MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF HIPPOCRATES

Transform medicine into a discipline

Until the 5th century BC, medicine was not a discipline suitable for study. In fact, it was
thought that diseases had a strict relationship with superstitions, legends and magic.
The arrival of this Hippocrates drastically changed the outlook towards medicine, since
he presented it in a more rational way.
He looked away from the legends and began to study the causes of diseases. He stated
that the diseases that man contracted depended more on the environment, habits and
diet.
In addition, he implemented techniques and methodologies for the treatment of some
diseases, including diagnoses and preventive measures that would mark the beginning of
the art of medicine, expanding to different parts of the world.
Some of these approaches and descriptions were rescued and as a whole it is currently
known as the Hippocratic Corpus . It is a compilation where you can find the most
important findings for medicine during the 4th and 5th centuries.

Hippocratic Oath
The creation of the ethical basis of medicine starts from this writing. This oath, attributed to Hippocrates, is a document that
describes the principles that a person dedicated to medicine must possess.
Currently in many of the world's medical schools, students of this discipline must take an oath, alluding to this writing, at their
graduation ceremony.

Anatomy
Among the different writings rescued from this time, some drawings of human anatomy were discovered. However, this anatomy
was based mainly on animals, so there was no detailed knowledge of the human body.
Although knowledge about human anatomy was scarce, these writings were the first impressions that were related to human
anatomy.

Description of diseases
In the experience he obtained during his life, and his dedication to medicine, Hippocrates was able to describe a large number of
diseases (hemorrhoids, diseases located in the chest, lung diseases, heart disease, among others).
Although some of his descriptions are not exactly exact, they were a strong basis for medicine to be considered a science.

Surgery
Another of the great contributions to modern medicine was the possibility of surgery. The data collected about this time indicates
that Hippocrates was one of the first surgeons of whom there is a record.
Despite the time, there are quite adequate methods, taking into account technological limitations.

Preventive medicine
This was an important part of Hippocrates' writings. It indicates the evolution of certain diseases, describes their symptoms and
possible complications in order to make a diagnosis.
Likewise, depending on the diagnosis, guidelines are described in the literature to achieve improvement.
For Hippocrates, other aspects were also relevant for the prognosis of diseases, such as the patient's diet and lifestyle .
He considered that the habits and environment in which a person was found influenced the diseases they contracted.

Gynecology
Regarding this topic, Hippocrates studies women in different situations. For example, it
describes the diseases that virgin women suffer from. Describes other states, such as
sterility, pregnancy, among others.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF ARISTOTLE

Studies in biology and Greek medicine
The field of medicine was also one of great interest to Aristotle. Although he stood out for his studies in biology, he is also
considered the father of comparative physiology and anatomy. It is believed that he compared more than 50 species of living beings
during his research.

Aristotle was limited by the resources of his time and therefore many of his studies on the internal structure of the human body and
bodily functions were flawed.

However, this did not prevent him from studying animal anatomy, especially those species that he could compare with human
anatomy.

Among his observations stand out his embryological studies, using the chicken embryo to describe the early stages of development,
the growth of the heart, and the differences between arteries and veins in the circulatory system.

His doctrine of the four basic qualities is considered the most important contribution to the theory of ancient Greek medicine, a
doctrine that was used by many doctors and philosophers for centuries, although it was eventually replaced during the Renaissance.

The four basic qualities according to Aristotle were hot, cold, moist and dry. For years this doctrine shaped the research and
teachings of many Greek philosophers.

Early ideas about the theory of evolution

Aristotle was a great encoder and classifier, being one of the first philosophers to develop a taxonomic or classification scheme,
studying the differences and similarities of dozens of animal species with the intention of learning by comparing them.

The system he used to organize these animals and their differences was one that went from “imperfect” to “perfect,” thus looking
for differences that showed improvements or superiority.

Indirectly, Aristotle was beginning to understand the concepts of evolution , more than two millennia before Darwin published The
Origin of Species .

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF ROBERT HOOKE

Robert Hooke's contributions to the world of science have mainly positioned him as
one of the most important and representative English scientists in the history of man.

Robert Hooke was a man who worked and innovated in the fields of mechanics,
gravitation, paleontology, microscopy, astronomy and time dynamics. He studied
various astronomical theories, comets, the rotational movement of Jupiter, the
memory of human beings and even light and gravity.
He is considered on par with other contemporary scientists such as Isaac Newton , Christopher Wren and Edmond Halley; He has
been considered a controversial character due to the controversies that arose from attributing ideas that were not always his.

