Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Simón Rodríguez National Experimental University

Nucleus: Barquisimeto

Introduction to data processing

Barquisimeto, September 2015

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Simón Rodríguez National Experimental University
 Nucleus: Barquisimeto

Basics of data processing

PARTICIPANTS:
Mendoza Rosmer. IC 21.140.853

Barquisimeto, September 2015

Introduction

Since ancient times, man has been processing data. It is very likely that
primitive man used his fingers to carry out very simple operations and store all the
possible information in his memory, so it was necessary to use all the means that
would allow him to solve slightly more complicated operations, such as the case of
the abacus which, in fact, was one of the first inventions. That is why data
processing is the Technique that consists of the collection of primary input data,
which are evaluated and organized, to obtain useful information, which will then be
analyzed by the end user, so that they can make decisions or carry out the actions
you deem appropriate.

Evolution of data processing

The United States Census Bureau illustrates the evolution of data

processing from manual to electronic data processing.
 Manual data processing
Although widespread use of the term data processing only dates back to the
1950s, data processing functions have been performed manually for millennia. For
example, accounting involves functions such as sending transactions and
producing reports such as the balance sheet and cash flow statement. Completely
manual methods were augmented by the application of mechanical or electronic
calculators . A person whose job was to perform calculations manually or using a
calculator is called a " computer ."
The 1850 United States Census was the first to collect individual rather than
household data. A series of questions can be answered by placing a check in the
appropriate box on the form. From 1850 to 1880 the Census Bureau used a
computer system, which, due to the increasing number of combinations of
classifications required, became increasingly complex. Only a limited number of
combinations can be recorded in one count, so it was necessary to run the
programs 5 or 6 times, for so many independent counts." "It took more than 7
years to publish the results of the 1880 census" using manual processing methods.
Automatic data processing
The term automatic data processing refers to operations performed by
means of unitary record keeping equipment, such as the punch card system
created by Herman Hollerith based on Boolean logic , used to conduct the 1890
United States Census , the Census Bureau was able to complete the tabulation of
most 1890 census data in 2 to 3 years, compared to 7 to 8 years for the 1880
census. It is also estimated that using Herman Hollerith 's system saved about $5
million in processing costs" (in 1890) even with twice as many questions as in
1880. It was not applied until 1990.
Electronic data processing
Computerized data processing, or electronic data processing represents the
further evolution, with the computer taking the place of several independent pieces
of equipment. The Census Bureau first made limited use of electronic equipment
for the 1950 United States Census, with the use of the UNIVAC I.
The subsequent evolution
The term long-term data processing has been subsumed under the newer,
more general term information technology (IT). Data processing has acquired a
negative connotation, suggesting the use of older technologies. As an example, in
1996 the Data Processing Management Association (" DPMA ") changed its name
to the Information Technology Professionals Association. However, the terms are
almost synonymous.
Applications:
Business data processing
Main article: Electronic data processing

Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively

few computational operations, and a large volume of output. For example, an
insurance company has to keep track of tens or hundreds of thousands of policies,
print and mail invoices, and receive and send payments.
Data analysis
In a field of science or engineering, the terms data processing and
information systems are considered too broad and the more specialized term data
analysis is typically used. Data analysis makes use of specialized, high-precision
algorithms and statistical calculations that are less frequently observed in the
typical general business environment.
A cultural divergence between data processing and data analysis is shown
by the numerical representations generally used; in data processing,
measurements are typically stored as integer, fixed-point, or binary-coded decimal
representations of data. numbers, while most measurements in data analysis are
stored as floating-point representations of rational numbers. For data analysis,
packages such as SPSS or SAS , their free equivalents such as DAP , gretl or
PSPP , are often used.
Data

