generalities of technical drawing

INTRODUCTION.

The Evolution of Technical Drawing in history is like many of the changes that our
current situation has undergone and is, due to the conception of what it is, perhaps
the most diloquent communicative expression since it will always give us to
understand something that by the Ideological diversity for each person will never
be the same. In the architectural or generational field of what is called technical,
drawing has various ways of projecting real objects and situations in which man is
involved for the full satisfaction of the need for spaces that he has for the daily
development of his life. Below we show what, in our opinion and thanks to
continuous research, we conceive what the Evolution of this may be, but not
without first starting to talk about its history, branches, norms and the various ways
it uses to transmit messages to us in professional technique.

WHAT IS DRAWING
It is the language of the one who projects, with it he makes himself understood
universally, either with purely geometric representations intended for competent
people, or with perspectives for the layman. It can also be said in other words that
it is a graphic representation of a real object of an idea or design proposed for
subsequent construction.
For the architect it is nothing more than an auxiliary means for the representation
of the works.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND BY BRANCHES.
In the general classification there is ARTISTIC AND TECHNICAL.
a) The Artistic : uses drawings to express aesthetic, philosophical or abstract
ideas.
b) The technical: is the procedure used to represent topography, engineering
work, buildings and machinery parts, which consists of a standardized drawing.

The use of technical drawing is important in all branches of engineering and

industry, and also in architecture and geology.

It must indicate the materials used and the properties of the surfaces. Its
fundamental purpose is to convey the exact shape and dimensions of an object. An
ordinary perspective drawing does not provide information about hidden details of
the object and is usually not adjusted to its true proportion. Conventional technical
drawing uses two or more projections to represent an object. These projections are
different views of the object from various points that, although not complete
separately, together represent every dimension and detail of the object.

The main view or projection of a technical drawing is the front view or elevation,
which usually represents the side of the largest object; below the elevation the view
from above or plan is drawn. If these projections do not completely define the
object, more can be added; a right or left side view; auxiliary views from specific
points to show details of the object that would not otherwise be exposed; and
sections or cuts of the drawing of its interior.

§ THE TECHNICAL DRAWING IS CLASSIFIED INTO:

a) d. Natural : It is the one that is made by copying the model directly.

b) D. Continuous : It is the sculpted or painted ornament that extends the entire
length of a molding or cornice.
e) d. Industrial : Its objective is to represent machine parts, mechanical conduits,
constructions clearly but with sufficient precision and that is why it uses descriptive
geometry as an auxiliary. This also facilitates the conception of the work.
d) d. Defined : It is not a branch itself, but it is a phase of it and it is done in
Chinese ink and with the help of appropriate instruments; that allow precise work to
be carried out. The ideas of communicating the thoughts of one person to another
through figures existed since the fateful times of the caveman, there are still
examples of their existence.
BRIEF HISTORY OF DRAWING .
Since prehistory, the first men used drawing as a form of communication, through
small-sized figures, located in rocky shelters, caves and the interior of caves.
Since these very remote times, a universal language has been used, a graphic
language, which allowed the most ancient men to communicate their ideas and
thoughts with each other. These drawings constitute the most primitive forms of
writing, which later became symbols used in current writing.
Man developed graphic representation in two different directions, according to his
purpose: Artistic and Technical.
Since the beginning of time, artists used drawings to express aesthetic,
philosophical, or abstract ideas. In ancient spelling times, virtually everyone was
illiterate. There was no printing press, and therefore, there were no newspapers or
books written as there are available to the general public. People learned by
listening to their people today. The books were written by hand on papyrus or
parchment and were not superior and looking at sculptures, paintings or drawings
in public places. Everyone could attend to a table, and these were the main
sources of information.

The artist was not simply an artist in this sense, he was a teacher or a philosopher,
a means of expression and communication. The other directive that guided
drawing in its development was history and technique. Since the beginning of
recorded history, man has used drawings to represent his design of objects to be
manufactured or built. No trace remains of these early drawings, but it is definitively
known that the man used drawings, because he could not have designed and built
what he did without using relatively accurate drawings. In the Bible it is stated that
“Solomon's Temple” was built with hewn stones before they were brought into
place. Each stone and wood was carved with tools to give it shape, taken to the
site and adjusted in place. It is evident that exact drawings, showing the shapes
and sizes of the component parts, were used for the design of the temple. In
addition, the ruins of ancient buildings, aqueducts, bridges and other well-
conceived structures can be seen today, which could not have been built without
carefully prepared drawings to guide the builders. Many of these structures are still
considered “ wonders of the world.” The Temple of Amun, for example located in
Karnak, Egypt, which was completed around 980 BC and whose construction took
seven centuries. In terms of stone mass alone, this building surpassed any roofed
structure that has ever been built, as far as is known, measuring 1,200 feet in
length and 50 feet in width, at its widest point. Similarly, the great Roman circus
was a structure of enormous proportions; according to the historian Pliny, it could
accommodate a total of 250,000 spectators.