He was a scientist who stuck to traditional methods of experimentation and observation. For this reason, his theories were tested by
himself.

His most important publication, which continues to be praised to this day, was Micrographia . In this document he analyzed all the
results he obtained through his experiments with the microscope. He first used the term “cell” while documenting the structure of
cork.

He was also the one who proposed the theory of elasticity, in his publication known as Spring Lectures . In his theory, which became
known as Hooke's Law, he proposed that the force needed to extend or compress a spring is proportional to the distance you want
to extend it.

Microscopy and Micrography

Robert Hooke is exalted in the fields of science and biology for having been the first person to observe and describe a cell, as well as
a large number of other microscopic elements and organisms.
The result of this research was the work for which he was most admired: Micrography, or some physiological descriptions of minute
bodies made by means of magnifying glasses, published in 1665.
In this work he managed to expose to the scientific world a tiny universe, more populated and internally structured than they could
imagine.
During this period of his work, Hooke worked with his own version of a microscope for the time.
He was known for manufacturing many of the instruments he used for his research.

Sound frequencies
Hooke, during his life, was also interested in the study of intangible but perceptible physical phenomena.
Sound was one of these, allowing Hooke to demonstrate that a tone is determined by the frequency of vibrations of the sound
source; a direct relationship between a stimulus and the sensation produced.
The experiment carried out by Hooke consisted of hitting a cardboard with a gear wheel at a constant speed.
As the speed increased or decreased, the wheel in contact with the cardboard would produce higher or lower sounds.

Law of elasticity of bodies

Also known as Hooke's Law, it was first published, enigmatically, in 1678.
Hooke had time working with different long, thin bodies, measuring the level at which they broke.
During one assignment he was asked to observe the bending point of the object before breaking, which led Hooke to establish levels
of elasticity under force.
For fear that his secrets would be divulged and attributed to other people, Hooke published his advances very zealously, using
anagrams to explain his theories.

Architecture and topography

The great fire that the city of London suffered in 1666 led Hooke to get involved in architectural and urban work to undertake the
reconstruction of the English capital.
After the incident, he was in charge of carrying out the topographical registration of multiple plots and urban spaces.
He shared this stage of his life with the putting into practice of his engineering knowledge and, together with Christopher Wren, they
carried out several projects that have positioned them as references in terms of civil engineering schemes of the time.

Mechanics and engineering

Hooke approached mechanical research and practice as a result of his work on the formulation of the law of elasticity of bodies.
Although there are few sources that directly link him to the manufacture of any element or technique in the field of engineering, he
is recognized as close to the study of node patterns in glass plates and the conception of the spring.
After the Great Fire of London, Hooke was in charge of working on the reconstruction of the alignments and layouts of the old
streets and buildings following their original plan.

Paleontology
Through his microscopic investigations, Hooke was able to identify a series of fossils whose preservation benefited from their
contact with water.
Through the study of these fossils, Hooke was able to reveal their importance to generate a better notion of the years of existence of
the fossil element.
These tests allowed Hooke to fight against the scientific hermeticism of the time, which rejected extinction, ignoring the vestiges of
species found around the world, and which turned out to be the clearest sign of extinction processes under natural causes.

Astronomy
In the field of astronomy, Hooke sought to focus primarily on measuring the distances between the Earth and stars (other than the
Sun ).
Despite having acknowledged having the results by then, today it is estimated that Hooke's calculations could have been imprecise.
During his years dedicated to astronomy, Hooke managed to observe and illustrate space phenomena such as star clusters and lunar
craters.
It is claimed that Hooke was among the first to observe Saturn's ring system, as well as to identify one of the first star systems of two
or more nearby stars.

Instruments
As mentioned above, Hooke was known for making many of the instruments he used; Not only that, but it was also capable of
achieving a high level of fidelity and effectiveness in the results and measurements provided by its implements.
Hooke was able to create his own microscope , capable of magnifying the observed object up to about 30 times.
He is also credited with the invention of the spring and the iris diaphragm, an element used to this day in photographic mechanisms.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK

Due to the creation of a microscope with greater power than the previous ones invented,
Anton van Leeuwenhoek became an important character in the history of biology and
microbiology for the observations made with this instrument. From there it can be
considered that his contributions helped a lot to carry out studies and improvements after
his time.

