METHODOLOGY OF THE

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
PROF. DR. MARTIN MAIDANA

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 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
• Identify the process of scientific research as a tool
to develop their research activities and as
professionals in the future.
• Know the scientific methodology, acquire skills in
searching for information related to the problem
investigated

• Awaken students' interest in research.

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 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
• Apply the theories internalized during the
theoretical development of the scientific research
methodology in the preliminary research project.

• Know both legal and ethical issues about your

actions as a researcher and acquire teamwork
skills.

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 RATIONALE
• Scientific research is the activity that allows us to
obtain scientific knowledge, that is, objective,
systematic, clear, organized and verifiable
knowledge.
• Research Methodology constitutes an area of basic
and unavoidable knowledge in the training of
students in any higher-level university degree; it
provides them with the theoretical instruments
that they will apply in the development of research
processes that will lead to the generation of
technological information that contribute to
solving the problems of today's society. 4
 RATIONALE
• The basic purpose of this subject will be to
facilitate and train students in the management of
fundamental techniques and methods that serve as
an appropriate research instrument for the
preparation of the Final Degree Project.

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 CONTENT OF THE MATTER

• 1. General aspects of scientific research

• 2. Steps in the scientific research process
• 3. Analysis and interpretation of
institutional regulations related to
research

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 FORM OF DEVELOPMENT
• EXHIBITION BY THE PROFESSOR OF THE SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH PROCESS.
• DIRECTED DISCUSSION TO CONSOLIDATE
KNOWLEDGE OF EACH STEP OF THE PROCESS.
• GROUP WORK FOR PREPARATION OF EACH STEP
OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS.
• EXPOSURE OF THE GROUPS TO THE CLASS AND
DISCUSSION TO CONSOLIDATE UNDERSTANDING.
• PRESENTATION AND CORRECTION BY GROUP OF
THE RESEARCH PROJECT.

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 EVALUATION SYSTEM

• Three partial exams of the theoretical aspects With

100 points each.
• Class attendance and presentation of the steps of
the research process 50 points
• Presentation and defense of the preliminary
research project 50 points

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 CHAPTER I: GENERAL ASPECTS

• KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION PROCESS:

- BASED ON COMMON SENSE
- BASED ON SCIENCE

■ TYPE OF KNOWLEDGE
- VULGAR KNOWLEDGE
- SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

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 GENERAL FEATURES
• WHAT IS SCIENCE?
- ACCORDING TO SIERRA BRAVO: The organized
set of knowledge about reality and obtained
through the scientific method.
- ACCORDING TO DENDALUCE : Rigorous,
methodical and systematic mode of knowledge
that aims to optimize the information available
regarding problems of theoretical and/or practical
origin.
- ACCORDING TO BUNGE : Science is not an
aggregate of unconnected information, but a
system of ideas logically connected to each other.
 GENERAL FEATURES
• Science uses different methods and
techniques for the acquisition and
organization of knowledge about the
structure of a set of objective facts
accessible to various observers,
• In addition to being based on a criterion of
truth and permanent correction

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• CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE .
• The main characteristics of science and
scientific knowledge.
• Rationality .
Rationality means that science and scientific
knowledge are rational, appeal to reason and
are constituted by concepts, propositions and
ratiocinations combined and ordered
according to logical rules and norms.

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• OBJECTIVITY .
It means that scientific knowledge seeks
to be independent of the tastes,
prejudices and passions of the
researcher, that there is evidence
obtained from the facts through
observation and experimentation for
each scientific assertion, and these can
be corroborated or verified by other
researchers .
• GENERALITY .
It states general aspects, groups and classifies
particular facts and looks for their essential
qualities and their constant relationships in
order to generalize, it ignores the isolated
fact, therefore science does not use empirical
data that are isolated or singular but rather
converts them into theoretical structures.

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• Systematization .
• Science is a system of interconnected and logical
ideas, and every system of ideas is a basic set of
peculiar hypotheses that seek to adapt to a certain
kind of fact.

• The systematic character of scientific knowledge is

found precisely in the fact that it is founded,
ordered and coherent.

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 Analysis
• Research decomposes a whole into parts in
order to discover its internal mechanism
responsible for the observed phenomena, but
this decomposition of the mechanism does
not end there, but rather an examination and
analysis of all its interconnected parts is
carried out.

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 THE CIENTIFIC METHOD
• According to Bunge: It is a way of treating
intellectual problems, not things, nor instruments,
nor men; Consequently, it can be used in all fields
of knowledge.
• Set of steps established in advance by a discipline
in order to achieve valid knowledge through
reliable instruments.
• Standard sequence for asking and answering a
question.
• Guideline that allows researchers to go from point
A to point Z with the confidence of obtaining valid
knowledge.
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 CONCEPT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
• Research is a systematic, controlled , empirical and
critical process whose main objective is to produce
knowledge and solve practical problems.
• It is a process because it constitutes a set of steps
derived from each other.
• It is systematic because it complements the set of
ideas of each science
• It is controlled because there is constant concern
about the factors involved in the events.

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• It is empirical because it begins with the
observation of facts of reality, and
• It is a critical process because it objectively judges
the facts, leaving personal preferences and value
judgments aside.
• Scientific research is the search for
knowledge or solutions to problems of a
scientific and cultural nature. It is the
intentional search for knowledge or solutions
to problems.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH
• Basic research : It is usually carried out in laboratories . It
contributes to the expansion of scientific knowledge,
creating new theories or modifying existing ones.
• Applied research : it is the use of knowledge in practice, to
apply it, in most cases, for the benefit of society .
• Field research : This is applied research to understand and
solve a situation, need or problem in a specific context.
The researcher works in the natural environment in which
people live and the sources consulted, from which the
most relevant data to be analyzed will be obtained, are
individuals, groups and representations of scientific
organizations.

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 RESEARCH APPROACHES
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
• It uses data collection and analysis to answer
research questions and test previously established
hypotheses and relies on numerical measurement,
counting, and often the use of statistics to
accurately establish patterns of behavior in a
population.