§ THE OLDEST TECHNICAL DRAWING.

The oldest technical drawing that is known, and that still exists, is the plan view of
the design of a fortress made by the Chaldean engineer Cudea, and which
appears engraved on a stone tile. It is notable the similarity that this drawing has
with those prepared by the architects of our days, despite having been “ drawn”
thousands of years before paper was invented.
The first written evidence of the application of technical drawing took place in 30
BC, when the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote a treatise on architecture in which
he says, “The architect must be skilled with the pencil and have knowledge of
drawing, so "that can easily and quickly prepare the drawings required to show the
appearance of the work proposed to be built." He then goes on to discuss the use
of the ruler and compasses for geometric constructions, for laying out the floor plan
and elevation of a building, and for drawing perspectives.
Real examples of the first drawing instruments can be seen in museums. The
compasses were made of bronze and were approximately the same size as those
of today. The ancient compass resembled the pointe compasses of today. The nibs
were cut from thin stems.
The theory of projections of objects onto imaginary planes of projection was not
developed until the early part of the fifteenth century, and its development is due to
the Italian architects Albe Brunelleschi and others. It is common knowledge that
Leonardo da Vinci used drawings to convey his ideas and designs for mechanical
constructions to others, and many such drawings exist today. However, it is not
very clear whether Leonardo ever made mechanical drawings in which
orthographic views appeared like those made today, but it is very likely that he did.
Leonardo da Vinci's treatise on painting, published in 1651, is considered the first
printed book on the theory of projection drawing; but, it is focused on orthographic
projection. The compass of the Romans was preserved practically unchanged in
the time of Leonardo. The circumferences were marked with metal tips, since
graphite pencils were not invented until the eighteenth century, when Faber
established his company in Nuremburg, Germany.

Already in the 7th century, stem quills had been replaced by those prepared with
bird feathers, generally geese.
The type of compass with writing mark gave way to the compass with graphite nib,
shortly after graphite pencils appeared. Drawing instruments used by the great civil
engineer George Washington, bearing the date 1749, can be seen at Mount
Vernon. This case is very similar in its content to the instruments that are currently
used, and is made up of a compass with points, a compass with accessories for
pencil and ink tracing, and a graph or drawing pen with parallel sheets, similar to
modern rulers.
The most frequently used technique is flat ink, that is, it is not nuanced to give
volume, nor is there any plychrony. The paintings were made with fine quill
brushes and the colors used are red, black, and white. They were obtained by
mixing mineral pigments with some type of organic excipient, probably egg white or
animal fat. Currently, technical drawing is done with computers, since the
modification and adaptation phase is easier on the screen than on paper; They
also have manufacturing because you can calculate and see what the finished
work would look like without any further setbacks. There are programs like
AutoCAD that make technical drawing extraordinarily easy in many aspects.

§ MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN THE DRAWING.

It is of great importance for the draftsman to develop the drawing, as the initial
ideas and designs are made by hand before precise drawings are made with
instruments.
The main instruments in drawing are: Drawing Table and Machines (Board), T
Ruler, 30, 45, and 60 Squares, drawing paper; Compass, Scale, Eraser.
TABLE – BOARD : It is where the graphic representation is made, it has to be a
completely smooth surface, it can be made of wood or sheet, plastic or some other
smooth material. The table has supports that allow it to be tilted for greater comfort.
Lighting is important as it must be from right to left and from front to back to avoid
producing shadows. It can also be a freestanding work board and the working edge
should be straight and can be checked with a steel rule.