It is curious to know that even a single drop of water can be used to study the
microorganisms found in it and how important these mean for the study of microbiology;
While other people focused their studies on the sky and the universe, Anton val
Leeuwenhoek became interested in something never seen before and from there came his
later studies of bacteria and sperm. Centuries later it took them to build a microscope with
such power since the merchant did not leave instructions on how to make them.
Contributions to biology

The discovery of protozoa occurred for the first time by this merchant since he observed bacteria and other microorganisms that are
part of a biological system, which can only be seen with a microscope.

By 1674 he was able to see the small life forms he observed in the waters of a lake near his hometown. In two of his letters written
in 1675 and 1676, he mentions and describes what are called protozoans, that is, microscopic, unicellular protoctist organisms that
live in humid environments or in aquatic environments, especially ciliates that feed on algae.

He describes several microorganisms in detail in the letter sent to Henry Oldenburg in 1674, but scientists of the time show some
distrust; But in 1677 he made another letter where he collected the testimonies of eight people among them: pastors, jurists,
doctors, in which they claimed to have seen these numerous and varied living beings.

Regarding the discovery of spermatozoa, he describes it in a letter sent to the Royal Society in which he mentions animalcules, which
are very numerous in sperm. In this way he was aware of his observations, which showed that the seed contained in the testicles
was at the beginning of the reproduction of mammals, however, this statement generated a clash with the thesis of the great
scholars of the time such as William Harvey or Regnier de Gaaf.

The theory of spontaneous generation was a theory that “held that certain forms of life arise spontaneously from organic, inorganic
matter, or a combination thereof.”

Anton van Leeuwenhoek showed his opposition to this theory together with the Italian Francesco Redi and Jan Swammerdam. He
made several observations about insects and their reproduction. In this way, by 1670 he dissected lice and was able to see small
offspring in the eggs, which can be found on the body of the females; He did the same, this time with fleas and their eggs, although
he was unable to see their larvae. However, later, he would study these animals again.

By 1679, van Leeuwenhoek became interested in the presence of a worm in the liver of a lamb, but he was unable to understand the
complexity of the animal's life cycle and it would not be understood until many years later.

Other contributions he left were the observation of a vinegar worm, it is viviparous which affirms his opposition to the theory of
spontaneous generation. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was always interested in observing various objects in the fields of zoology,
botany, chemistry, microbiology, physics, physiology and medicine.

He studied red blood cells in both animals and humans, as well as the blood supply and capillaries in the tails of tadpoles, the legs of
frogs, the caudal fin of eels and the wings of bats. In botany I study the structure of leaves, and the relationship of various species
and their taste such as: coffee, tea, ginger, nutmeg, pepper and sage.

I also study the anatomy of various insects such as bees, small flies, bed bugs, fleas or silkworms. By 1679, Anton van Leeuwenhoek
wrote a letter in which he probably estimated the maximum population that the earth could reach; based on the population density
of the time when it collected a total of 13.4 million human beings.

Contributions to microbiology

Anton van Leeuwenhoek had many differences with other cults of the time, such as Galileo Galilei, whose interest focused on
studying the heavens and thus understanding the universe. However, this merchant focused on wanting to know what was inside
the planet, that is, to see the invisible; managing to deduce through their observations that the planet is surrounded by small
representations of life.

With the microscopes created at his time, it was impossible to see those little lives that he needed to observe in more detail and
quality. Remembering that I invented this simpler instrument, but with greater magnification to achieve the study of these tiny
bacteria. In this way, he becomes a wonderful microbe hunter by developing such a tool that allowed him to observe these
microorganisms.

The reason he is attributed as the “Father of Microbiology” is because he was able to discover protozoa, bacteria, the vacuole of the
cell and spermatozoa, which he called animalcules. Despite not being the person who discovered the microscope, his fascination
with glass processing allowed him to create suitable observation equipment for that person who was not a scientist, biologist or
zoologist but rather a simple curious businessman interested in discovering life. in small sizes.
For this, with just a drop of water he could see the universe of bacteria and protozoa. From this, his curiosity was so great that he
began to observe any tiny thing under his glasses and to have proof of what he discovered, he hired an illustrator to support and/or
justify the revelations made by him.

For this reason, he began his approach to the Royal Society through the doctor Regnier de Graaf, who explained the high-power
microscopes created by the Dutchman. However, some representatives of said association did not want to review such findings since
they considered him as a simple illiterate cloth merchant, without the opportunity to make such discoveries.