Data is a symbolic representation (numerical, alphabetical, algorithmic,

spatial, etc.) of a quantitative or qualitative attribute or variable. The data describe
empirical facts, events and institutions. It is a value or reference that the computer
receives through different means. The data represents the information that the
programmer manipulates in the construction of a solution or in the development of
an algorithm.
Data in isolation may not contain humanly relevant information. Only when a
set of data is examined together in the light of an approach, hypothesis or theory
can the information contained in that data be appreciated. Data may consist of
numbers, statistics, or descriptive propositions. Appropriately grouped, structured
and interpreted data are considered to be the basis of humanly relevant
information that can be used in making decisions, reducing uncertainty or
performing calculations. It is very common in the computer science field and, in
general, in practically any research. In programming , a data is the general
expression that describes the characteristics of the entities on which an algorithm
operates. In Data Structure , it is the minimum part of the information.
Data by itself does not constitute information, it is the processing of data that
provides us with information.

Introduction to data types

The type of a data is the set of values that it can take during the program. If
you try to give it a value outside of the set, an error will occur.

Typing data has two main purposes:

 On the one hand, detect errors in operations

 On the other hand, determine how to execute these operations

Pascal is said to be a strongly typed language. This means that all data
must have an explicitly declared type, and also that there are certain restrictions on
expressions regarding the data types involved in them.

An advantage of strongly typed languages is that much less effort is spent

debugging (correcting) programs thanks to the large number of errors that the
compiler detects.

Data types, like almost all Pascal objects, can be declared. Type declaration
was already discussed in the topic corresponding to the structure of a program .

Classifications in data types

In Pascal there are a great variety and quantity of data types. But in this
tutorial we will only cover the basics so that you can build your first programs.

There are many classifications for data types, and depending on the source you
look at, they will show you one or the other. Below you have one of the possible
classifications.

 Dynamic
 Static
o The chain type
o Structured
o Simple
  Ordinals
 Non-ordinal

static type

Almost all data types are static, the exception is pointers and they will not be
discussed due to their complexity.

That a data type is static means that the size it occupies in memory cannot
vary during the execution of the program. That is, once Once a variable of a certain
type is declared , it is assigned a fixed chunk of memory, and this chunk cannot be
increased or decreased.

dynamic types

Only the pointer type falls into this category. This type allows you to have
greater control over memory management in your programs. With them you can
manage the size of your variables at run time, that is, when the program is running.

Pointers are perhaps the most complex concept when learning a

programming language, especially if it is the first one you learn. Because of this,
we will not deal with it. Furthermore, languages that are very fashionable (for
example Java) do not allow the programmer to work with pointers.

Simple types

As their name indicates, they are the basic types in Pascal. They are the
simplest and the easiest to learn. For all this, they will be the ones we focus on.

The most basic simple types are: integer , logical , character and real . And
most programming languages support them, unlike structured ones that can vary
from one language to another.

Structured types

While a variable of a simple type only refers to an element, structured ones

refer to collections of elements.
 The collections of elements that appear when talking about structured types
are very varied: we have ordered collections that are represented by the array
type, unordered collections by the set type, and even collections that contain other
types, they are called records.

Ordinal types

Within the simple types, the ordinal ones are the most abundant. A type is
said to be ordinal because the set of values it represents can be counted, that is,
we can establish a one-to-one relationship between its elements and the set of
natural numbers.

Within the simple ordinal types, the most important are:

 The integer type ( integer )

 The logical type ( boolean )
 The character type ( chart )

Non-ordinal types

Simplifying, we could reduce the simple non-ordinal types to the type real .
This type helps us declare variables that can take values within the set of real
numbers.

Unlike ordinal types, non-ordinal types cannot be counted. A one-to-one

relationship cannot be established between them and the natural numbers. In other
words, for a set to be considered ordinal, it must be possible to calculate the
position, the previous element and the next of any element of the set. What is the
successor to 5.12? It will be 5.13, or 5.120, or 5.121,...