RULER : It is a ruler with a head at one end. When used, the head of the
instrument must be held firmly against the edge of the board to ensure that the
lines drawn are parallel, and it also serves as support for the squares to draw
angles. If it is made of wood, you must ensure that its blade is perfectly straight.
SQUARES: The most common ones used are 60, 30 and 45, these are used
together with the T rule or parallel rule when drawing vertical or inclined lines. They
are also called bevels and are made of transparent celluloid or other plastic
materials.
[[image:data:image/jpg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/2wBDAAkGBwgHBgkIBwgKC
gkLDRYPDQwMDRsUFRAWIB0iIiAdHx8kKDQsJCYxJx8fLT0tMTU3Ojo6Iys/RD84QzQ5Ojf/
2wBDAQoKCg
0MDRoPDxo3JR8lNzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nzc3Nz
c 3Nzf/wAARCACnAKcDASIAAhEBAxEB/8QAGwABAAIDAQEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIFAQQGAwf/
xAA9EAABA
wIEAwQHBwIGAwAAAAABAAIDBBEFEiExE0FRImFxgQYUMlKRodEVI0KxwfDxJDNUYnKCkuE0
Q8L/xAAVAQEBAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAf/EABYRAQEBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABEf/aAAwDAQACEQMRAD8A+
4oiICIiAiIgIiICIiAo5G58
1hm621UkQEREBEXnPK2GF8shsxjS5x6ABBoVtZGMQgiEjczCC5t9ddP1VldclRcaR76t0TnOq3ue
5xd
oxo9nT97Lqo3h8bXe8AUE7rKiiCSKN0QSRFi6DKLF0ugyixdLoMosXXlUTxwROlmeGMbuSg9kVfh
mK0u
JCT1dxzxmzmOFnDofArfugyixdLoMosXS6DKovSeoBigoA4B1S+ziTYBg3v8AJXhK5GCpfiGLVeIM
g
dNFG/1aHK9o7OznWO43537igsKRsbos8MvFidbhkEEADSwt4K2oXXpmX3F2/ArSY1sbGsY0Na0
WAA0
AWzQHSRvR1x5/wg20REBERBJRUlFAREQERaeKYjBhtPxZ3anRjB7Tz0CD0rq2CgpnT1LwxjfiT0
HeuYqJKrFj6zO1sdOwnhQvOgPJz9fksiGpxCp9bxEluUXhjsC2PXnfc+IU640tXFDAZ
yw1RLonxXFy0X9ofXVUeU9OaidlTh1TGJ429maMjTucL6tPIfG6uMExtlfmp6hnAroh95CToR7zT
zH76E8/hVNRUBZK2qkmMrzCwkP9o6kAG9tRvotvEKOOrAfTyGKogsInQgAxn6bacglHWg3RUWC
Y0 +aQ0GJtENewXFhZso95v0
/YvRqFAREQVXpNXmhwmYsNppfuov8AU7S/kLnyWjhFH6pTQtiqM0cceR0bcrmZ73Jva+9xa9u5e
GKTGu9IQyON0zMMZxCxrgC6Q6gC+nTfvVzA0OcwZMod2ng2uPG3PZBFwIJzbr0oTlqHN5 Ob +
5JmgmUOIPgLWsPBec0NRideKOnfU0jpQWy3fdrWAC7gNr6geJ5qjFFNW4hU+r4bHE6Wkc5j6
hpLIGg8iNbnuF7W3VvD6KOcAavFawkEuDKUiBgJ3tlF/mrzD6Gnw6jipKOIRwxNytaB+9e9b
Kg593osxpDqbFcTie32S6o4gv4OB6quq6Kuw4NdWD1ikbJxHz0reG8Hq9o5d4PjouxWC0Hl3Jo4t4i
qmRNlkjjne4zQyU93FnMG/keXK26u8HxgyllLX/d1NrtcQQJR1F9vA6qqxOiGGVvChfLFR
VhJa2Ldkg3aOgI/LRZkjFVTZnRSNeLZOI7KWkH2tL2JGum+xVHXLWxGrjoaKapl9iJpcR17vNU2G
Y3JFOKLEAXAaNqhbIbcne6f2TqCoek8xrKyiwiO5bK7iz2Nuw3Yfn8FB4YBTvFK2d1T9/PIZ5
2jK7PmvYHS4XR0bdHP5E2HgtCBmcCX1cwzSWaQ4NzaEgXIvtqd+ZVsxoY0NboALBB4Vuga617
LTeexm5t7Q8tVvVgvCSOSr8yC3BvqEXjRuz00Z7rHy0XsgIiIJKN1lxs0lctjePFzXw0brRN0
fMDbNrqG/VB7Y76QGGR1Fhpa+p2fIfZi/QnuVPRUhjJlkc4zFxzyF4Jk03PddadLNTieSOENdns
Wsawkl1/C/Qq6jjsGmocGHL2o2G7mn8h5/BBkjM0tyk3BBA3N+iYBTCiq56urHGhdC90YZ52Z47
RJ/+
V7RylukLRGNrjVx8T9FloQSqcddNUSUVORFOG5gCL3G+/LT81mgxSeESU0o4z2kuaS4A5CfmQd
