Problem Solving

1.Explain What is CD - ROM?

1.1 Picture CD - ROM

According to: https://www.lenovo.com/in/en/glossary/cd-rom, A CD-ROM is a type of

computer optical disc storage medium that stores data in the form of text, graphics, video,
and audio files. It is usually used for storing large amounts of data such as games,
applications, or multimedia content The acronym stands for Compact Disc Read-Only
Memory A CD-ROM works by reflecting light from its tracks which contain digital information
in the form of pits and lands that correspond to ones and zeros (binary code). By using
specialized laser technology, the information stored on the disc can be read and interpreted
by a computer.
 2. What is meant by RDRAM?

2.2 Picture RDRAM

According to:https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2802/rambus-dynamic-random-access-
memory-rdram, Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (RDRAM) is a memory
subsystem designed to transfer data at faster rates. RDAM is made up of a Random access
memory (RAM),a RAM controller and a bus path that connect RAM to microprocessors and
other PC devices.
RDRAM was introduced in 1999 by Rambus, Inc. RDRAM technology was considerably
faster than older memory models, like the Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM). Typical SDRAM
has a data transfer rate of up to 133 MHz, while the RDRAM can transfer data at a speed of
Upto 800 MHz RDRAM is also known as Direct RDRAM or Rambus. RDRAM uses Rambus
Inline Memory Module (RIMM) technology, which is installed in pairs, transfers data from
rising and falling clock signal edges and doubles physical clock rates. RIMM data travels on
a 16-bit bus that is similar to a packet network with transmitted data groups. Internal RIMM
speeds operate from 400 MHz to 800 MHz via a 400-MHz system bus. A standard 400 MHz
Rambus is known as PC-800 Rambus.
The RDRAM 16-bit bus uses a set of data processing features with a steady sequence
stream, known as pipelining, that facilitate the output of one instruction prior to the input of
the next instruction. Pipelining transfers RAM data to cache memory, allowing up to eight
simultaneous data processing series. Pipelining also improves performance by increasing
average successful message delivery rates when processing streams of data.
Design guidelines and a validation program by Intel and Rambus were intended to ensure
RDRAM and RIMM module stability and to enhance earlier memory module requirements.
Although RDRAM’s increased bandwidth allowed faster data transfer, RAM cells
experienced significant drops in performance, resulting in latency with additional RIMMs.
Latency improved in later RDRAM models, which were more expensive than Double Data
Rate (DDR) SDRAM and Streaming Data Request (SDR) SDRAM. By 2004, Intel
discontinued RDRAM in Kind of DDR SDRAM and DDR-2 SDRAM modules.
3.What is megabyte and megabit what is the difference
explain?

3.3 Picture Megabyte

According to: https://www.techtarget.com/searchstorage/definition/megabyte, A megabyte is
a unit of data capacity that is equal to 1,000,000 bytes in decimal notation (base 10) or
1,048,576 bytes in binary notation (base 2). The base-10 amount is also represented as
106 or 10002 bytes, and the base-2 amount is represented as 220 or
2
1024 bytes. Mega comes from the Greek word Megas, which means large or great. In
computing, mega is used for one million or an amount close to that. Megabyte is a multiplier
of byte, which is the smallest unit of addressable memory in most computer architectures. A
byte is typically made up of eight binary digits (bits). The eight-bit byte is considered today's
de facto standard for byte length, although that number can vary depending on the
hardware. Eight bits are also referred to as an octet, so a standard byte is sometime called
an octet. A megabyte based on standard bytes is equal to 8,000,000 bits in decimal notation
or 8,388,608 in binary notation.
The megabyte is one of several multipliers used to represent larger numbers of bytes. For
example, a kilobyte (KB) is equal to 1,000 bytes (decimal) or 1,024 bytes (binary). As such, a
megabyte is equal to 1,000 KB (decimal) or 1,024 KB (binary). There are also byte
multipliers that go much higher than megabytes, such as gigabyte (GB), terabyte (TB) and
petabyte (PB):
 A gigabyte is equal to 10003 bytes (decimal) or 10243 bytes (binary), which can also
be expressed as 1,000 MB and 1,024 MB, respectively.
 A terabyte is equal to 10004 bytes (decimal) or 10244 bytes (binary), which can also
be expressed as 1,000,000 MB and 1,048,576 MB, respectively.
 A petabyte is equal to 10005 bytes (decimal) or 10245 bytes (binary), which can also
be expressed as 1,000,000,000 MB and 1,073,741,824 MB, respectively.
At one time, the megabyte was used extensively across the industry as a measure for
storage and memory data capacities. As these capacities have increased, megabyte is used
less frequently for storage and memory, which are now usually measured in gigabytes or, in
the case of storage, terabytes. Even so, the megabyte is still used where smaller
measurements are required, such as when referring to file sizes or disk usage. For example,
a novel might take up around 1 MB of disk space, a high-resolution photo might require more
than 5 MB of space and a long audio book might use up to 500 MB of storage. In addition,
some storage media are still measured in megabytes, such as the CD-ROM, which can hold
700 MB of data.
4. What does it mean by GHz in Computer Processor Explain?