Information and feature

It is an organized set of processed data , which constitute a message that

changes the state of knowledge of the subject or system that receives said
message. There are various approaches to the study of information:

 In biology , information is considered as a sensory stimulus that affects the

behavior of individuals.
 In computing and information theory , as a measure of the complexity of a data
set.
 In social communication and journalism, as a set of messages exchanged by
individuals in a society with specific organizational purposes.
Sensory data, once perceived and processed, constitute information that
changes the state of knowledge , allowing individuals or systems that have said
new state of knowledge to make relevant decisions in accordance with said
knowledge.
From the point of view of computer science, information is explicit
knowledge extracted by living beings or expert systems as a result of interaction
with the environment or sensitive perceptions of the same environment. In
principle, information, unlike sensitive data or perceptions, has a useful structure
that will modify the successive interactions of the person who possesses said
information with his or her environment.
Main characteristics of the information
In general, the information has an internal structure and can be qualified
according to several characteristics:

 Meaning (semantics): What does it mean? From the meaning extracted from
information, each individual evaluates the possible consequences and adapts
their attitudes and actions in accordance with the foreseeable consequences
that are deduced from the meaning of the information. This refers to what rules
the individual or expert system must follow to modify their future expectations
about each possible alternative.
 Importance (relative to the receiver): Does it address an important issue? The
importance of information for a recipient will refer to the degree to which it
changes the attitude or behavior of individuals. In modern societies, individuals
obtain a large amount of information from the mass media , a large part of it is
of little importance to them, because it alters the behavior of individuals in a
very insignificant way. This refers to to what quantitative degree future
expectations should be altered. Sometimes it is known that a fact makes some
things less probable and others more probable; the importance has to do with
how much less probable some alternatives will be compared to the others.
 Validity (in the space-time dimension): Is it current or outdated? In practice, the
validity of information is difficult to evaluate, since in general accessing
information does not allow us to immediately know whether said information is
valid or not. This has to do with the synchronization in time of the signals that
allow expectations to be reassessed with the expectations at a given moment.
 Validity (relative to the issuer): Is the issuer reliable or can it provide invalid
(false) information? This has to do with whether the cues should be considered
 in the reevaluation of expectations or should be ignored because they are not
reliable cues.
 Value (volatile intangible asset ): How useful is it to the recipient?
Data processing

Data processing is, generally, "the collection and manipulation of data elements to
produce meaningful information."
Data processing is a subset of information processing , "the changing (processing)
of information in any way detectable by an observer. Data processing is different
from text processing , as the latter manipulates texts instead of data.
Data Processing Functions
Data processing may involve various functions, including:

 " Validation " - Ensure that the data provided is "clean, correct and useful."
 Sorting - "Orders elements in a certain sequence and/or into different sets."
 Recapitulation - reducing the details of the data to its main points.
 Aggregation – combining multiple pieces of data.
 " Analysis " - the "collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and
presentation of data."
 Information - detailed list or summary of computerized information data.

Data Processing Cycle

 The stages for Data Processing are as follows:

a. Entrance :

 The data must be obtained and taken to a central block to be processed.

The data in this case, called input, is classified to make the process easy
and fast.
b. Process:

 During the process, the necessary operations will be executed to convert

the data into meaningful information. When the information is complete, the
output operation will be executed, in which a report is prepared that will
serve as a basis for making decisions.
c. Exit:

 In all data processing, the administration of output results is considered as

an additional activity, which can be defined as the processes necessary for
useful information to reach the user.
 The control function ensures that the data is being processed correctly.

What Data Processing Methods Are There?

 The different processing methods and are related to technological

advancement. The alternatives presented may be chosen, depending on the
speed with which they are needed and the investment in money required to
obtain them.