D4hefBgMrZjGwzNFg/LqL76ryrGWDJI7cRhu0EgAnm3/dchBZjGJOdIQenEWfth9v/FP/
ADCo3V8AAu+
2YB2vu/Df9Vj7Rp7OAkZcGzRc6/vVBuYtVjEqWOMRGOeKoaWhxGtjrY+BHxXlAQHTtDJxqD
mkIIO+1l4faNLcniMPZuD13/fmonE6UloMzLEam+x0021/6VG3OziFgLiADfQ2+fL/AK6LR9
H2S1hqsRbPlfK9scTsodeNmgBHf+qTvfilDUU2HyxOnczL7VuyTqfhf4qLnS4bTTy8IMjp2s
gh4rWNLWi2d+bmDfTWxyjRQdbRtDpC78I28f3+a3VxvovPiL6J01RUTB+c6S9sHroem1wRqC
ugjxGVv9+EOHvROv8AI/UoN6cXhf4KqPgrGGrp6m7I5Wl/uHsu+B1VW52/VBYYYfupGE+
y8/A/srcVZhcn9RKw82g/D+VZoMhECIIveGtJcQANSToAqasx+kjJbTsE7tsw0bfx5rncfOMiotiR+4v2
DF/b/nx1WpDtvogupsRqand+Rp/CzRQjA5LXh2CtsJpqWc/1Dy6QHSM6Nt+v70Q
eVPHJO7LTxl9tyNh4lWtPheuapkLv8jDYeZ3PyVhGxkbA1jQ1o2AFgFJBW4hStZC18TQ0M0IA5dV
XObmYQCRcctwuic0OaQRoRY+Cpp4DDKWHb8Pgg1cLqRSYkaV5BhqDdut+HJ0/3DXx8Vb4n 0
4EJz9h17kusDs0XP8LrMLw6DDKKOlpm2a3VziNXu5uPeUFVB6OVElpMRxitkk3y07+CwfDVWdPh
cMEXCEtRIzpNKZPm65W9ZEFfPRsjjvE1wa0aNY2/wC0IZY58wp5Gylps9rfaaejmnUHxV+VzPpZ
RmmDcZpMzJ4rNnyf8AsjOmveL6FB6zWeLSMvb3heyhnAsByXhR1MkkTmZKiYBuZk1QQOKT0I5
aDlz8l5VlVHRvAqA5rDtINQO4/
wADzQWOHy5K6HXRxLT5j6gK/GwXLBkkLoZgbtzNe1wOjhcbHmupQZCIEQQkibIwskaHNOhBFw
Vz9d6ONaeJQODQTrE46eR5ea6RRQcU2J8TyyRhY4btcNVsR9QunqaWGqblmYHW2OxHgVTVO
Gy
05Lo7yR76DUeIQe1LiMkdmzfeN+Y+qtYZo5mZonBw7uS5xpuveJz2uzNcQR0QdAtWuizxh4F3M
18uahBXA2Ewsfe+q3BY63ugp7XAt81V1I9VmMzrlpGWUZhdzeTu6xOXwV1UR8KUgaNOoK1amPi
QloaXaHsAgZxbVp7iiqjDoSz0go554XQ08TJheR4d2zoOel23XRPxbK4htJI9oOjg9tj36lc764aR3Clzy
tYAGPYMxcL6H4aeIKn9o3bZscuc3t92ethfXwRF79rn/BS/82fVPtd2v9BN 3 HOz
DGLDS/wHmt2oiZLDIDHG4vbbtbG21+dlpvxQZP7cuflePTc9/QfFYdikYcLRzFgBuOHre4tz7ygh
SVkvo9NwXl1RhjtXNtcw35+Hd+u/Z088VRCyaB4fG8ZmvB0IXDzYzAWSM4MpLgcuaG4PS+vUKW
EY
v6jPHDRQzGndcvjcyw23B5G/xQd4EXlTTsqImyRHMxw3RB7LBWUQRTfdZssINSqoI5iXNGR/
UbHyVdLBJTm0osPeGoV4sOaHAhwBB5EIKVq9Yp3xG7Tcc28l7z0G7oDb/
KTp5dFqODmHK5pa7m
CityWWKpisey8ai61Roo+KBBqTvdR1cdVHclhJIuO0w+0wDna2Yd4XSRSMljZJG4OY4AtI5gqllbmY
bEgjUWt+qlgdS2OV9A46AZ4RfYX7TPFp+
RRF2iIgIiIFksiICWREBERAREQFFSWCgwiIgKEsLJW2kaHDl3KaIKyeikj1jJezp+IfVawddXi16ikjm1tl
f7w/XqgrFo1ofFLHPAPvGOzs7QADunU5hp5Kwmglg9sXaPxjb/
AKWvIBI0tvYnmNx0PjzRV5R1MdZTR1ERuyRtx1Hce8L3XM4DVmmrn0cvZbOS9gzA5ZB7Q094do
ea6UahEZREQEREBERAREQEREBCiIIoskLCAiIgIiIBFxZaNRh7XAugdkPu/
hP0W8iDk8VppIyHX4DwQWPLgGh4PZd362G+xXRYVWtr6CKoDcrnCz2e48aOb5G695ImSsLJGB
zDuCvCkoWUkkhhNmSHMW79rrfw/JBuIiICIiAiIgIiICIiAiIgIiICIiAiIgIiICIiAiIgIiICIiAiIg 2Q==
width="120" height="120"]]
THE SCALE OR SCALIMETER: The scales are normally referred to the meter,
the most used being: Esc. 1:100, Esc. 1:75, Esc. 1:50, Esc. 1: 20. Scales are used
to measure, it is very important for draftsmen to be precise with the scale. The
scale used must be indicated on the strip or box for the title. Scalemeters are
metric rulers graduated in centimeters and millimeters. It has a pyramid shape and
has two different scales.