By 1677, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was nominated to the British academy, after it had taken three years for his work to be
recognized.

Cell theory

The cell theory is part of a set of ideas that aims to explain a certain phenomenon. Likewise, cell theory exposes the structure and
functioning of those basic materials where life processes occur.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF CARLOS LINNEO

The contributions of Carlos Linnaeus have been transcendental, even hundreds of years after his contributions to science, his
foundations continue to be accepted and practiced by many scientists. Since I was a child, Carlos had a love for nature and he
shaped it.
Although, nature has its form in its own sense, however, humans did not clearly understand what the natural kingdom was like
among so many species and so many things, it was difficult for them to understand; But, Carlos Linnaeus changed everything with his
studies, proposing a classification system that would help us better identify which family a given plant belongs to or to what genus.
In conclusion, his contributions marked the beginning of a new botanical era.

To ecology
Carlos Linnaeus' contributions to ecology were many, taking into account that, during his expeditions to different places, they gave
rise to knowledge about plants that had never been recorded before, thus increasing the great botanical library.

In addition to this, his studies were not only directed towards plants, although these were his favorites, he also dedicated himself to
studying animals, their physical and anatomical characteristics, and thus being able to classify them and make their distinction
easier.

However, he not only studied plants and animals, he wanted to go a little further and studied minerals and rocks, their properties in
order to understand their composition a little better and classified them. His travels to different places gave him enough knowledge
to create the basis for a new classification system.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF JEAN-BAPTISTE LAMARCK

Briefly, Lamarck's legacy in the field of science and biology can be summarized as:
 Living beings have the ability to adapt to a constantly changing environment. This foundation, considered the first
evolutionary theory, was the basis of subsequent research throughout the 20th century.
  Lamarck used the word “Biology” for the first time to refer to the science that studies living beings.
 Although his contributions were controversial and questionable at that time, his interest from university teaching in the
study of invertebrate beings, both living and fossil, earned him the title many years later of founder of invertebrate
paleontology.
 He was the first scientist to separate crustaceans, arachnids and annelids from insects.
 He had important insights into cell theory, stating that no body can have life if it is not made up of cellular tissues.
 Lamarck denied the extinction processes of some species, arguing that what was really happening could be interpreted
as a series of modifications in the anatomical structure of animals. Something that made them more capable of moving
in their own environment.
 Lamarck separated the organic world from the inorganic.
 He stated, like Darwin, that the earth was extremely old, organisms evolve without being fully aware of it and in no way
can they be as old as nature. To do this, he took into account that after several million years after the creation of the
earth, the first forms of life emerged, basically single-celled beings.
 He raised the concept of geological catastrophism, which refers to the theory that the origin of the earth occurred in a
catastrophic manner.
 He highlighted that the nature of species has always been inclined to evolve from the simple to the complex. The
evolution of the ape to contemporary man can be highlighted.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF CHARLES DARWIN

Charles Darwin's contributions to science were numerous and very varied. Among them we can mention:
• The environment is a factor that contributes to the mechanism of natural selection.
• Populations (a set of individuals of the same species) are made up of individuals with different characteristics.
• Only those that adapt best to their respective environments survive.
• Different characteristics within the same species originate at random.
• The most beneficial characteristics are passed on and preserved from generation to generation.
• Over the passage of many years, the characteristics and variations favorable to the species will be preserved, causing a change in
the species.
These changes will gradually become more marked until they result in a new species completely differentiated from the one that
gave rise to it.

Reasons why Darwin's contributions are important

Evolutionary biology is founded

Darwin founded a new branch of life sciences: evolutionary biology. It was based on the argument of the variability of species over
time (evolution), the notion of biodiversity starting from a single origin gradually, without major interruptions or discontinuities,
through a mechanism that was called natural selection.

Revolutionized the field of biology

It was the founding act of biology as a science, giving a rational, materialistic and verifiable explanation to the phenomenon of
variability and origin of species.
In summary, it constitutes a logical explanation that unifies observations about the diversity of life (Biodiversity).

It constitutes the basis of the modern evolutionary synthesis

This is based on the integration of Darwin's theories of evolution by natural selection and Gregor Mendel's Genetic Theory,
mutations and genetics in general.