 The types of processing that exist are the following:

a. Manual process:

 This is the oldest process and involves the use of human resources, such as
performing mental calculations, recording data with pencil and paper, sorting
and classifying manually. This results in a slow and error-prone process
throughout all stages or activities of the processing cycle. Finally the results
are expressed in written form, creating large volumes of stored written
information. As an example, we can have the academic evaluation in a
school, where the teacher manually records, with a pen, the students'
evaluation notes in a table called registry, and then obtains the averages
through manual arithmetic calculations, leaving all this information stored in
your registry.
b. Mechanical Process

 Consider the use of recording machines and calculators, such as the

abacus and slide rules, replacing to some extent the manual calculation
process. This has as a logical consequence the lightening of work in relation
to the process and the reduction of errors, but maintains the disadvantage of
the storage process of all the resulting information. Example: Obtaining the
time using a wind-up watch, which is a mechanical device, which internally
has a series of gears, which are duly coordinated with each other and
whose movement rotates a needle radially and proportionally to the time.
c. Electromechanical Process

 In this type of process, the link of information between the different elements
of information processing, storage and communication continues to be
carried out manually, but to carry out each of these tasks electromechanical
machines are used, with which we obtain greater efficiency. As an example,
we have the activities carried out with drilling machines, which, through the
use of electrical energy, will activate a motor, and the shaft of this motor with
 its respective adapter will allow soils to be drilled at different depths. Other
examples: video camera, photographic camera, calculators, etc.
d. Electronic Processes

 In this type of process, computers are used, so human intervention is not

required at each stage. Once the data is entered, the computer
automatically carries out the required processes and outputs the desired
result. The processes are carried out at incredibly high speeds, obtaining
reliable information. We have a practical example in the use of personal
computers used in the home, to manage daily household expenses, view
cooking recipes, and others. At work, where thanks to the PC (Personal
Computer) it allows the writing of documents and in recreation, with the use
of video games, bingos and others.

Online data processing

It involves programs being executed in such a way that data is immediately

updated in the computer files, this type of processing is also known as real time.
Real-time applications are essential in cases where the data contained in the files
is modified several times in the course of a day and is consulted almost
immediately with the modifications that were made.

A brief example, suppose you sign up for some courses through the Internet,
where you must select the courses, the teachers and the schedules that interest
you, each time you enter a record into the system through the school's Web portal
[call it a course , subject or schedule] the database where that information resides
is modified in real time. Obviously you can enter, delete or edit records according
to your needs, this is done in real time and as long as you have the corresponding
permissions.

Online processing: Unlike batch processing, online processing implies that

programs are executed in such a way that the data is immediately updated in the
computer files; real-time applications are essential in those cases. in which the
data contained in the files is modified several times in the course of a day and is
consulted almost immediately with the modifications that were made. An example
of the above is a reservation system in an airline or a group of transactions
banking.

Batch Data Processing

The execution of a program without the direct control or supervision of the

user (which is called interactive processing ) is known as a batch system (batch
processing in English), or batch mode. These types of programs are characterized
because their execution does not require any type of interaction with the user.
Generally, this type of execution is used in repetitive tasks on large sets of
information , since it would be tedious and error-prone to perform it manually. An
example would be the rendering of movie frames . Programs that execute in
batches usually specify their operation through scripts or scripts (procedures) in
which they indicate what they want to execute and, possibly, what type of
resources they need to reserve.

Files and file types

They are a set of organized data that once they are stored can be used from
different applications , these in turn are classified depending on their elements ,
their data and also the mechanism used to access them. Below is their
classification:

According to its elements there are:

Input files: These files are made up of a series of data stored on an input device .

Output files: these files contain the information that is viewed from the computer.

Situation files: These files contain information that is constantly updated.

Constant files: these files are made up of records whose fields are fixed or have a
low frequency of variation.

Historical files: are made up of data that vary over time and with information from
updated files.

Motion files: this type of files are used together with constants and have some
field in common.

Maneuver files: these are created when a program is executed and are deleted
once the execution ends, they are auxiliary.

According to the data they store there are:

Ascii: in this type of file the data is stored through simple text. This allows the data
they contain to be exchanged as well as to create files that the user himself can
modify.
Binary: this type of files, on the other hand, stores information in a language that
only the computer itself understands, for example colors , sounds, images or
commands. These files are smaller than the previous ones.
According to the mechanism used to access the files, the following are found:

Direct files: in these each record can be read and written directly. This is achieved
by expressing its address in the file.