THE COMPASS : This instrument is used to draw circles and arcs. It consists of
two arms, in one there is the tip and in the other a spike or lead that rotates with
the arm with the tip as its center. The spring-loaded compass with central
adjustment screw is increasingly used; due to the rigidity with which it maintains its
opening.
[[image:data:image/jpg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABAQAAAQABAAD/2wCEAAkGBhQRERQQERQ
UFBUWFBAVGBcUDw8VGBQYFRYWFxQYFhcXHSYeFxwjGhcUIC8hIycsLCwsFR4xNTIqNSYrL
CkBCQoKDgwOGg8PFCkcHCQpLCwsLCwrLCwpLCwpLCwsKSwpKSksKSwsLCk0LCksLCwpKS
wpLCwpKSksLCkpKSwpKf/AABEIAO8AagMBIgACEQEDEQH/
xAAcAAACAwEBAQEAAAAAAAAAAAAABwEFBgQDAgj/
xABFEAABAwICBgUIBwUIAwAAAAABAAIDBBESIQUGEzFBcQdRgZGhIjJSYZKiscEUIyRCU3Ky
NEOC4fBiY3ODo7PR0ggVM
EABcBAQEBAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAQP/xAAfEQEAAwACAgMBAAAAAAAAAAAAAQIxES
EDMiJBUXH/2gAMAwEAAhEDEQA/
AHihCEAhCEAqbS2sgpxI50Zc2NhecLm4nWOYaDle3WQrlZHXGO8VSBv2Eh8R/
wArJxsa1kcgcA4biAR2r6XJo+YbGMnjHGe9oXUDdaxKEIQCEIQChSoQShCEAhCEAsxrDFcyjg6C
Qcesblp1jOkSufTwCaLDifLFCQ8YgWySNZ5IuCHWddTbFV1e6Nd9mh/
wYf0NVlT+aOS4IaQxxMjzIYyNt7b8LQL+rcu+n80clSXohCEAhCEAoUqEEoQhAIQhApf/
ACCF4aNrrYdrMTccRHlfsLkmBTt+7aw4g3Ge+38k+
umGqZEaCSVrHME8o+tifKxjjGcL3Rtzkw2Jw7ibdSTul6iGSfaRtLxia6Q22YnOIF+FrWgRBzQRkBYu
7TM62Hv0eNMelaIxhpdtw0gkizXseHnfkQwucOsgL9OUsgLRhN8gkj/7jR76zR4oYsJ+
k7T/AOTozTh7JBJCQd+J9nAAkCxItizZVLORmDYrYnklqkLkoKkubmutawIQhAKFKhBKEIQCEIQ
cxwu9UJ7V9I7zvtEZz/K7f/XBPSifdrSOIae8BJLUODHWNed0Mcku77x+rZ+p3spy6FfeJnqu08
2kj5LYn5TBMfHlqdE+b2qxVfooeT2qwVoCEIQChSoQShCEAhC8a2fBG9/ose72QT8kC01hldIyo2
ZtJK7YxkmwEk8zYYjfhYvB5BJ+s1dqWSOaaOqbZzshSSkNzzDSMnC97EbxZN7RrMdRRxn8dsjh6
oY3yX7Hhi1FXTY3C/WuPijrl08k9lHqZoOWnxPlaWiaLFhcwsfHspQ1oc07sWMnlZMH
Vqa4kZxDw7se3/s13errXDRI+jiRo8pmR9YItYnqxBhWX1bqPtBbwfEe9jg4eBcty5tDE0Q67ORKsFU
aGfm4clbrq5hCEIBQpUIJQhCAVRrZLhpJvW0M9shvwJVus7rvJ9QxvpSN7mgu+QU2y
WxrM6sR3rQfw6eZ3MyPZGPg5a+nju8d6zeqEPl1MnqpYgeQfI4e+1arR7buv6lnj9W2106UpNpDJH
6THAc7ZeNko9HTbOeFxywzNY63APJid+oHsTmSa1ppDHUVEbcrOLm+rEMTfELL/AFLafhj6MfaQ
DmFehZegqw/ZzDc8Rv8AbAPzWnaV0Q+
kIQgFClQglCEIBZHXia7omdQkd34Wj5rXLBa4VN6k33MYwfFzvAhc/J6qrrp1UZankf8AiVNQ72MMI/
21pdGN3lUGrsZbR0wO8xNeechMh/UtHo5vkd6uOoZLrS06R6TBVMk4SR5+ssNvgQ
mWsZ0n016eKUfclAPJ4LfjZZeOm11wap1GKkjHGMyRH/LecPuli3lM+7QfUEsNR6n9oj6nRSj+Jpjd
4xs70xtEyXZbquErjJ13oQEKmBQpUIJQhCASp1pq8T6p433kYO7Zi3bZNR77Ak7
gCe5KOm+ulgB/e1MJPIybV/ugrl5PqF1b50QYBGNzGtYOTGhvyV1SNs0cgqVzsTuZ+JV7GMl1Q+1
Ta40W1op2WuRG5w5s8ofBXK+ZGBwLTuIIPakhM6o1dqtg4Swyt7QBI3wa5M/
Qkm8cknonmmqGXy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lwrtutnhebbnmc4pj0dbvHnyzvbrm0qzwe5u2crxtk8yahjqpu2fid+5Mprvbuffufrxpxpxdbllgx2vkbfs6pcei
qcwptnrz004/vyj3b7f0u70zljelwld6am4x4xmky55OJF3WVDRES2Ud
TSPTJA6YEOLVEBZPW5X+ZIBI3XL00QR92G+OJK6KAQEDRSZF69LH1B8TXPZ5TXW5JXAILD
OX3DYUWTQZCFDVKPIVXZMDKEVX/
DF4IW+K7VUAXHGY1TQWHKKMJPXJPXKHTGLNMA57HW371M
P0FTU2TMP36LJOKP+YT0EYZG8KVUJQVAKFSTM2KBJK6UI2B3ux523KNLQMPAQQLBRLK9R
DZ16OQUWIQHALN9ICF6CV9GDKYPS+DYNTDL/
P7QDQ0I5DK0INGLGCARJHJHJGGQGQDXDXD2LP
EDTRMNMGEQI6IIXPEYTK/WBX7K5DXPMNN6IKZPANDJSXKHZSY3ZYMDPNVVGC9MMM3JX
GGMYMGMTT+TA1X0Q+SFSR
SAEXCB+BNGBNLDKUWKTULHRNOJIACTKGMADSCRDIWKD2HU6XDRFGXR41NONGBCLG
R7N9HIDT2GAPI04SAFR0WJ8D2SAYYA2/5RYK/YFURXHDHOHCFOEIQGEIQG/N+N+TMK46
7OZ2YKPI32WUICABXBYO+92ZQXOQTJBG8AFJWHWF7YZNJMD/LE58VW6XDH0MMMYKK5X
FDZHPWDDH21KGGIUNRKFU9VHBVTCLA0DEGCW4558SD6MKXE8W3L9WWWWWWWC9MK
9
9RJAC1CKN0VQVOEYPOQTX6HI/AXO5KENLGTAHBZWU+G/RK9WFKEAHCEAHCEAHCEHUU
OE5JJVY4UHA1ZSO53GVUMSPQGAFCM6+BOP/2Q = = width="106" height="239"]]
For large arcs and circles, draftsmen use the bar compass. In some of them the
lower part of an arm is removable and provides two accessories: One for the lead
and another for drawing ink.
DRAWING PENCILS: To draw it is necessary to use pencils with special leads,
this is graduated by numbers and letters according to the hardness of the lead. A
hard pencil paints softer lines than a soft pencil at equal pressure. It is the basic
instrument for representation.