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 QUALITATIVE APPROACH
• It is usually used first to discover and remove
research questions and does not necessarily test
hypotheses.
• It often relies on data collection methods without
numerical measurement, such as descriptions and
observations.
• Its purpose is to “reconstruct” reality, as observed
by the actors of a previously defined social system.

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Quantitative research offers us:
• The possibility of generalizing the results
more widely
• It gives us control over the phenomena and a
point of view of counting and magnitudes of
them.
• It provides us with a great possibility of
replication and a focus on specific points of
such phenomena, in addition to facilitating
comparison between similar studies.

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For its part, qualitative research:
• It gives depth to the data, dispersion, interpretive
richness, contextualization of the environment,
details and unique experiences.
• Therefore : the mixture of the two models
enhances the development of knowledge, the
construction of theories and the resolution of
problems. Both are empirical and are used in
different fields.

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 USING BOTH APPROACHES
IN THE SAME INVESTIGATION
• They may be:
- The two-stage model
- The dominant approach model
- The mixed model

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 TWO STAGE MODEL
• Here one approach is applied and then
the other relatively independently,
within the same study. One precedes
the other and the results are presented
independently or in a single report.
• At each stage the methods inherent to
each approach are respected.

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 THE APPROACH MODEL
DOMINANT
• In this model, it is developed from the
perspective of one of the two approaches
which prevails and the research maintains a
component of the other.
• It can be a quantitative research with a
component of the qualitative approach.

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 MIXED MODEL
• It represents the highest degree of representation
or combination between qualitative and
quantitative approaches.
• Both are mixed or combined throughout the
research process.
• It adds complexity to the study design but considers
all the advantages of each of the approaches.

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 GENERAL PROCESS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
• Scientific research is a process made up of
various stages, steps or phases,
interconnected in a logical, sequential and
dynamic way.
• This does not imply that it is not possible to
return to a previous stage or view
subsequent stages.

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 STEPS OR STAGES OF THE PROCESS
INVESTIGATION
• First step : conceive the research idea
• Second step : Statement of the research
problem.
• Third step : Preparation of the theoretical
framework.
• Fourth step : Define the scope of the
investigation.
• Fifth step : Analyze the convenience of
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formulating hypotheses

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• Step Six: Select the appropriate research design.
• Seventh step : Select the appropriate population
and sample for the research.
• Eighth step : Collect data
• Ninth step : Analyze the data.
• Tenth step : Preparation of the research result or
report

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 First step : CONCEIVE THE IDEA OF
INVESTIGATION
HOW IS RESEARCH ORIGINATED?
• Research originates from ideas. To start an investigation you
always need an idea.
• The idea constitutes the first approach to reality that will have to
be investigated from a quantitative perspective, or the
phenomena, events and environments to be studied from a
qualitative perspective.
– Sources of ideas for research
• There are a variety of research sources that can generate research
ideas, including personal experiences, written materials,
audiovisual materials, theories, discoveries, personal or group
conversations, observations of facts, beliefs, intuitions and
hunches.

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 HOW DO RESEARCH IDEAS COME UP?
• An idea can arise where groups such as restaurants,
hospitals, banks, industries, universities and many
other forms of associations congregate.
• You can generate ideas by reading a popular magazine,
studying at home, watching television, chatting with
other people, surfing the Internet, etc.
– VAGUITY OF THE INITIAL IDEAS
• Most initial ideas are vague and require careful analysis
to transform them into more precise and structured
approaches.
• When a person develops a research idea, they must
become familiar with the field of knowledge where the
idea is located.

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 – Need to know the background
• To delve into the topic it is necessary to know
previous studies, research and work.
• Knowing what has been done regarding a topic
helps to:
- Not researching a topic that has already been
researched very thoroughly.
- Structure the research idea more formally.
- Select the main perspective from which the
research idea will be approached

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 – Previous research of the topics
• It is evident that the better you know a topic, the
more efficient and faster the process of establishing
the idea will be.
• There are topics more studied than others.
• We could say that there are:
- Topics already researched, structured and
formalized
- Topics already investigated but less structured
and formalized
- Little researched and poorly structured topics
- Topics not investigated

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 – Criteria to generate ideas
• Danhke mentions various criteria that famous
inventors have suggested to generate productive
research ideas, among which stand out:
• Good ideas intrigue, encourage, and excite the
researcher personally.
• Good research ideas “are not necessarily new but
they are novel”
• Good research ideas can be used to develop
theories and solve problems.
• Good ideas can serve to generate new questions
and questions.
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• SECOND STEP
• PROBLEM STATEMENT
- Establish research objectives
- Develop research questions
- Justify the research and analyze its
feasibility

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• WHAT IS POSING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM?
• Once the idea of the research has been
conceived and the topic in question has been
delved into in depth, one is in a position to
pose the research problem.
• Stating the research problem consists of
refining and structuring the research idea
more formally.

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• Before carrying out the other research
activities, it is necessary to formulate the
specific problem in concrete and explicit
terms so that it is susceptible to investigation
with scientific procedures.
• The researcher must be able not only to
conceptualize the problem but also to
verbalize it in a clear, precise and accessible
way.
• It must be clearly defined

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• WHAT ELEMENTS DOES THE STATEMENT OF
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM CONTAIN?
They are the following and are related to
each other:
• the objectives pursued by the research
• research questions and
• the justification of the study; and
• The feasibility of the research

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 - RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• First of all, it must be established what the
research intends or what its objectives are.
• The objectives must be expressed clearly to
avoid possible deviations in the research
process and must be achievable.
• They are the study guides and must be kept in
mind throughout the development process .
• The objectives that are specified must be
consistent with each other.
• During development, additional objectives
may appear that require modification of the
initial objectives or even replacement with
new objectives, depending on the direction
the research takes.

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 TYPES OF OBJECTIVES

• General objective:
- It is what you want to achieve or demonstrate
at the end of the investigation.
- It is closely related to the topic – problem or
problem of study
- It is also related to the hypothesis

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 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Objectives whose realization leads to the
realization of the general objective.
• It is closely related to the research
questions
• Answering the research questions leads to
the realization of the specific objectives.