Sequential files: in these files the records are organized sequentially in such a
way that to read one, the previous ones must have been read.
Index files: in these files the records can be accessed using the password they
have.

Records
In computing , or specifically in the context of a relational database , a
record (also called a row) represents a single object of data implicitly structured in
a table . In simple terms, a database table can be imagined as consisting of rows
and columns or fields . Each row in a table represents a set of related data, and all
rows in the same table have the same structure. A record is a set of fields that
contain data that belongs to the same entity repetition. A consecutive number
(record number) is automatically assigned, which is sometimes used as an index,
although it is normal and practical to assign each record a key field for searching.
Databases and types

A database or data bank is a set of data belonging to the same context and
systematically stored for later use. In this sense; A library can be considered a
database composed mostly of documents and texts printed on paper and indexed
for consultation. Currently, and due to the technological development of fields such
as computing and electronics , most databases are in digital format, this being an
electronic component, and therefore a wide range of solutions to the problem have
been developed and offered. of data storage.
There are programs called database management systems , DBMS for
short, that allow you to store and later access data in a quick and structured way.
The properties of these DBMSs, as well as their use and administration, are
studied within the field of computing.
The most common applications are for the management of companies and
public institutions; They are also widely used in scientific environments in order to
store experimental information.
 Although databases can contain many types of data, some of them are
protected by the laws of various countries. For example in Spain, personal data is
protected by the Organic Law on the Protection of Personal Data (LOPD), in
Mexico by the Federal Law of Transparency and Access to Government Public
Information and in Argentina the Data Protection Law Personal . 1
Databases can be classified in several ways, according to the context being
managed, their usefulness or the needs they satisfy.
Depending on the variability of the database:
Static databases
They are read-only databases, used primarily to store historical data that can later
be used to study the behavior of a data set over time, make projections , make
decisions , and perform data analysis for business intelligence .
Dynamic databases
They are databases where the stored information is modified over time, allowing
operations such as updating, deleting and editing data, in addition to fundamental
query operations. An example may be the database used in a supermarket
information system.
According to the content:
Bibliographic databases
They only contain a surrogate (representative) of the primary source, which allows
it to be located. A typical record in a bibliographic database contains information
about the author, publication date, publisher, title, edition, of a given publication,
etc. It may contain a summary or extract of the original publication, but never the
full text, because otherwise we would be in the presence of a full-text database (or
primary sources - see below). As its name indicates, the content is figures or
numbers. For example, a collection of laboratory analysis results, among others.
Full text databases
They store primary sources, such as all the content of all editions of a collection of
scientific journals.
Directories
One example are the phones guides in electronic format.
Databases or "libraries" of chemical or biological information
They are databases that store different types of information from chemistry , life
sciences or medicine . They can be considered in several subtypes:
 Those that store nucleotide or protein sequences.
 The databases of metabolic pathways.
 Structure databases, comprising records of experimental data on 3D structures
of biomolecules.
 Clinical databases.
 Bibliographic databases (biological, chemical, medical and other fields):
Puchen , Medline , EBSCOhost .
Database models
In addition to classification by database function, they can also be classified
according to their data management model.
A data model is basically a "description" of something known as a data
container (something where information is stored), as well as the methods for
storing and retrieving information from those containers. Data models are not
physical things: they are abstractions that allow the implementation of an efficient
database system; They generally refer to algorithms and mathematical concepts.
Some models frequently used in databases:
Hierarchical databases
Main article: Hierarchical database

In this model the data is organized in the form of an inverted tree (some say root),
where a parent information node can have several children. The node that has no
parents is called the root , and the nodes that have no children are known as
leaves.
Hierarchical databases are especially useful in the case of applications that
handle a large volume of information and highly shared data, allowing the creation
of stable and high-performance structures.
One of the main limitations of this model is its inability to efficiently represent data
redundancy.
Network database
Main article: Network database