Understanding the evolution of man

This is based on the mechanism of natural selection and the different archaeological findings.
The theory of evolution can explain in a very practical way how the human being had its origin and developed until it became the
dominant species on earth.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF LUIS PASTEUR

Pasteurization
This process that bears his name has saved millions of lives around the world since its
formulation. The most accepted theory at its time was that no organism participated in
fermentation as a chemical process. However, while conducting research on wine,
Pasteur discovered that two types of yeast were the key to that process.
One type of yeast produced alcohol and the other caused the appearance of lactic acid,
which is responsible for making the drink sour. After that discovery, it was proposed to
eliminate the cause of wine deterioration.
To do this, he placed the liquid in airtight containers and quickly heated it to 44
degrees. This simple procedure made it free of harmful microorganisms. Since then,
this heating method has been used to make many foods safer.

Vaccine development
Like other important discoveries in the history of science, the first vaccine was
discovered by chance. Pasteur was studying how the bacteria that causes fowl cholera was transmitted, inoculating it into healthy
animals to investigate its effects.
According to the known story, the scientist went on vacation and left his assistant with the task of infecting some chickens with the
bacteria before he also took his vacation break.
However, the assistant forgot to do so, and when the two returned to work a month later, the bacteria culture was greatly
weakened. Even so, they used it to inoculate a group of birds and they survived the infection.
This gave Pasteur the idea behind the vaccine. He exposed those surviving animals to the normal bacteria and, because they had
created an immune response, they survived the disease. After this, he experimented with other diseases caused by bacteria, such as
anthrax in cattle, which was a complete success.
Rabies vaccine
Rabies was a deadly disease that caused many victims in animals and in humans infected by them. Pasteur began working on a
possible vaccine using rabbits to find out what the causative pathogen was.
According to the story, in 1885 a boy bitten by dogs with the disease came for help. Until then, the scientist had only tested the
results of his research with dogs and, furthermore, not being a doctor, he risked facing legal consequences if something went wrong.
Faced with the boy's certain death and, after consulting other colleagues, Pasteur decided to use his vaccine. Luckily, the treatment
worked and the boy made a full recovery.

Research on fermentation
Closely related to pasteurization, this discovery took him several years in the 1950s. He was the first to demonstrate that
fermentation was initiated by living organisms, specifically yeasts.

Importance of temperature in controlling bacterial growth

His research with chickens was not only important for the development of the vaccine. They also helped him observe how
temperature was important for the growth of bacteria.
Pasteur observed that anthrax did not survive in the blood of these birds and discovered that it was because their blood is at a
higher temperature than that of other mammals.

Rediscovered anaerobiosis
In 1857, while studying fermentation, Pasteur discovered that the process could be stopped by introducing air into the fluid.
With this observation he came to the conclusion that there was a form of life capable of existing even without oxygen. Thus, he
developed the concepts of aerobic life and anaerobic life.
On the practical side, this led to the development of the so-called Pasteur Effect, which inhibits fermentation through oxygen.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF GREGOR MENDEL

He is the father of Genetics

Although the science of genetics as we know it today was born several decades after
Mendel's death, his studies on plant hybridization set the most important precedent for
understanding how genes, inheritance, phenotypes, etc. work.
Mendel explained in his studies the existence of certain "elements" – today known as
genes – that are transmitted from generation to generation according to laws and that
are present even if they were not manifested in the form of traits.

He proposed new research methods

By the time Mendel presented his ideas about hybridization to the public, his studies did
not receive the attention they deserved.
Although the research method was controversial and unorthodox because it added
Mendel's knowledge of biology, physics and mathematics, for most scientists it was an
irrelevant novelty.
His way of explaining nature with mathematics was something new at that time
although today it is considered a basic principle of science.

He experimented with peas to propose broader theses

Mendel was trying to discover how the inheritance of certain characteristics worked in
hybrid beings. That is why he chose the pea plant as his research model.
He observed that some of them were green and others yellow, smooth, wrinkled or had violet or white flowers, and that these
characteristics were transmitted from generation to generation following a mathematical pattern.
The information gathered in these experiments was published in 1865 but went unnoticed.

Creator of the laws of inheritance

The basis and support of modern genetics are "Mendel's Laws." There are three basic principles of inheritance discovered in
experiments done with peas:
  Law of uniformity: if two pure breeds are crossed (a homozygous dominant with a recessive one) for a certain trait, the
descendants of the first generation will all be equal to each other, phenotypically and genotypically, and phenotypically
equal to one of the parents (of genotype dominant).
 Law of segregation: during the formation of gametes, each allele of a pair separates from the other member to
determine the genetic constitution of the filial gamete.
 Law of independent combination: different traits are inherited independently of each other, there is no relationship
between them.