4.4 Picture GHz(Gigahertz)

According to: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/ghz-mean-computer-processor-66857.html
One of the most frequently touted measures of processor performance is a given chip's
speed in gigahertz. Processors with higher GHz ratings can, theoretically, do more in a given
unit of time than processors with lower GHz ratings. However, the processor's speed rating
is just one of many factors that impact how fast it actually processes data. Given that some
specialized applications can be very computationally demanding, choosing the fastest
computer is more important than buying a machine with the highest clock speed.

System Clocks
1. Processors work according to a clock that beats a set number of times per second,
usually measured in gigahertz. For instance, a 3.1-GHz processor has a clock that
beats 3.1 billion times per second. Each clock beat represents an opportunity for the
processor to manipulate a number of bits equivalent to its capacity -- 64-bit
processors can work on 64 bits at a time, while 32-bit processors work on 32 bits at a
time.
Internal vs. External
2. The clock that usually gets included in marketing materials is the internal clock, but a
processor also has an external clock that determines how quickly the processor can
communicate with the outside world. The internal clock represents how quickly the
processor can manipulate the data it already has, while the external clock specifies
how quickly it can read the information it needs to manipulate or how quickly it can
output the manipulated data. As of the date of publication, external clocks are
frequently significantly slower than internal clocks. For example, while a processor
may run at 3 GHz, its external clock could be anywhere from a few hundred MHz to 1
GHz. Since the external clock determines how quickly the processor can
communicate with the system's memory, it has a significant effect on your
processor's real-world speed. The difference between a processor's internal and
external clock speeds is one limitation on its performance. Another is the number of
clock ticks it takes to execute an instruction. While some instructions can be
completed in one clock tick, it could, for instance, take four ticks to complete a
 multiplication operation. This would turn a processor that can, for instance, add at 4
GHz into one that multiplies at an effective speed of 1 GHz.

5.What is a AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) give an

explanation?

5.5 Picture Accelerated Graphics Port

According to: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-agpaccelerated-graphics-
port/,An Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a point to point channel that is used for high-
speed video output. This port is used to connect graphic cards to a computer’s motherboard.
It increases the speed at which machines can render graphics while using the system’s
resources more efficiently. The primary purpose of an AGP is to convey 3-D images much
more smoothly than is possible on a regular PC. The AGP was developed by Intel in the
year 1996 and was launched in Socket 7 Intel P5 Pentium and Slot 1 P6 Pentium
II processors. Gradually everyone started using it. Chipsets like VIA Apollo VP3, SiS
5591/5592, and the ALI Aladdin V were the first Socket 7 chipsets to support AGP. Early
AGP boards used graphics processors built around Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI) and were simply bridged to AGP. It can be said that the AGP is built from the PCI that
PCI is the base. Bridging didn’t help the cards benefit much from the new bus except for the
increased 66 MHz bus clock and the doubled bandwidth over PCI. Intel’s i740 was explicitly
designed to exploit the new features of AGP. In fact, it was designed to texture only from
AGP memory.

Applications of AGP
 It enabled to develop new classes of applications on the PC such as 3D CAD/CAM,
data visualization and 3D user interfaces.
 Direct Memory Execution of textures-The texture maps are directly accessed from
the system memory instead of pre-loading the texture data into the Graphic card’s
own memory and then accessing it. It eliminates the extra work by allowing the
texture to remain in system memory where it can be directly executed on by the
graphics chip.
 Creation of 3D images- The CPU must perform intensive 3D calculations. The
graphics controller processes the texture data and bitmaps. In many cases, the
controller has to read elements from 7 or 8 different textures and combine them into
a single pixel on the screen. When this calculation is performed, the pixel must be
stored in the memory buffer. The memory occupied by these textures are so large,
 they cannot be stored on the video card’s buffer. With APG they are stored in the
main system memory.

