourages practices like action research and
trying different teaching methods.