TEMPLATES: Used to draw standard square, hexagonal, triangular and elliptical

shapes. These are used to save time and for greater accuracy in drawing.

ERASE TEMPLATES : These are thin metal pieces that have several openings
that allow you to erase small details without touching what should remain in the
drawing. Erasers are used to erase, the most recommended are the so-called
pencil erasers that exist on the current market.

IRREGULAR CURVES: The contours of these are based on various combinations

of ellipses, spirals and other mathematical curves. These are used to draw curved
lines in which their radius of curvature is not constant, these are also called curve
gun or curvigraph.
SHARPENER: After you have cut the wood of a pencil with a knife or mechanical
pencil sharpener, you must sharpen the graphite shaft of the pencil and give it a
long tapered point.
ERASE: The soft or artist's eraser, which they call milk and Nysón, is useful for
cleaning paper or fabric from the frames and dirt left by fingers that damage the
appearance of the finished drawing. There is also the pulverized eraser, which is
the graphite left unintentionally left for later misdeeds with sweat.
DRAWING INK: Drawing ink is a finely divided carbon powder, in suspension, with
an addition of natural or synthetic rubber to prevent the mixture from running easily
with water.
The standards for drawings make it easier for the architect to organize them in the
office and in the workshop for consultations and referrals.
TRACING CLOTH OR PAPER FABRIC: A finely woven fabric coated with a
special or plastic starch is used; to make drawings either in pencil or ink.
THE LETTERS.
For the complete description of a plan, graphic language is required to show the
shape and layout, and writing to indicate measurements, work methods, types of
material and other information. Thus, the good draftsman, in addition to knowing
how to draw perfectly, must be very proficient in handwriting.
à The most commonly used type of letter is commercial Gothic, based on simple
strokes. The letters can be uppercase or uppercase and lowercase or lowercase,
both based on inclined or vertical type. In some companies the vertical type is used
exclusively; in others the inclined type. And finally, they sometimes use upright
letters for titles and slanted letters for dimensions and notes, or other
combinations. The draftsman who wants to occupy a position in a company will
have to adapt to the company's customs.
Study and practice give perfect mastery of the shape and dimensions of each
letter. Short but frequent periods of practice give mastery in labeling. Finally, you
have to combine the letters evenly to obtain easy-to-read words.
Guide lines. To achieve uniform letters, guide lines must be drawn to delimit the
height of the letters. These lines will be very fine and in pencil. The distance
between lines of letters is generally taken from half to one and a half times the
height of the capital letters.
We begin by marking the height of the capital letters in the first line, and then we
use the dry-point compass to set the chosen distance between the lower edges of
the letters, thus marking said lower edges. Doing the same with the upper edges,
we will have the guide lines we need located.
Letter writing practice should logically proceed to writing words and phrases. It is
advisable to pay special attention to numbers and fractions, which constitute an
essential part of the dimensioning of a drawing.
Labeled in pencil . The order of the strokes and the dimensions of the letters
must be learned by first practicing with the pencil before trying with ink.
The lead must be sharpened so that a long conical point is obtained. The pressure
of the pencil on the paper should be as uniform as possible and it is advisable to
get into the habit of rolling the pencil between your fingers every three or four
strokes, to achieve greater uniformity. The pencil should be held in the hand with
the minimum force necessary to control the strokes.
Ink lettering . The term single stroke means that the thickness of the sticks and
hooks of the letters is uniform and equal to the thickness of the pen stroke. The
marking pen, therefore, must make uniform strokes of the appropriate thickness for
the size of the letter, in all directions.
 Vertical capital letters with simple strokes. Vertical strokes run from top to
bottom and horizontal strokes from left to right.
The numbers. They require special attention. Note that its shape differs quite a
bit, like those of letters, from those used in normal writing.
Broken. They are always done with the horizontal quotient line. The fraction terms
are approximately two-thirds the height of the whole numbers. A small space must
be left above and below the break line.
Vertical lowercase. The height of the body about two-thirds of the capital letters.