6. What Does It Mean by SDRAM Memory?

6.6 Picture SDRAM

According to: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sdram-full-form/ SDRAM stands
for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It synchronizes itself with the
computer’s system clock. This makes it easy to manage faster, and the speed of the
SDRAM measured in MHz instead of nanoseconds. The first commercial SDRAM was the
Samsung KM48SL2000 memory chip, which had a capacity of 16 Mb. It was manufactured
by Samsung Electronics using a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
fabrication process in 1992 and mass-produced in 1993. By 2000, SDRAM had replaced
virtually all other types of DRAM in modern computers, because of its greater performance
and faster speed. It exploits the fact that most PC memory accesses are sequential and are
designed to fetch all the bits in a burst as fast as possible. With SDRAM an on-chip burst
counter allows the column part of the address to be incremented very rapidly which speeds
up the retrieval of information in sequential reads considerably. The size of the block of
memory location required is provided by the memory controller and the SDRAM chip
supplies the bits as fast as the CPU can take them, using a clock to synchronize the timing
of the memory chip to the CPU’s system clock. Since it’s manufacture, SDRAM is modified
and a new version is produced for better performance. Generations
of SDRAM The list of
various generation are:
 SDR SDRAM
 DDR SDRAM
 DDR2 SDRAM
 DDR3 SDRAM
 DDR4 SDRAM
 DDR5 SDRAM
Characteristics
  Speed: SDRAM has higher operation speed make it popular. SDRAM access time is
6 to 12 nanoseconds (ns)
 Clock: SDRAM uses one edge of the clock. DDR uses both edges of the clock.
Data transfer: SDRAM sends signals once per clock cycle. DDR transfers data twice
per clock cycle.

7.What Is a SVGA?

7.7 Picture SVGA

According to:https://www.l-com.com/frequently-asked-questions/what-is-the-difference-between-
vga-svga-and-uxga-and-does-l-com-sell-cables-for-each The video format is the same despite the
different designations and as an example a UXGA monitor can Display resolutions from VGA all the
way up to UXGA. In all cases they use the same HD15 connector (below images) and VGA
and SVGA cables. Regardless of what resolution a Monitor or Video Card is able to support,
they are commonly referred to as just being VGA, the naming conventions listed above
never really caught on with the general public and thus even the most High End 3-D
Graphics card from Companies like NVIDIA or ATI will have what they term a VGA port (in
addition to a DVI port in many cases) even though the card may output resolutions greater
than 1920 x 1440.

Some High End Monitors support resolutions up to 2048x1536 @ 79Hz, which is still part of
the same Multisync format and is backwards compatible to lower resolutions. Most High End
Monitor Manufacturers don't mention VGA, SVGA etc at all, they typically refer to Monitors
as CRT's, LCD's or Plasma Displays and list the maximum resolution that they support and
at what refresh rate.
 Reference

https://www.lenovo.com/in/en/glossary/cd-rom
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2802/rambus-dynamic-random-access-memory-rdram
https://www.techtarget.com/searchstorage/definition/megabyte
https://smallbusiness.chron.com/ghz-mean-computer-processor-66857.html
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-agpaccelerated-graphics-port/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sdram-full-form/

https://www.l-com.com/frequently-asked-questions/what-is-the-difference-between-vga-svga-and-
uxga-and-does-l-com-sell-cables-for-each

https://www.google.com/imgres?q=What%20is%20SVGA&imgurl=https%3A%2F
%2Fcdn2.webdamdb.com%2F1280_MW3XnbOqJ3u4.jpg%3F1625706958&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.cablestogo.com%2Fcables%2Fdisplayport-vga-and-dvi%2Fvga-cables%2F6ft-1-8m-
economy-hd15-svga-m-m-monitor-cable%2Fp%2Fcg-
02635&docid=782s7RAZRToXAM&tbnid=Ahbu0ek4dHtwhM&vet=12ahUKEwiS4P3L7MWGAxWjSW
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https://www.wikiwand.com/id/DVD-RW

https://www.lifewire.com/terabytes-gigabytes-amp-petabytes-how-big-are-they-4125169

https://techterms.com/definition/sdram

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samsung_RIMM_Memory.jpg

https://videocardz.com/newz/intel-core-ultra-9-185h-finally-spotted-with-16-cores-and-5-1-ghz-
clock