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 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• Pose the problem to be studied through one
or more questions.
• Framing it in the form of questions has the
advantage of presenting it directly,
minimizing distortion.
• The operationalization of the questions
becomes specific objectives.

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 JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
• It is necessary to justify the study by stating
its reasons. Most research is conducted for a
defined purpose, and that purpose must be
strong enough to justify its conduct.
• In addition, it must be explained why it is
convenient to carry out the research and
what benefits will be derived from it.

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 CRITERIA TO EVALUATE THE
POTENTIAL VALUE OF A RESEARCH

An investigation becomes convenient for

several reasons:
• helps solve a social problem
• to build a new theory
• or generate research questions

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 THE CRITERIA TO EVALUATE THE
VALUE OF RESEARCH
• Convenience : What the research is for.
• Social relevance : What is its significance
for society? Who will benefit from the
research results? how? In summary, what
social reach does it have?

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• Practical implications – Will it help solve any
real problems? Does it have far-reaching
implications for a wide range of practical
problems?
• Theoretical value: will any knowledge gap be
filled? Will it be possible to know to a greater
extent the behavior of one or several
variables? Does it offer the possibility of
fruitfully exploring some phenomenon or
environment?

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• Methodological usefulness : can it help
create a new instrument for collecting
data? Does it help the definition of a
concept, environment, context, variable or
relationship of variables? Can you help mix
qualitative and quantitative approaches?

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 RESEARCH VIABILITY
It is necessary to consider another important
aspect: the viability or feasibility of the study itself,
for this we must:
• availability of financial, human and material
resources to be determined.
• We must ask ourselves, is it feasible to carry out
this research and how long will it take to carry it
out?

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 THIRD STEP: PREPARATION OF THE
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• Literature Review
• Literature detection
• Obtaining literature
• Literature consultation
• Extraction and compilation of information
of interest
• Construction of the theoretical framework

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• It is convenient to locate, obtain and
consult background studies, books,
scientific journals, essays, theses,
forums and internet pages, audiovisual
material, expert testimonies, any source
that is related to the problem or
research topic.

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• Once the research problem has been posed (that
is, when there are already objectives and
research questions) and when its relevance and
feasibility have also been evaluated, the next
step consists of theoretically supporting the
study, a stage that is called how to prepare the
theoretical framework.
• This involves analyzing and exposing theories,
theoretical approaches, research and
background in general that are considered valid
for the correct framing of the study.

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FUNCTIONS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
■ It helps correct errors that have been
made in other studies.
■ Guides how the study will be carried
out.
■ Broadens the horizon of the study or
guides the researcher to focus on the
problem, avoiding deviations from the
original approach.

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■ It leads to the establishment of
hypotheses or statements that will
later have to be tested in reality.
■ Inspires new ideas or areas of
research.
■ It provides a framework for
interpreting the results of the study.

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• STAGES OF PREPARATION OF THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK:
- The review of the corresponding literature.
- It consists of detecting, obtaining, and
consulting the bibliography and other materials
that are useful for the purpose of the study, from
which the relevant and necessary information
that pertains to the research problem must be
extracted and compiled.
- It must be selective, and requires selecting
only the most important and recent ones that
have also had a similar focus.
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 DETECTION OF LITERATURE AND OTHER
DOCUMENTS
The sources of information are:
- PRIMARY OR DIRECT SOURCES:
- They constitute the objective of bibliographic
research or literature review and provide first-
hand data.
- These are books, articles in periodical
publications, monographs, theses, dissertations,
official documents, papers or presentations at
conferences or seminars, expert opinions, etc.

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• SECONDARY SOURCES.
- They are compilations, summaries and lists of
references published in a particular area of
knowledge, made from information from primary
sources.
■ TERTIARY SOURCES
- These are documents that summarize names and
titles of magazines and other periodical
publications, names of bulletins, conferences and
symposiums, websites. For example, a directory of
companies that are dedicated to human resources,
marketing, advertising, etc.
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 START OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW
• It can begin directly with the collection of primary
sources, a situation that occurs when the
researcher knows their location and is very
familiar with the field of study. It has all the
information related to the problem under study.
• Otherwise, the review should begin by consulting
experts on the subject and turning to secondary
or tertiary sources to locate primary sources,
which is the main objective of the literature
review.

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• In summary, to identify the literature of interest,
which will serve to develop the theoretical
framework, you can:
- Go directly to primary sources when the area of
knowledge in question is well known.
- Consult experts in the area to guide the
detection of literature.
- Consult secondary sources to locate primary
sources.
- Consult tertiary sources to reach secondary and
then primary sources.
- Consult the internet and other databases. 61
 OBTAINING LITERATURE
- Once the relevant primary sources have
been identified, it is necessary to locate
them in physical and electronic libraries and
on the Internet.
- It is likely that not all the required primary
sources will be found, in that case at least,
most primary sources needs to be consulted
over the most recent ones.

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 LITERATURE CONSULTATION
- Once the primary sources of interest have been
physically located, we proceed to consult them.
- The first step is to select those that will be useful for
the development of the specific theoretical
framework and discard those that are not useful.
- The primary sources most used to develop the
theoretical framework are books, scientific journals
and papers or papers presented at conferences,
symposiums and other similar events.

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• In the case of books, to define their
usefulness, it is advisable to begin by
analyzing the tables or the content index
and the analytical or subject index which
provide a very broad overview of the topics
covered in the work.
• If it is a scientific journal article, it is best to
review the summary and then the
conclusions if it is going to be useful.

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• In order to select the primary sources that
will be used to develop the theoretical
framework, it is advisable to ask the
following questions:
Does the reference relate to my research
problem? As? What aspect does it address?
Does it help me develop my research more
quickly and deeply? From what point of
view and perspective does it approach the
topic?
■ The answer to these is very important.
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• Once the references or primary sources
useful for the research problem have been
selected, they are carefully reviewed and the
necessary information is extracted to
integrate it and develop the theoretical
framework.
• It is necessary to write down all the complete
identification data of the reference in order
to allow it to be easily found again in cases
where it is necessary to be reviewed again in
the future.
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EXTRACTION AND COMPILATION OF INFORMATION
OF INTEREST IN LITERATURE
• There are various ways to collect information
extracted from references, each person is
able to devise their own method according to
the way they work.
• Cards can be used, however the information
can be collected on loose sheets, notebooks
or notebooks or in virtual form.