Predicted the existence of genes

Mendel, due to the scientific moment of his time, could not fully explain why certain characteristics of plants remained hidden but
emerged in later generations, however his third law is a glimpse of what we today call recessive genes and dominant genes .
Dominant genes are manifested in the individual, while recessive genes, although not manifested, can be transmitted to descendant
individuals.

He made the first scientific description of a tornado

Although Mendel is famous for his work related to inheritance and hybridization, he was also a respected meteorologist.
In 1871 he made the first scientific description of a tornado that had caused considerable damage to the city of Brno in October of
the previous year. Furthermore, he used the same scientific method to make climate predictions.
In 2002, a Stevenson screen (a box that houses meteorological instruments) was recovered, believed to have been used by Mendel
to study the climate. He also founded the Austrian Meteorological Society

Conducted beekeeping experiments

Mendel was also interested in the breeding and hybridization of bees. The last ten years of his life he carried out experiments with
various breeds of bees in order to understand if his mathematical model of inheritance could also be applied to other living beings .
For several years he built special cages and imported bee species from various places around the world to observe their
characteristics. In 1871 he was appointed president of the Brno Beekeeping Association.
MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF THOMAS HUNT MORGAN

The Genetics of Drosophila Melanogaster

One of the most significant works that Morgan carried out was the use in genetics of the fruit fly, whose scientific name is Drosophila
Melanogaster . With this fly, Morgan carried out genetic studies of great importance at the beginning of the 20th century.
Fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster

Among the reasons that Morgan had for carrying out his work with this organism were the possibility of cultivating the fly in
laboratories in a relatively simple way, its short generation time and the ease of observing its physical characteristics.

His work with Drosophila led Morgan to demonstrate that genes were transmitted in chromosomes and that these genes are
responsible for the hereditary phenomenon.

This fly continues to be used in current biology work. Thanks to this, it has been possible to elucidate several cellular functions such
as signaling pathways.
Furthermore, this organism has established itself as a key genetic system for the study of genetic disorders in fields as current as
neurobiology.

You may be interested in The 65 Most Famous and Important Scientists in History .

Theory of inheritance and chromosomes

Another of Thomas Morgan's works of great importance, and which led him to be awarded the Nobel Prize, were his studies on the
relationship between chromosomes and the phenomenon of heredity.

Among these works, Morgan proposed a fundamental theory for modern genetics. According to this theory, chromosomes carry the
genetic material in cells. Thanks to this, it was possible to accurately explain the mechanics of Mendel's laws .

One of Morgan's most important works related to this theory was his description of the phenomena of genetic linkage, according to
which two “linked” genes, that is, those that are close within the same chromosome, tend to be inherited together. during cellular
meiosis.

After observing Mendelian inheritance patterns occurring in Drosophila flies over several generations, Morgan first described
heritable characteristics linked to sex chromosomes.

Morgan also laid the foundation for the theory of chromosomal crossing over. Based on his experimental results, Morgan
established some hypotheses in which he described the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes during sexual
reproduction.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF ALEXANDER FLEMING

Healing war wounds

Between 1914 and 1918, Fleming was working alongside his mentor, Sir Almroth
Wright, at a military hospital in Bolougne, France.
The Great War left terrible consequences among the Allied troops, and both were
looking for ways to achieve the recovery of the greatest number of men in a time
where a simple wound could lead to death.
Fleming focused on the performance of the antiseptics used at that time. Their
research demonstrated that these products worsened the conditions of deeper
wounds, damaging the cells responsible for defending the body against the bacteria
that cause gangrene and tetanus.
Although the study was controversial and widely questioned, it constituted a crucial
contribution to the treatment of patients in subsequent wars.

Lysozyme as an antibacterial enzyme

In 1920, Fleming was observing the reaction of a culture of bacteria on which a drop of nasal fluid, that is, mucus, had fallen.
The event, although hilarious, made him see that these bacteria had died right in the place where the drop fell.
Two years later he would publish the formal research, where he discovered the uses of lysozyme to combat certain types of bacteria,
without damaging human cells.
Today lysozyme is used in the treatment of oropharyngeal infections and certain viral diseases, as well as to stimulate some
reactions in the body and to contribute to the action of antibiotics or chemotherapy drugs.
Although it is found in human fluids such as tears, mucus, hair and nails, it is currently extracted artificially from egg whites.