This is a slightly different model from the hierarchical one; Its fundamental
difference is the modification of the node concept: the same node is allowed to
have several parents (a possibility not allowed in the hierarchical model).
It was a great improvement over the hierarchical model, as it offered an
efficient solution to the data redundancy problem; But, even so, the difficulty of
managing information in a network database has meant that it is a model used
mostly by programmers rather than end users.
 Transactional databases
They are databases whose sole purpose is to send and receive data at high
speeds. These databases are very rare and are generally aimed at the quality
analysis environment, production and industrial data. It is important to understand
that their sole purpose is to collect and recover data at the highest speed possible,
therefore redundancy and duplication of information is not a problem as with other
databases, generally in order to make the most of them they allow some type of
connectivity to databases relational.
A common example of a transaction is the transfer of an amount of money
between bank accounts. It is normally carried out through two different operations,
one in which the balance of the source account is decreased and another in which
we increase the balance of the destination account. To guarantee the atomicity of
the system (that is, so that money does not appear or disappear), the two
operations must be atomic, that is, the system must guarantee that, under any
circumstances (even a system crash), the final result is that either the two
operations have been carried out, or neither has been carried out,
Relational databases
Main article: Relational model

Main article: Relational database

This is the model currently used to represent real problems and manage
data dynamically. After its foundations were postulated in 1970 by Edgar Frank
Codd , from the IBM laboratories in San José (California) , it did not take long to
consolidate itself as a new paradigm in database models. Its fundamental idea is
the use of "relations". These relationships could logically be considered as sets of
data called " tuples ." Although this is the theory of relational databases created by
Codd, most of the time it is conceptualized in a way that is easier to imagine. This
is thinking of each relationship as if it were a table that is composed of records (the
rows of a table), which would represent the tuples, and fields (the columns of a
table).
In this model, where and how data is stored is irrelevant (unlike other
models such as hierarchical and network). This has the considerable advantage of
being easier for a casual user of the database to understand and use. Information
can be retrieved or stored using "queries" that offer extensive flexibility and power
to manage information.
The most common language to build queries to relational databases is
SQL , Structured Query Language, a standard implemented by the main engines
or relational database management systems.
 During its design, a relational database goes through a process known as
database normalization .
During the 1980s, the appearance of dbase produced a revolution in
programming languages and data management systems. Although it should never
be forgotten that dbase did not use SQL as the base language for its management.
Multidimensional databases
Main article: Multidimensional database

They are databases designed to develop very specific applications, such as

creating OLAP Cubes . Basically they are not too different from relational
databases (a table in a relational database could also be a table in a
multidimensional database), the difference is more at a conceptual level; In
multidimensional databases, the fields or attributes of a table can be of two types:
either they represent dimensions of the table, or they represent metrics that you
want to learn.
Object database
Main article: Object-oriented database

This model, quite recent, and typical of object-oriented computer models ,

tries to store complete objects (state and behavior) in the database.
An object-oriented database is a database that incorporates all the important
concepts of the object paradigm:

 Encapsulation - Property that allows information to be hidden from the rest of

the objects, thus preventing incorrect access or conflicts.
 Inheritance - Property through which objects inherit behavior within a class
hierarchy.
 Polymorphism - Property of an operation by which it can be applied to different
types of objects.
In object-oriented databases, users can define operations on data as part of the
database definition. An operation (called a function) is specified in two parts. The
interface (or signature) of an operation includes the name of the operation and the
data types of its arguments (or parameters). The implementation (or method) of the
operation is specified separately and can be modified without affecting the
interface. User application programs can operate on data by invoking those
operations through their names and arguments, regardless of how they are
implemented. This could be called independence between programs and
operations.
SQL: 2003 , is the expanded SQL92 standard, supports object-oriented concepts
and maintains compatibility with SQL92.
Documentary databases
Main article: Document database