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• The way the data is extracted is irrelevant,
the important thing is to extract the data
necessary for the development of the
theoretical framework.
• It is important to record the data from the
sources to later be used as a bibliography of
the work.
• Example of a book: record the title, subtitle of
the book, name(s) of the authors, place and
year of publication, name of the publisher.

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CONSTRUCTION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- The literature reviewed can reveal:
- That there is a fully developed theory with
abundant empirical evidence and that it is
applied to the research problem.
- That there are several theories that apply
to the research problem.
- That there are “pieces or scraps” of
theories with moderate or limited empirical
support.

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• That there are interesting but partial
discoveries without becoming a theory
• That there are only guides not yet studied
and ideas vaguely related to the research
problem.
In each case, the strategy that must be
followed to construct the theoretical
framework varies.

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 SOME ASPECTS RELATED TO THE THEORY
• What is theory?
According to Kerlinger, a theory is a set of
concepts, definitions and propositions
related to each other, which present a
systemic view of phenomena specifying
relationships between variables, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomena.

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How do quantitative, qualitative and mixed
approaches use theory?
■ Quantitative research, based on the theory
available from the beginning of its study,
generates hypotheses that contain
measurable variables, which are tested from
its approach.
■ Qualitative research uses theory inductively,
often considering it when conceiving the
study design and developing it to the end of
the study.
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 FUNCTIONS OF THE THEORY
■ The most important function of a theory is to
explain or say why, how, when a phenomenon
occurs.
■ Systematize or give order to knowledge about
a phenomenon or reality, knowledge that is often
dispersed and not organized.
■ Another function closely associated with
explaining is predicting , that is, making inferences
in the future about how a phenomenon will
manifest or occur given certain conditions.

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 USEFULNESS OF THE THEORY
■ A theory is useful because it describes,
explains and predicts the phenomenon,
context, event or fact to which it refers.
■ In addition, it organizes knowledge about it
and guides the research carried out on it (in a
quantitative approach);
■ And because it informs and helps to describe
or contextualize situations (under the
qualitative approach)

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• WHAT STRATEGY IS FOLLOWED TO BUILD THE
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:
■ A THEORY IS ADOPTED, OR
■ A THEORETICAL PERPECTIVE IS DEVELOPED.

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 EXISTENCE OF A COMPLETELY DEVELOPED
THEORY
■ When there is a theory capable of
describing, explaining and predicting the
phenomenon, context, situation, event or
occurrence in a logical, complete, profound
and consistent manner: - the best strategy to
build the theoretical framework is to take
that theory as the very structure of the
framework theoretical.

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 EXISTENCE OF VARIOUS THEORIES APPLICABLE
TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
■ You can choose one and base it on it to build the
theoretical framework; or take parts of some or all
of the theories.
■ In the first: the theory that receives a positive
evaluation and that is most applicable to the
research problem is chosen.
■ In the second: only what is related to the problem
of study would be taken from the theory.
■ The most common thing is to take one theory as a
base and extract elements from the other.

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 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
■ When building the theoretical framework, you
must:
- Focus on the research problem, without
digressing into other topics unrelated to the study.
- A good theoretical framework is not one that
contains many pages but rather one that deals in
depth with only the aspects related to the problem
and logically and coherently links the concepts and
propositions existing in previous studies.

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EVALUATION TO MONITOR IF A GOOD REVIEW
HAS BEEN DONE
Do we go to a database and ask for references
from at least five years ago?
Do we search in directories, search engines or the
internet?
Do we consult at least four scientific journals from
five years ago to date?
Do we look for books from at least most good
libraries?
Do we consult with more than one person who
knows
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about the topic?

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 FOURTH STEP: DEFINE THE SCOPE
OF THE INVESTIGATION
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Correlational
• Explanatory

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• If it has been decided after the literature
review that the research is worthwhile and
should be conducted, or
• If an investment has been made in the field,
environment or event that you are interested
in studying (whether under the quantitative,
qualitative or mixed approach), the next step
is to visualize the scope of the research to be
carried out.

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• In quantitative studies this occurs
before developing the hypothesis,
defining the research design and
collecting the data.
• In qualitative studies it occurs before or
during data collection or at any stage of
the research process.

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 EXPLORATORY STUDIES
• Purpose:
- They are normally carried out when
the objective is to examine a poorly
studied topic or research problem,
about which there are many doubts or
which has not been developed before.

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• Worth:
- They serve to become familiar with
relatively unknown phenomena.
- They are common in research, especially in
situations where little information exists.
- They rarely constitute an end in themselves;
generally, they determine trends, identify
areas, environment, context and study
situations, among others.

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 DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
- Purpose
- Describe situations, events and facts.
- They seek to specify the important
properties, characteristics and profiles of
people, groups, communities or any
phenomenon that is subject to study.
- They measure, evaluate and collect data on
various aspects, dimensions or components
of the phenomenon to be investigated.

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• Worth:
- They are interested in describing and
prefiguring.
- They focus on collecting data that
shows an event, a community, a
phenomenon, a fact, context or
situation that occurs .

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 CORELATIONAL STUDIES
- Purpose:
- Evaluate the relationship that exists
between two or more concepts, categories
or variables.
- They measure the degree of relationship
that exists between them.

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• Utility
- The utility or main purpose of
quantitative correlational studies is to
know how a concept or variable can
behave by knowing the behavior of other
related variables.
- The correlation can be positive or
negative.

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• Worth
- Correlational research has, to some
extent, explanatory value, although
partial.
- Knowing that two concepts or
variables are related provides certain
explanatory information

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 EXPLANATORY EXTUDIES
- Purpose
- It goes beyond the description of concepts
or phenomena or the establishment of
relationships between concepts.
- They are aimed at responding to the causes
of physical and social events, occurrences and
phenomena.
- Its interest is focused on explaining why a
phenomenon occurs and under what

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conditions.

