Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 485–490
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia

10th CIRP Conference on Photonic Technologies [LANE 2018]

Direct laser welding of pure titanium to austenitic stainless steel

Antoine Mannuccia,b,*, Iryna Tomashchuka, Alexandre Mathieua, Eugen Cicalaa, Tommy
Boucherona, Rodolphe Bolota, Sebastien Lafayeb
a
Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, UMR 6303 CNRS, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 12 Rue de la Fonderie, 71200 le Creusot,
France
b
Laser Rhône Alpes, 49-51 Boulevard Paul Langevin, 38600 Fontaine, France

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-(0)38-573-1116 ; fax: +33-(0)38-573-1120. E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

Direct butt joining of pure titanium to 316L stainless steel with continuous Yb:YAG laser was performed with variation of the beam offset from
joint line. Mechanical properties of samples were evaluated by tensile tests and three-point flexural tests. The fractured surfaces and cross
sections of welds were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD).
Tensile properties of welds were strongly determined by the beam offset from joint line and are well described by Weibull statistics. Ultimate
tensile strength of 174  69 MPa and ultimate flexural strength of 297  48 MPa were obtained. Brittle fracture took place in the diffusive
interface rich in  and FeTi phases.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the Bayerisches Laserzentrum GmbH.

Keywords: Laser; dissimilar welding; titanium; stainless steel.

1. Introduction mechanism of weld formation, and the intermetallic layers are

reduced to the submicron level.
Titanium and its alloys have high specific strength, good Laser welding represents a powerful tool for dissimilar
corrosion properties and biocompatibility, but also a higher joining because of very precise positioning and concentrated
cost in comparison with stainless steel. The creation of sound energy supply that make possible an accurate control of
dissimilar joints between these materials can improve weight melted zone composition and high flexibility of welding
and cost reduction in aeronautical, nuclear, chemical and configurations [7]. The joining of titanium to steel through a
medical industries. metallurgically compatible intermediate material, such as
The mismatch of thermal expansion coefficients (Table 1) vanadium, can be easily achieved [2], [8]. However, it is
and the formation of brittle intermetallic phases such as 1 and associated with additional cost. First attempts of continuous
FeTi over large Ti concentration regions [1] make such laser welding with no intermediate material in butt
joining challenging. The tensile strength of titanium-stainless configuration showed very fragile behavior of the melted zone
steel diffusion joints increases with interface thickness up to because of the accumulation of important quantity of brittle
the accumulation of the critical level of brittle phases [2]. In phases after the reaction between two melted materials [9].
fusion welding, the accumulation of brittle intermetallic Pulsed laser welding was able to produce better quality welds,
phases associated with high residual stresses leads to however, associated UTS values were quite low (≤80 MPa)
important cold cracking. Presently, the resistant titanium- and very dispersed [10]. The application of progressive
steel joints can be obtained only with solid state joining attenuation of the beam during laser pulse allowed reaching
methods, such as explosion [3], [4] and friction welding [3], UTS of 200 MPa in lap configuration, due to the less violent
[5], [6], [7], where mechanical mixing remains the main convection of the melt [11]. Chen et al [12] demonstrated the

2212-8271 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the Bayerisches Laserzentrum GmbH.
10.1016/j.procir.2018.08.138

This is a resupply of March 2023 as the template used in the publication of the original article contained errors. The content of the article has remained unaffected.
 486 Antoine Mannucci et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 485–490

possibility of direct laser welding of titanium with stainless Microstructure and local composition of cross sections and
steel in butt configuration. The offset of the laser beam away of fracture surfaces were studied with SEM JEOL with EDS
from the joint interface allowed the progressive suppression analyzer. Fracture surfaces underwent XRD analysis with
of materials mixing associated with the reduction of brittle PANalytical X’Pert PRO using a Co target. Scanning range of
intermetallic zones. The best result was obtained with beam 40−120° with a step scan of 0.0167° and counting time of
offset on the steel side: the formation of about 30 µm thick 200 s per step were used.
reactive interface between solid titanium and melted zone, Tensile tests were carried out at room temperature, with the
composed by FeTi + α-Ti and FeTi + 1 + Ti5Fe17Cr5 layers, MTS Insight 30 kN tensile test machine, at cross head speed
allowed to enhance joint UTS up to 150 MPa. of 5 mm/min. Flexure tests were made with MTS Insight
In the present study, the effect of beam offset towards 50 kN at cross head speed of 5 mm/min and with a loading
titanium alloy on composition, microstructure, tensile edge diameter of 1.5 mm.
properties and fracture mode of titanium/stainless steel joints
welded with continuous Yb:YAG laser is explored. 3. Results and discussion