Penicillin: the most important antibiotic in history

One of the most famous fables in the history of science had its origin when Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1927. He had
returned from a long vacation with his family to find his laboratory quite a mess.
A staphylococcus culture was full of mold, but Fleming instead of discarding it wanted to observe it under his microscope.
Surprisingly, the mold had eliminated all the bacteria in its path.
A more thorough investigation allowed him to find the substance he himself called penicillin. This powerful element would become
one of the first effective antibiotics against diseases that could be fatal at the time, such as scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and
gonorrhea.
His work was published in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology.

Improvement of penicillin
Although Fleming had all the answers, he could not isolate the most important component, penicillin, from mold cultures, much less
produce it in high concentrations.
It was not until 1940 that a team of biochemical experts at Oxford managed to find the correct molecular structure of penicillin:
Ernst Boris Chain and Edward Abraham, under the tutelage of Howard Florey.
Later, another scientist named Norman Heatey proposed the technique that would allow the substance to be purified and mass
produced.
After many clinical and manufacturing tests, penicillin was commercially distributed in 1945.
Fleming was always modest about his role in this story, giving most credit to his fellow Nobel Laureates, Chain and Florey; However,
its immense contribution to research is more than clear.

Antibiotic resistance
Long before any other scientist, Alexander Fleming had come up with the idea that incorrect use of antibiotics has
counterproductive effects on the body, causing bacteria to become increasingly resistant to the medication.
After the commercialization of penicillin, the microbiologist dedicated himself to emphasizing in multiple speeches and conferences
that the antibiotic should not be consumed unless it is really necessary, and that if it is done, the dose should not be very light, nor
should it be taken in too short a period.
This incorrect use of the medication only allows the disease-causing bacteria to become stronger, worsening the patients' condition
and making their recovery more difficult.
Fleming could not have been more right, and in fact, today this remains one of the lessons that doctors tend to emphasize the most.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF ROSALIND FRANKLIN

Rosalind Franklin used a technique called x-ray crystallography to discover the three-dimensional shape of molecules. She applied
this technique to different samples. Early in his career he worked in coal and coal. Later he began to work on biological topics. She
made important contributions to the discovery of the shape of DNA.

After his work on this molecule, he also provided new insights into the first virus to be discovered: the tobacco mosaic virus. She
thought the virus might be hollow and only consist of a strand of RNA. Although no proof existed at the time, it turned out that he
was right. Unfortunately, this was not confirmed until after his death.

In 1962, James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins won the Nobel Prize for discovering the shape of DNA. Photo 51 was an X-
ray diffraction image that provided them with some crucial data. It was only after seeing this photo that Watson and Crick realized
that DNA must have a double helix structure.

The problem was that Photo 51 was taken by Rosalind Franklin. Maurice Wilkins, a colleague, had shown this image to Watson and
Crick without even telling them. This added to the tension at the time of the discovery of DNA. Unlike his colleagues, Franklin did not
receive a Nobel Prize for his contributions to this important discovery. She died in 1958 and the Nobel Prize cannot be awarded
posthumously.

While much of Rosalind Franklin's work used X-ray crystallography, she also used other X-ray diffraction techniques. His famous DNA
image called Photo 51 was made using an X-ray technique that did not require the sample to be in crystal form. She used this
method since DNA, like other large molecules, does not like to form a crystal. Instead, DNA prefers to form organized fibers.

Photo 51 still shows the classic diffraction pattern, but in this case the sample still contained water and was not a crystal. Rosalind
Franklin made a crucial contribution to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA, but some would say she got a raw deal.
Biographer Brenda Maddox called her the “Dark Lady of DNA,” based on a disparaging reference to Franklin by one of her
coworkers.

Unfortunately, this negative naming undermined the positive impact of his discovery. In fact, Franklin is in the shadows of the history
of science, since although his work on DNA was crucial to the discovery of its structure, his contribution to that historic discovery is
little known.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF LYNN MARGULIS

Theory of serial endosymbiosis

This is one of Margulis's most important contributions to science . According to their studies, eukaryotic cells (those of animals,
plants or fungi) come from the incorporation of prokaryotic cells (bacteria).

According to Margulis, these prokaryotes become part of the mitochondria , chloroplasts and other organelles.