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 FIFTH STEP
• Analyze the convenience or not of formulating
hypotheses that guide the rest of the research,
taking into account the focus of the study and its
scope.
• If it is considered appropriate to formulate a
hypothesis, it will have to be established.
• Detect the variables of the hypotheses.
• Conceptually define the variables of the
hypotheses.
• Operationally define the variables of the
hypotheses
 CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS
• They are guides for an investigation.
• Hypotheses indicate what we are looking for,
trying to prove.
• They are defined as tentative explanations of the
phenomenon under investigation, formulated as
propositions.
• Hypotheses are the center, the core or the axis of
the quantitative deductive method.

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 • THE APPROACH OF THE HYPOTHESES IN
THE INVESTIGATIONS
• Not all research raises hypotheses
• The formulation of hypotheses depends on
two essential factors:
- the focus of the study; and
- its initial scope.

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• In quantitative research whose method
is deductive, hypotheses are
formulated, as long as it is defined from
the beginning that its scope will be
correlational or explanatory or in the
case of a descriptive study that
attempts a figure or a fact.

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• Qualitative studies generally do not
formulate hypotheses before collecting data.
• Its nature is rather inductive, particularly if
its scope is exploratory or descriptive.
• When their scope is correlational or
explanatory, they can formulate hypotheses
while obtaining information after collecting
data, when analyzing it or when establishing
conclusions.

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• In mixed studies it may also have or may not have
hypotheses.
• In the two-phase modality : they would have in
the quantitative stage and occasionally in both.
• In the aspect of the main approach : it is possible
to formulate hypotheses if the study is more
quantitative in nature.
• Finally, in mixed studies : where both methods
are mixed, hypotheses would also arise before
collecting the data.

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CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF
THE VARIABLES OF A HYPOTHESIS AS PART OF
ITS FORMULATION
• When formulating a hypothesis, it is
essential to define the terms or variables
that are being included in it, whatever the
chosen approach (quantitative, qualitative
or mixed).

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• The reasons are the following:
• So that whoever reads the research gives
the same meaning to the terms or variables
included in the hypothesis.
• Ensure that variables can be measured,
evaluated, induced and inferred.
• Compare the research with other similar
ones
• Evaluate research results more adequately.

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 CONCEPTUAL OR CONSTITUTIVE DEFINITION OF
THE VARIABLES
• A conceptual definition treats the term
or variable with other terms. Example:
“proactive inhibition” is the difficulty of
evocation that increases over time.

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 OPERATIONAL DEFINCITIONS
• It constitutes the set of procedures that describes
the activities that an observer must carry out to
receive sensory impressions, which indicate the
existence of a theoretical concept to a greater or
lesser degree. (Reinolds, 1986, p.52)
• In other words, it specifies what activities or
operations must be carried out to measure a
variable in the quantitative approach or collect
data or information regarding it, in the qualitative
approach.

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 VARIABLES
• A variable is a property that can vary and whose
variation can be measured or observed.
• Example of variables: sex, intrinsic motivation
towards work, etc.
• Variables acquire value for scientific research when
they become related to others (become part of a
hypothesis or theory)

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• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE HYPOTHESIS, THE
QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES IN A
DEDUCTIVE-QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
• Hypotheses tentatively propose answers to the
research questions; The relationship between the
two is direct and intimate.
• The hypotheses replace the objectives and research
questions to guide the study, within the
quantitative or mixed approach.
• Therefore, hypotheses normally arise from the
objectives and research questions, once
reevaluated after reviewing the literature.
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 WHERE DO HYPOTHESES COME FROM?
• In the quantitative approach, they arise from the
problem statement, which was evaluated and
restated, if necessary, after the review of the
literature.
• There is a very close relationship between the
problem statement, the literature review and the
hypothesis.
• When formulating the hypothesis we re-evaluate
the problem statement.

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• It should be remembered that the objectives
and research questions are susceptible to
reaffirmation or improvement during the
development of the study.
• Likewise, during the process, other
hypotheses may appear that were not
contemplated in the original approach, as a
result of reflections, ideas or experiences,
discussions with teachers, colleagues or
experts in the area, etc.

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 STEP SIX: DESIGN SELECTION
OF THE INVESTIGATION
Once the approach to be adopted for the research
(quantitative, qualitative or mixed) has been
decided and the scope of the study has been
defined, the researcher must conceive the
practical and concrete way to answer the research
questions and cover their objectives and interests.
.
This involves developing the research design and
applying it in the particular context of the study.

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• The term design refers to the plan or
strategy to obtain the information you
want.
• The design tells the researcher what they
must do to achieve their study objectives
and to answer the knowledge question
that has been posed.

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• In the case of the quantitative
approach, the researcher uses the
design to analyze the certainty of the
hypotheses formulated in a particular
context.

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• In the qualitative approach, a research
design may or may not be preconceived,
although it is advisable to do so.
• In mixed approaches, the design must also
be chosen before collecting the data.

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 DESIGN TYPES
■ Experimental research:
- Pure experimental
- Preexperimental
- Quasi-experimental
- Non-experimental research
- Transectional or transversal
- Longitudinal

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• EXPERIMENT CONCEPT:
- It refers to a study in which one or more
independent variables are intentionally
manipulated (supposed antecedent cause), to
analyze the consequences that the manipulation
has on one or more dependent variables (supposed
consequent effects), within a control situation for
the investigator.
- It is carried out to analyze whether one or more
independent variables affect one or more
dependent variables and why it does so.

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• EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:
- It is research that is carried out with the
deliberate manipulation of variables.
- NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN :
- It is research that is carried out without
deliberate manipulation of the variables.
- That is, it is research where the
independent variables are not intentionally
varied.

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• What is done is to observe phenomena
as they occur in their natural context,
and then analyze it.

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• In experimental research, the researcher
deliberately constructs a situation to
which several individuals are exposed.
• It consists of receiving a treatment, a
condition or a stimulus under certain
circumstances, and then evaluating the
resulting effects.

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• In the non-experimental, no situation is
constructed but rather existing situations
are observed, not intentionally caused by
the researcher.
• Example: Experiment : make the person
angry
I don't experiment : seeing the
reactions when angry people arrive.