They allow full-text indexing, and generally perform more powerful searches.
Tesauros is an index system optimized for this type of databases.
Deductive databases
A deductive database system is a database system but with the difference that it
allows deductions to be made through inferences. It is mainly based on rules and
facts that are stored in the database. Deductive databases are also called logical
databases, because they are based on mathematical logic. This type of database
arises due to the limitations of the Relational Database in responding to recursive
queries and deducing indirect relationships from the data stored in the database.
Language
It uses a subset of the Prolog language called Datalog which is declarative and
allows the computer to make inferences to answer queries based on stored facts
and rules.
Advantages

 Use of logical rules to express queries.

 Allows you to answer recursive queries.
 Has stratified denials
 Ability to obtain new information through that already stored in the database
through inference.
 Use of query optimization algorithms.
 Supports complex objects and sets.
Phases

 Interrogation Phase: is responsible for searching the database for implicitly

deducible information. The rules in this phase are called derivation rules.
 Modification Phase: is responsible for adding new deductible information to
the database. The rules in this phase are called generation rules.
Interpretation
We find two theories of interpretation of deductive databases, we consider rules
and facts as axioms. Facts are base axioms that are considered true and do not
contain variables. Rules are deductive axioms since they are used to deduce new
facts.
 Model Theory: an interpretation is called a model when for a specific set of
rules, they always hold for that interpretation. It consists of assigning to a
predicate all the combinations of values and arguments of a given domain of
constant values. Next we must verify whether that predicate is true or false.
Mechanisms
There are two inference mechanisms:

 Ascending: where you start from the facts and obtain new ones by applying
inference rules.
 Descending: where we start from the predicate (objective of the query carried
out) and try to find similarities between the variables that lead us to correct
facts stored in the database.
Distributed Database Management System (DBMS)
The database and DBMS software may be distributed across multiple sites
connected by a network. There are two types:
1. Homogeneous distributed: they use the same DBMS in multiple sites.
2. Heterogeneous distributed: Gives rise to federated DBMSs or multi-database
systems in which the participating DBMSs have a certain degree of local autonomy
and have access to several pre-existing autonomous databases stored in the
DBMSs, many of these employ a client-server.
These arise due to the physical existence of decentralized organizations. This
gives them the ability to join the databases of each location and thus access
different universities, store branches, among others.
Data processing center.

A data processing center is the set of physical, logical and human resources
necessary for the organization, execution and control of a company's computing
activities.

You can find various names referring to the data processing center, such as IT
department, data processing department, IT center, computer room or calculation
center.

Data processing center.

Functions of a CPD

Within a company, it fulfills various functions that justify the established jobs that
exist in it, these functions are the following:
 • Development of computer systems

• System or application exploration

• Technical support for users

• Management and administration of the Data Processing Center itself.

Location

A data center is a large building or room used to house a large amount of

electronic equipment. They are usually created and maintained by large
organizations in order to have access to the information necessary for their
operations. For example, a bank may have a data center with the purpose of
storing all the data of its clients and the operations they carry out on their accounts.
Virtually all medium or large companies have some type of CPD, while the largest
companies have several.

Among the most important factors that motivate the creation of a CPD, we can
highlight guaranteeing the continuity of service to clients, employees, citizens,
suppliers and collaborating companies, since in these areas the physical protection
of computer or communications equipment is very important. involved, as well as
database servers that may contain critical information.

Design

The design of a data processing center begins with the choice of its geographical
location , and requires a balance between various factors:

 Economic cost: cost of land, municipal taxes, insurance, etc.