Slanted capital letters. Two points must always be kept in mind in this type of
writing: first, maintain a uniform inclination in all the letters and second, achieve the
correct shape of the curved parts of the rounded letters.
The inclined lowercase letters . They are usually used in explanatory notes for
speed in writing and clarity in reading .
Their bodies are two-thirds of the capitals high with the sticks up to the top guide
and the sticks down the same length.
“The letters that make up a word are not placed at an equal distance from each
other, but we must ensure that their relative separations, that is, the areas of the
white spaces between them, are equal, which produces the impression of being
separated. evenly. Thus, two letters with straight strokes will be further apart than
two other rounded ones.”
Devices and templates for labeling . They allow the tracing of standardized
letters of various heights with great uniformity. There are different thicknesses of
nibs for the corresponding sizes on the market. The guides and templates also
contain many symbols used in the plans, such as welding, architectural, electrical,
etc. symbols.
§ THE CARD.
The card is located on the lower right side of the paper. This contains all the
information regarding the project to be carried out, such as the one who designed
it, the engineer who is going to build the work, the owner or owners of said work,
the scale used, among other important things.
§ STANDARDIZATION FOR PAPER FORMATS AND FOLDING IN TECHNICAL
DRAWING.
The standards for drawings make it easier for the architect to organize them in the
office and in the workshop for consultations and referrals.
The margin of the cover is:
1) In formats A0-A3 =10mm
2) In A4-A6 formats = 5mm

In small drawings, a margin of 25 mm is allowed for sewing.

Narrow formats can exceptionally be composed by a succession of equal sizes or
immediate shapes from the same series.
For sewing, a margin of 5 cm is left on the left in which it is not drawn.

The type of drawing, sketch, preliminary project, project is indicated on the label on
the right.
• Indication of the different figures of the building or the elements of the works
represented by a site plan, floor plans, sections, views, perspective.
• Scale indication.
• Sometimes indication of dimensions.
The plans that are sent to the authority requesting a construction permit must also
indicate:
1) Owner's name (signature)
2) Name of the architect (signature)
3) Name of the director of the work (signature)
4) Builder name (signature)
In addition to all this, when using graphite and ink, special care must be taken with
the implementation of the ruler and squares.
§ SIZING OR DIMENSIONING.
We must not forget that the value of a drawing lies not only in a correct
representation of the shapes, but also in the exact and clear indication of the
dimensions or dimensions. The omission of even one of these can render the best-
executed design unusable, and a wrong dimensioning can have serious
consequences. Therefore, the dimensioning must be done very carefully.
Dimension and indications.