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• CROSS-CUTTING RESEARCH:
- In this type of design, data is collected at a
single moment, at a single time.
- Its purpose is to describe variables and
analyze their incidence and interrelation at a
given time.
- Example : Investigate the number of
employed, unemployed and underemployed
in a city at a certain time.

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• LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN:
- It collects data over time in points or periods, to
make inferences regarding change, its determinants
and consequences.
- Such points or periods are usually specified in
advance in quantitative approaches and are
determined as the study progresses in the
qualitative approach.
- In mixed modalities, both scenarios can occur.

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 STEP SEVEN : SELECT A SAMPLE
APPROPRIATE FOR RESEARCH
• Define the subjects, objects, phenomena,
events, events on which data will be
collected.
• Delimit the population (initial and/or final)
• Choose the type of sample selection
• Define the sample size
• Apply the selection procedure
• Get the sample.

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• IN A RESEARCH DO YOU ALWAYS HAVE A
SAMPLE?
- Not always, but in most cases, research is
carried out on a sample.
- The sample is used for economy and time.
- Only when a census is carried out are all
subjects in the universe or population
included in the study.

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• ABOUT WHAT OR WHO IS DATA COLLECTED?
- In the subjects, objects, events, events or
contexts of study.
- It depends on the initial planning of the
investigation.
- To select a sample the first thing to do is:
- define the unit of analysis (people,
organizations, newspapers, community,
situations, events, etc.)

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• The envelope or from whom the data
will be collected depends: - on the
chosen approach (quantitative,
qualitative or mixed) of the approach; -
From the statement of the problem to
be investigated and
- Of the scope of the study
■ These actions lead us to the next step:
delimiting the population.

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• SAMPLE CONCEPT:
- Quantitative approach:
- subgroup of the population from which the
data is collected and must be representative of
said population.
- Qualitative approach:
- Unit of analysis or set of people, contexts,
events or events on which the data is collected
without necessarily being representative of the
universe.

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• CONCEPT OF POPULATION
- Quantitative approach:
- Set of all cases that agree on certain
specifications.
- Qualitative approach:
- In many cases the sample itself is the
population or universe that is studied.

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 DELIMITATION OF THE POPULATION
■ The first thing is to decide whether or not it is
convenient to delimit the population and
whether this is intended to be done before
collecting the data or during the process.
■ In qualitative studies it is usually not
delimited a priori.
■ In quantitative studies almost always yes.
■ In mixed approaches it depends on the
research situation.

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• For quantitative studies, the population
must be clearly situated around its
characteristics of content, place and
time.

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 SAMPLE SELECTION UNDER THE QUANTITATIVE
APPROACH
- Type of sample :
- Probalistics : where all elements of the
population have the same opportunities of being
chosen.
- Non-Probalist : whose choice does not depend
on probability, but on causes related to the
characteristics of the research or who makes the
sample.

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• The choice between the Probable and
non-Probalist sample is determined
based on the objectives of the study, the
research outline and its scope.
• For a probability sample you need two
things:
- determine the sample size (n) -
determine the sample elements

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• Sample size Simple probability
(Quantitative approach)
- For the determination, a statistical formula that
appears in the book is applied.
- Stratified Probability Sample:
- What is done here is to divide the population into
subpopulations or strata and a sample is selected
for each stratum.
- Stratification increases sampling precision and
involves the deliberate use of different sample sizes
for each stratum.

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• Probalist sample by clusters
- This type is used when the researcher is limited by
financial resources, time, geographical distances or
a combination of these.
- Many times the units of analysis are enclosed in
certain physical or geographical places called
clusters.
- The selection involves two stages, the first the
unit of analysis (subjects or objects) and the second
the cluster (places where they are found).

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 NON-PROBALISTIC SAMPLES
■ They are also called directed samples,
they involve an informal selection
procedure.
■ In non-probable samples, the choice of
subjects does not depend on everyone
having the same probability of being
chosen, but on the decision of a
researcher.

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■ The advantage under the quantitative
approach of a non-Probalist sample is its
usefulness for a certain study design that
requires not so much a
representativeness of elements of a
population, but rather a careful and
controlled choice of subjects with certain
characteristics previously specified in the
problem statement .

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■ For the qualitative approach, it allows
obtaining the cases (people, contexts,
situations) that interest the researcher
and that offer great richness for the
collection and analysis of data.

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 THE SAMPLE OF VOLUNTEER SUBJECTS
■ Samples of volunteer subjects are common
in social sciences and behavioral sciences.
■ These are chance samples, also used in
medicine and archaeology.
■ Example: subjects who voluntarily agree to
participate in a study that monitors the
effects of a medication.

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 THE SAMPLE OF EXPERTS
■ It is used when it is necessary to obtain
the opinion of experts on a topic.
■ They are frequent in qualitative and
exploratory studies to generate more
precise hypotheses or the raw material
for the design of questionnaires.

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 THE SUBJECTS – TYPE
• This sample is used in exploratory studies and
qualitative research, where the objective is
the richness, depth and quality of the
information, not the quantity or
standardization.
• It is used, for example, in phenomenological
studies, where the objective is to analyze the
values, rituals and meanings of a certain
social group.

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 THE SAMPLE BY QUOTAS
• This type of sample is widely used in opinion
and marketing studies.
• Interviewers are instructed to administer
questionnaires with subjects on the street,
and in doing so they form or fill quotas
according to the proportion of certain
demographic variables in the population.

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 8VO. STEP: DATA COLLECTION
• Define the ideal way to collect data
according to the focus and context of the
research.
• Develop the instrument or method of data
collection.
• Apply said instrument or method.
• Get the data
• Encode the data.
• Archive the data for later analysis.
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• WHAT DOES THE DATA COLLECTION STAGE
INVOLVED?
- It involves three activities closely linked to each
other:
a.- Select an instrument or method of data
collection. It must be valid and reliable.
b.- Apply that instrument or method to collect
data.
c.- Prepare observations, records and
measurements obtained to analyze correctly.