 Infrastructure available nearby: electricity, roads, electricity connections,
telecommunications switchboards, firefighters, etc.
 Risk: possibility of floods, fires, theft, earthquakes, etc.
Once the geographical location has been selected, it is necessary to find suitable
premises for its purpose, whether it is a newly built premises or an existing one to
buy or rent. Some requirements of the dependencies are:
 Double electrical connection.
 Loading and unloading dock.
 Forklifts and wide doors.
 Sufficient plant height.
 Safety measures in case of fire or flood: drains, fire extinguishers, escape routes,
fireproof doors, etc.
 Air conditioning, taking into account that it will be used for cooling computer
equipment.
 Warehouses.
 Orientation with respect to the sun (if facing outside).
Even when the appropriate premises are available, some deployment of
infrastructure inside is always necessary:
 False floors and false ceilings.
 Network and telephone wiring .
 Double electrical wiring.
 Generators and electrical distribution boards.
 Room conditioning.
 Installation of alarms, temperature and humidity control with SNMP or SMTP
notifications.
 Ease of access (since you have to put heavy air conditioners, large server
furniture, etc.) in it.
An especially important part of these infrastructures are those intended for the
physical security of the facility, which includes:
 Electromagnetic locks.
 Turnstiles.
 Security cameras.
 Motion detectors.
 ID cards.
Once the cabin has been conditioned, the computers, local area networks, etc. are
installed. This task requires a logical design of networks and environments,
especially in security areas. Some actions are:
 Creation of demilitarized zones ( DMZ ).
 Segmentation of local networks and creation of virtual networks ( VLAN ).
 Deployment and configuration of network electronics: gateways , walkers ,
switches , etc.
 Creation of exploitation, pre-exploitation, application development and network
management environments.
 Creation of the storage network.
 Installation and configuration of servers and peripherals.
IT Staff

In a data processing center there are various jobs for the different areas and
functions carried out there. The classification presented below cannot be rigorous
due to the many nuances that occur in IT personnel, depending on the type of
company, size of the data processing center and the type and volume of
applications carried out.

Typical positions in a data center are as follows:

IT Director: He is the person most responsible, he is in charge of the selection,
election, structure and direction of the personnel and equipment of the data
processing center, he coordinates all the work carried out and controls the
budgets.

Area and development manager: He is responsible for the creation and

development of new systems and applications. Among its missions are
coordinating and distributing the personnel under its charge among the different
projects.

Project Manager Reporting directly to the head of the development area, his
mission consists of directing a computer project from the specifications and needs
of users to its exploitation.

Systems technicians Their fundamental mission is in-depth knowledge of the

equipment and the operating system, in charge of imposing security restrictions on
IT staff and users.

Database administration He is the manager of the system's databases, in charge

of facilitating personal computer use and advising area heads, project managers
and analysts on it.

Systems administration Its mission is to control, in a specific operating system in

the data processing center, the permissions, priorities and privileges of the IT staff
and users with respect to said operating system.

Analysts Based on user requirements and under the orders of the project
manager, they must carry out the analysis of the applications and help the
programmers in their development.

Programmers They receive the analysis of the applications from the analysts and,
based on it, they design the diagram or pseudocode, encoding it in the chosen
language, and are also responsible for creating the documentation aimed at the
user.

Operators They are responsible for the direct operation and operation of the
system, execution of processes, preparation of supports, peripherals and
necessary materials.
 Conclusion

Information technology is transforming economic and daily activities as one

of the most important sociological phenomena of the century. For this reason, the
levels of job opportunities are increasing rapidly in different areas of knowledge.
Unquestionably, computers have already invaded each and every one of the fields
of human activity: science , technology, art , education , recreation ,
administration , economy and according to the current trend, our civilization and
those to come will depend more and more on these electronic "brains". The speed
of change in the environment of almost all organizations has been accelerating,
which is why they now need more information to support decision making.
Although educational entities have been neglected in this aspect, there is currently
a certain interest in the implementation of strategies that interest students and
teachers in learning techniques that aim to massify and implement the use of
databases in the short term. of data, data and information networks and cutting-
edge computer technology as basic tools for current and new professionals in the
country. To respond to the challenges posed by the new global economic and
technological situation, a dynamic is promoted to publicize the elements necessary
to be at the forefront in this field.