All dimensions refer to the raw construction (wall thicknesses). Dimensions less
than 1m in building drawings are generally expressed in cm, those higher in m.
Lately, according to Bol, dimensions in mm are also accepted.
The sections of chimneys and ventilation channels will be indicated as a break of
the lights in the form of width / length; If they are circular, the same as pipes, it is
indicated by their diameter, with the Ø sign.
The squares will also be indicated with the width/length break.
The dimensions of the steps are noted along the axis of the ladder; the tread
above and the riser below.
Door and window openings are delimited along their axis, writing the free width
above and the free height below.
The height levels refer to the floor level of the ground floor that is taken as the
origin.
The room numbers are enclosed in a small circle.
The surface area of the rooms is expressed in m2 enclosed in a small square or
rectangle.
§ SCALES AND GRAPHICS.
The scale indications, starting from the simple graduated scale, can be varied to
adapt them to the graphic style of the plan. The relationship between graduated
scale and human figure can even give the human scale and the third dimension as
supplementary information.
MODERN DRAWING METHODS.
The modernization of technical drawing dates back to the 1850s with the first
manufacturing company of drawing instruments in the United States. In 1876, the
procedure of heliographic copies began, thus discarding the techniques of drawing
in fine lines through the use of shadow or nuances and the use of watercolor
washes.

Until about the beginning of the 20th century, drawings were generally made in
what is called first-angle projection in which the plan view was placed below the
front view, the left side view was placed to the right of the front view. Etc. By then
the US practice gradually settled in favor of the current third angle projection in the
which views or elevations are located in what we consider as possible logical or
natural.
There are several drawing techniques such as:
• Pencil technique
• Ink technique
• Down technique
• Gonache technique
• Watercolor technique
• Color technique
• Airbrush technique
The most modern and updated are AutoCAD and MiniCAD.

Advantages (main and general):

-The time for preparing plans for a complete project is considerably reduced.
-Facilitates corrections and modifications to project plans.
-Archiving projects in perfect condition only takes up a few bytes in a zipdrive.

Disadvantages:
-It requires a period of learning and purchasing more expensive drawing
equipment than traditional ones and a fairly expensive drawing program (like
Autocad) (although so far, students manage to copy it, but soon it may no longer
be possible )
-Although it helps when designing, we still think better with a pencil and paper in
hand. It's a matter of time.
Advantages of traditional drawing:
-Designing, capturing quick ideas, making sketches, is even more comfortable by
hand.
-The drawings have a special warmth when they are made by hand. They seem
less cold.
Disadvantages:
-More time to develop the complete project.
-Corrections and modifications are uncomfortable and require much more time.-
-The storage of paper plans leads to their gradual deterioration, and the use of
large spaces.
-The posture when drawing on a drawing table can be much more tiring and affect
the spine.
§ CLASSIFICATION
Depending on what it is drawn, it is classified into:
&Civil or structural drawing
& Architectural drawing
& Industrial drawing
& Electrical drawing
& Sanitary drawing.
Depending on how it is drawn, it is classified into:
& Continuous drawing
&Natural drawing.

§ STRUCTURAL DRAWING

This applies to drawings of steel, wood, masonry, concrete, etc. works for bridges,
buildings and dams. They differ from the others only practices that have been
developed as peculiar to the materials with which they work and their procedure
and manufacturing.
§ INSTRUMENT HANDLING.
When you are just starting to draw, it is best to simply work with a T-ruler and a
drawing board. This will allow you to “Feel” these instruments, in addition to being
able to “Square” the drawing paper on the table with less difficulty. For the first
drawings, it is recommended to use letter-size paper. One or more squares and a
roll of adhesive tape, etc. will also be used.
Squares are used to draw vertical lines, horizontal lines and angles. The basic
squares used for drawing are 450 and 6O0.
The protractor can be circular or semicircular in shape and is used to measure
angles.
The compass is an instrument used to draw circles and arcs, both in pencil and
ink.
The compasses for divisions look like the common compass, except that the
former have two metal points. They are used to take measurements, to transport
stockings or to divide lines.
The drawing can be done better if the work surface is covered with a sheet of thick
paper and if we have all the materials and equipment to be used within reach.
The reason why the use of thick paper as a cover is recommended is due to the
fact that the wood of the drawing board or drawing board may have small holes or
ridges in the surface, due to the grain of the wood. This paper cover will provide a
smooth, uneven work surface.
When placing the paper cover over the spreader, make sure it does not cover the
edge along which the ruler head runs, which is generally the left edge of the
spreader.
§ CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS.

General plane.

This includes a terrain profile; the use of structures, elevations of the basic points
of the structure; udder and slope spaces; directions of the current and everything
necessary to project the substructure and superstructure.
§ WORKSHOP DRAWING .
Detail drawings must be made of all iron and steel parts, as well as all wood,
factory and concrete works.
§ DRAWING IN OUR ENVIRONMENT.
Nowadays, drawing has reached an incredible level of importance. In our
environment, the drawing of most architectural and engineering offices is done
through a computer program called (autocad), this program began with version No.
14 and has currently reached version No.2000, but this has not been so widely
accepted due to its cost and complexity.
The use of the computerized system in SD It started in the offices of the Arch.
Plácido Piña, with the program (Minicad), this program is compatible only on Apple
machines, this program can be transferred to (autocad).
Another design and drawing program that is being used even more than (autocad)
is SAI> 2000, which provides countless options that facilitate designs, as well as
the drawing of structural members such as beams, columns, foundations. , block
walls, etc.