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 TYPES OF COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
QUANTITATIVE DATA
• Scales to measure attitudes
- Likert-type scaling
- Semantic differential
- Guttman scalogram
- Cornell Technique
• Questionnaires: Closed and open
• Content analysis
• Quantitative observation
• Standardized testing and inventory
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• LIKERT TYPE SCALING
- It consists of a set of items presented in the
form of statements or judgments, to which the
subjects' reaction is requested.
- That is, each statement is presented and the
subject is asked to express his or her reaction by
choosing one of the five points on the scale.

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• Example:
- Measured attitude object: the vote
- Affirmation: Voting is an obligation of every
responsible citizen.
( ) Strongly agree
( ) OK
( ) Neither agree nor disagree
( ) In disagreement
( ) Strongly disagree

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• SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
- It consists of a series of extreme adjectives that
qualify the attitude object, to which the subject's
reaction is requested.
- Example:
Fair: ______ : __x__ : _____: _____: _____: Unfair

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• Guttman scalogram
- It is based on the principle that some
items indicate to a greater extent the
strength or intensity of the attitude.
• Cornell Technique
- It is the best known for analyzing attitude
statements.

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• QUESTIONNAIRES
- It is the most used instrument to collect data.
- It consists of a set of questions regarding one or
more variables to be measured.
- The content of the questions in a questionnaire
is very varied and is directly related to the data to
be obtained.
- There are basically two types of questions:
closed and open.

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• Closed questions contain categories or response
alternatives that have been delimited.
- That is, the subjects are presented with the
possibilities of responses and they must limit
themselves to these.
- They can include two alternative answers or
several.
- Example: Are you currently studying?
( ) Yeah
( ) No

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• If you had a choice, would you prefer your
salary to be in accordance with your
productivity?
( ) Definitely yes
( ) Probably yes
( ) I'm not sure
( ) Probably not
( ) Definitely not

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• WHICH TYPES OF QUESTIONS SHOULD BE USED?
- Each questionnaire responds to different
needs and research problems, therefore, in
each case the type of questions is different.
- They can be used one or the other or
combined.
- The closed ones are easy to code and
prepare for analysis. Requires less effort on
the part of the respondent.

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• To formulate closed questions it is
necessary to anticipate the possible
alternative answers.
• Open-ended questions are particularly
useful when we do not have
information about people's possible
responses or when this information is
insufficient.

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• Open ones are more difficult to code,
classify and prepare for analysis.
• It requires more effort and more time.
• For the open, it is often used in
qualitative questionnaires.

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• The choice of the type of questions
contained in the questionnaire depends
on:
- the degree to which possible
responses can be anticipated,
- the times available to code and
- if you want a more precise answer or
go deeper into a question.

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FEATURES YOU SHOULD HAVE A QUESTION
• They must be clear and understandable,
avoiding confusing and ambiguous terms.
• They should not make the respondent
uncomfortable.
Example: Do you usually consume any type of
alcoholic beverage?
• They should preferably refer to a single
aspect or a logical relationship.
Ex: Do you usually watch TV and listen to the
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radio?

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• They should not induce responses.
EJ: Do you consider so-and-so as the best candidate
to direct...?
• They cannot rely on socially supported ideas or
proven evidence.
EJ: The WHO has come to the conclusion that
smoking causes various damages. Do you
consider that smoking is harmful to health?
• Appropriate language for the characteristics of
the respondent. EJ: consider the educational and
socioeconomic level

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• Example of open questions:
- In what way has the company management
achieved the cooperation of the union for
the quality project?
- From your point of view, how would you
define tax culture?
- What do you think of the television program
“Polibandi”?

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• CONTENT ANALYSIS
- It is a technique to study communication in an
objective, systematic way that quantifies the
contents into categories.
- For example, it can be used to see if several soap
operas differ from each other in terms of their
sexual content or to know the ideological
differences between various newspapers.

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• QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATION
- Observation consists of the systematic, valid and
reliable recording of behavior or manifest
conduct.
- It is the method most used by those who are
behaviorally oriented.
- EJ: It can be used to determine the acceptance
of a group with respect to its teacher. Or analyze
family conflicts or massive events such as violence
in football stadiums.

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• TYPE OF OBSERVATION
- Competitor:
- When the observer interacts with the
observed subjects.
- Non-participating:
- When no such interaction occurs

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- STANDARDIZED TESTING AND INVENTORIES
-They are instruments to measure skills and
aptitudes
-Such as verbal ability, reasoning, interests,
values, performance, motivation, memory,
intelligence, etc.

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 DATA COLLECTION FROM THE QUALITATIVE
APPROACH
■ It seeks to obtain in-depth information about
subjects, communities, contexts, variables or
situations.
■ The researcher uses a reflective stance and
treats.
■ Qualitative data consists of the deep and
complete description of events, situations, mental
images, interactions, perceptions, experiences,
etc., individually or collectively.

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• Data collection occurs completely in the
natural and everyday environments of the
subject, in the case of behavioral sciences.
• It involves two phases or stages:
- Initial immersion in the field.
- Data collection for analysis

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- THE INITIAL IMMERSION IN THE FIELD
- Prior to collecting data, the environment,
place or context where the information will
be collected must be chosen, such as a
factory, community, hospital,
neighborhood, etc.
- It can be changed if it is appropriate once
it has been verified that it is not.

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• DATA COLLECTION
- The first thing is to choose one or more
techniques to collect the data.
- Determine the unit of observation or
registration
- Record data according to the needs of
the research.

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 QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW
• It is more flexible and open.
• It is defined as a conversation between the
interviewer and the interviewee.
• They can be structured, semi-structured or
unstructured.
• Structured : The interviewer carries out his
work based on a guide of specific questions
and is subject exclusively to it.

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• Semi-structured:
- It is based on a guide of issues or questions
and the interviewer has the freedom to
introduce additional questions to clarify
concepts or obtain more information on the
desired topics.
■ Open interviews:
- They are based on a general guide with non-
specific topics and the interviewer has all the
flexibility to handle them.