The researcher was not able to completely close her theory, since the hypothesis of the incorporation of spirochetes is not
considered proven. It was precisely what he was trying to demonstrate when he died.

Symbiogenesis theory

It is the other great theory proposed by Margulis and was quite controversial when confronted with some of the approaches
established by evolution scholars.

The author stated that the complex organisms that are presented as the final steps of the evolutionary system are composed of
communities of less complex beings that survive.
Specifically, his hypothesis pointed to bacteria as those responsible for the final complexity of organisms.

While traditionally multicellular organisms (animals, plants, etc.) were considered individual beings, Margulis stated that they were
communities of cells that organized themselves, being the true driving force of evolution.

This theory contradicted the most established studies on evolutionary synthesis. Among the classic postulates that he criticized was
gradualism, since for Margulis symbiogenetic processes were abrupt and occurred in relatively short periods of time.

Gaia Hypothesis

Although Margulis was not its creator, she did support and collaborate in extending the so-called Gaia hypothesis developed by
Lovelock. In addition, he contributed his own vision, pointing out bacteria as those primarily responsible for the chemical
transformations that occur in the biosphere.

This hypothesis indicates that it is life itself that has modified the conditions of the Earth. Instead of following the classical approach
that indicated that life had appeared because the planet had certain favorable characteristics, the followers of Gaia affirmed that
living beings were responsible for the changes that make the Earth unique in the system. solar.

In this way, the hypothesis maintains that the environment and life are continuously interacting, forming a whole regardless of
whether it is organic or inorganic matter.
MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF JAMES WATSON AND FRANCIS CRICK

Many scientific discoveries were made in the 20th century, however, the most important was that of the deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) molecule discovered by Francis Crick and James Watson. The contribution of these two scientists was the double helix
structure or also spiral staircase that allowed us to deepen our knowledge about life on Earth.

Due to his discoveries, he allowed the development of molecular biology and a great contribution to science above other important
researchers. The images obtained by Rosalind Franklin's X-rays allowed the discovery of the molecule, thus producing the
subsequent development of genetics and biology in terms of cellular functioning and hereditary transmission.

In this way, with its molecular structure it was possible to realize that it was capable of manufacturing the proteins of an organism,
as well as possessing the hereditary traits that are transmissible from parents and children in each generation. Thanks to this, they
were later able to confirm their studies with the human genome, which gave rise to paternity tests, cloning, prenatal examinations,
genetically modified foods, genetic therapies and the detection of hereditary diseases.
So Francis Crick is one of the most brilliant scientists in the world due to his discovery and also the collaboration of other colleagues;
Once he had discovered the molecule, he began to be interested in more difficult problems such as consciousness and although his
first studies were in Physics, he became a great biologist after his research.

It should be noted that his contribution was born from the physical-chemical bases of life, this is how his studies become important
for the knowledge of living beings and the functioning of cells, in addition to predicting DNA duplication.

Although many people believe in the origin of life through the divine and/or spiritual, Francis Crick finds a justification for this
through science, stating that what they call “soul” has its explanation by neuronal activity. .

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF IAN WILMUT AND KEITH CAMPBELL

In February 1997, scientist Ian Wilmut announced the birth of a sheep that was named Dolly, named after country singer Dolly
Parton. Unlike previous clones, Dolly was created from the fusion of an egg with the mammary cell of an adult sheep, creating a
genetic replica of the original animal.

66% is the percentage attributed to biologist Keith Campbell in the process of creating Dolly the sheep, the first mammal cloned
through adult cells.

Campbell, always discreet, appeared as one of the four signatories. It was later, in 2006, that Wilmut quantified his colleague's merit.

Keith Campbell and the rest of his Roslin colleagues were opposed to human cloning from the beginning, although they supported
research into embryonic cells for therapeutic purposes.

The announcement caused a sensation, causing fears in the general public, given the possibility that cloning a human being would be
the next step, which Wilmut opposes.

Scientific contribution
The scientific achievement has opened the doors to the field of therapeutic cloning and the replication of animal embryos for
research purposes.

Animal cloning offers the promise of significant development for medicine, it has also been discovered that proteins found in the
cells of pigs, for example, are identical to those found in human cells, and may allow production of proteins necessary for the
treatment of hemophilia, or even the synthesis of donor organs for human transplant patients. Dairy and wool producers can also
benefit from cloning the best varieties of cows and sheep.