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• In these three types of interviews, various types of
questions are asked:
- General inquiries:
- They start from global approaches to get to the
topic that interests the interviewer.
- They are typical of open interviews.
- Questions to exemplify:
- They serve as triggers for deeper explorations,
in which the interviewee is asked to give an
example of an event, a happening.

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• Structural questions:
- The interviewer asks the respondent for a list of
items as a set.
-EJ: What problem did you have when building this
bridge?
• Contrast questions:
- The interviewee is asked about similarities and
differences regarding symbols or topics.
- Ex: Is the terrorism carried out by the EPP
distracting, intimidating or indiscriminate?

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• The purpose of the interviews is to obtain
answers on the topic or topic of interest in the
terms, language and perspective of the
interviewee.
• The “expert” is the interviewee, so the
interviewer must listen to him attentively and
carefully.
• The interviewer must generate a climate of
trust and avoid elements that obstruct the
conversation such as cell phones or
telephones.
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• It is advisable to inform the interviewee of the
purpose of the interview and the use that will
be made of it.
• The interview should be a dialogue and let the
unique and deep point of view of the
interviewee flow.
• Different tools can be used to collect
information, such as recorders, notes and
notes in notebooks, personal computers,
photographs, etc.

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• QUALITATIVE OBSERVATION
- It is also called field observation.
- Purposes:
- Explore environments, contexts, subculture, etc.
- Describe communities, contexts or
environments and activities.
- Understand processes, interrelationships
between people, etc.
- Identify problems
- Generate hypotheses

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• FOCUS GROUPS OR IN-DEPTH SESSIONS
- They consist of small or medium-sized
group meetings in which participants talk
about one or several topics in a relaxed and
informal atmosphere, under the leadership
of a specialist in group dynamics.

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• COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE DATA
COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
- In both quantitative and qualitative
research, the combination of different data
collection instruments is common.
- In mixed studies, it is customary to use
quantitative and qualitative methods to
collect the data of interest to the research.

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• Example:
- The work environment in an organization
can be measured through a survey with a
questionnaire, but in addition, carry out
several focus groups to request opinions on
the work environment and existing problems,
observe the behavior of workers and analyze
the content of messages. addressed to the
organization (letters of suggestions, signs
painted in bathrooms, complaints at
meetings, etc.).

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• EJ: In market studies in which random
sampling surveys, qualitative interviews,
experiments with standardized
measurements and participant observation
can be conducted in order to collect data to
determine the feasibility of installing a
business or factory.

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 9no. STEP: ANALYZE THE DATA
• Decide what type of analysis will be carried out:
quantitative, qualitative or mixed.
• Quantitative case: select appropriate statistical
tests.
• Qualitative case: predesign or choreograph the data
analysis scheme.
• Select a computer program to analyze the data
• Apply the program
• Obtain required analyzes
• Interpret the analyzes

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• QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS?
- The choice of the type of analysis depends
on the data that has been collected.
- If the data is quantitative, once coded,
quantitative analysis is carried out.
- If the data is qualitative, it is carried out
qualitatively.
- If the data is of both types, the
corresponding approach is applied in each
case.

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• QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
(STATISTICAL ANALYSIS)
• USUAL PROCEDURE:
- DECISION MAKING REGARDING THE ANALYSIS
TO BE PERFORMED (STATISTICAL TESTS) -
SELECTION OF THE ANALYSIS PROGRAM
- EXECUTION OF THE PROGRAM ON A
COMPUTER.
- OBTAINING THE ANALYSIS.

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 • The main quantitative analyzes or
statistics that can be carried out are:
- Descriptive statistics for each variable.
- Z Scores
- Reasons and rates.
- Inferential statistics calculations and
reasoning.
- Parametric tests
- Multivariate analysis.

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• Descriptive statistics :
- Frequency distribution
- Relative and cumulative frequencies.
- Graphs: histogram (graph to present
distributions)
- Frequency polygon: Circular or curved graphs.
- Measures of central tendency
- Fashion, medium and medium.

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 - Measurements of variability:
- Range, standard deviation and variance.
- Skewness and Kurtosis
• Z scores:
- Indicates the direction and degree to
which an individual value obtained moves
away from the mean, on a scale of standard
deviation units.

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• Inferential statistics, used to:
- Test hypothesis
- Estimate parameter.
• Sampling distribution
- Set of values on a statistic calculated from all
possible samples of a certain size.
• Significance level
- Or Alpha level, is a level of the probability of being
wrong, which the researcher sets a priori

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• Parametric analysis
- Pearson correlation coefficient and linear
regression
- t-test
- Contrast test of the difference of propositions.
■ Multivariate analysis
- Method used to analyze the relationship
between various independent variables and at
least one dependent variable.

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 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• First challenge is to encounter a large amount
of data.
• The aim is to reduce but taking care not to
lose information or discard valuable data.
• The data analysis is not completely
determined, but is “prefigured,
choreographed or outlined” that is, it begins
under a general plan but during development
it can be modified.

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• For example:
- It may happen that interview content is
classified into themes and categories,
and in doing so a graph or diagram is
created, after which it incorporates
comments from the notes and the
importance of adding the analysis of
photographs, video, etc. appears.

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 STEPS FOR A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
• Review the material
• Establish an initial work plan
• Perform a first classification or coding of
the data
• Perform a second classification

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• Interpret the data
• Describe contexts, events, situations and
people subject to study.
• Ensure the reliability and validity of the
results.
• Feedback, correct and return to the field
• Keep the problem in mind at all times

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• QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: A
QUESTION OF APPROACHES
- Both quantitative (statistical) analysis and
qualitative analysis are very useful and developed
tools in the hands of the researcher.
- Neither is better than the other, they are simply
different paths to reach the same goal:
- achieve the objective of the research and
- answer the research question to generate
knowledge.
- Normally one or the other complements each

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other.

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• AN IMPORTANT ASPECT :
- The ideal of research is to collect
quantitative and qualitative data
regarding a research problem, using
various tools from both approaches.

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 TENTH STEP: PREPARE THE REPORT
INVESTIGATION
• User Definition
• Selection of the type of report to
present
• Prepare the report and the
corresponding graphic material.
• Presentation of the report.

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