Table 1. Properties of T40 and 316L 3.1. General observations

Properties Units 316 L T40
Melting temperature K 1663-1713 1941
Thermal diffusivity 10-6 m²/s 3.8 9.4
The welds have typical hourglass morphology due to
Thermal expansion coefficient 10-6/K 16.5 8.4 Marangoni convection (Fig. 1). The beam offset on the
Density kg/m3 7980 4510 titanium side allows reducing the content of stainless steel
UTS MPa 590 345 elements in the melted zones (MZ) and thus limits the
Yield strength MPa 300 276
Breaking strain % 57 20 formation of brittle intermetallic phases to stainless steel/MZ
interface. The direct fusion of stainless steel side occurs only
2. Experimental procedures at the top and the bottom parts of the MZ (Fig.1b), where the
stainless steel elements are quickly diluted in liquid Ti under
1 mm thick plates of T40 titanium and 316L stainless steel the effect of Marangoni convection. Except for 0.17 mm beam
(Table 2) were butt-welded with Yb:YAG continuous laser offset (Fig. 1a), an unmelted layer of titanium remains
Trumpf 6001 (maximal beam power of 6 kW), focused spot between 316L and the MZ. The development of reactive
size of 200 µm and linear energy of 18 kJ/m. Top and bottom interface in this zone is defined by elements interdiffusion and
gas protection was used. The beam offset from the joint line eventually influenced by melt capillarity at the extremities of
on the titanium side () varied from 0.17 to 0.42 mm with a solid Ti layer.
step of 0.05 mm. Four welds by condition were produced. The welds with 0.32 mm have an average composition of
Three strips with dimensions 20x120 mm were cut out 99 at.Ti. At lower , the MZ becomes more and more
from the welded plates perpendicularly to the weld: two for enriched in steel elements (Table 3). Fe and Cr have
tensile tests and one for flexure tests. Smaller samples were relatively high solubility in -Ti [1], [13], which results in the
also cut out for EDX analyses and grinded down to 0.05 µm. predominant formation of (Ti) phase [13] in the MZ with
0.220.32 mm. Under =0.17 mm, the MZ becomes highly
Table 2. Chemical composition of welded materials (in wt. %) inhomogeneous and presents the bulk accumulation of brittle
316L SS phases such as FeTi and , which explains the severe
Fe Cr Ni Mo Mn Si C N P Co cracking of the weld (Fig.1.a).
Bal. 16.6 10.0 2.03 1.28 0.39 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.18
T40 Table 3. Ti content in the melted zones.
Ti Fe C N O H
Bal. 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.14 0.002  (mm) 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.32 0.37 0.42
Ti (at.%) 76 93 97 99 99 100

3.2. Microstructure of 316L/MZ interface

The reactive interface between stainless steel and MZ is

composed by two layers (Fig. 2). Local phase content was
estimated basing on the Cr-Fe-Ti phase diagram (Fig.3) [13].
Punctual EDX analysis of the zones A-D is provided in Table
4. Layer 1, richer in Ti, exists in top and bottom parts of the
dissimilar interface as well as between stainless steel and non-
melted titanium layer. For extreme shifts (> 0.37 mm), the
lack
of interaction is observed in the center of the unmelted
titanium layer.
The layer 1 is an eutectic composed by the matrix A with
70 at.% Ti ( phase) and small particles (too thin to be
Fig. 1. Cross sections of the welds with (a) = 0.17 and (b) =0.37 mm.
analyzed, probably FeTi and 1(Ti(Fe1-xCrx)2)).

This is a resupply of March 2023 as the template used in the publication of the original article contained errors. The content of the article has remained unaffected.
 Antoine Mannucci et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 485–490 487

Zones in
layers 1 and 2
A

Fig. 2. Intermetallic layers at 316L/MZ interface: (a) the microstructure of

reactive layers ( = 0.37 mm); (b) cold cracks ( = 0.32 mm). Fig. 3. EDX analysis of intermetallic layers shown on ternary Cr-Fe-Ti
diagram at 1000 °C, in at. %, with liquidus projection given in [13].
The second layer, richer in stainless steel elements, has
more complex microstructure (zones B, C and D) and exists 80
L1+L2 L2
only at top and bottom part of 316L/MZ interface, where the Layer thickness (µm)
dissolution of stainless steel is promoted by Marangoni 60
y = -155.5x + 82.71
convection. The zone B corresponds to the peritectic line R² = 0.8823 p-value= 0.0184
between FeTi, 1 and (Ti) and is similar to the small 40
particles in layer 1. The zone C contains 1 Laves phase and 
(Ti5Fe17Cr7) phases, and zone D is composed by bright 20
particles with predominance of . y = -172.86x + 76.451
Progressive beam offset on titanium induces a linear R² = 0.8925 p-value= 0.0048
0
decrease of interface thickness (Fig. 4). In general, the 0,15 0,25 0,35 0,45
maximal interface thickness is observed at the extremities of (mm)
the zones of Marangoni convection, and the minimal – at the
Fig. 4. Maximal thickness of intermetallic interface between titanium and MZ
mid-height of the weld. Such variation is mainly determined in function of beam offset (estimated from eight samples per condition).
by the local thermal field and will be the object of future work
on numerical simulation. Previously, the multiphysical Table 4. EDX composition of intermetallic layers.
modelling of laser-assisted brazing between titanium chamfer
Ti Fe Cr Ni
and Al-12Si filler showed the important variation of Ti Location Phase content
(at.%) (at.%) (at.%) (at.%)
diffusion length in function of local thermal history of the MZ (Ti) > 84 < 12 < 2.2 < 2.1
interface [15]. Basing on previous simulation of dissimilar A (Ti) 70 21 6 3
laser welding in keyhole mode [16], it can be supposed that B (Ti) + FeTi + 1 53 34 8 5
the thicker interface in the zones of Marangoni convection C 1 +  25 52 16 7
D  (+(Fe)+ 1?) 16 59 18 7
forms for three reasons: higher local temperature, as the part
of titanium is melted, higher velocity field that facilitates the
transport of the elements and longer liquid zone created by Almost all crosscuts reveal the presence of statistical
longitudinal vortex. The interface situated in the mid-height of cracks at 316L/MZ. For <0.32, the macro size cracks
the weld forms between unmelted materials because the propagate in the intermetallic layers along all dissimilar
melted zone is thinner, which signifies lower local interface (Fig.1a). For 0.32 mm, the size of the cracks
temperature. Moreover, the diffusion time is shorter because diminishes down to 280 µm. Transversal and longitudinal
the melted zone past the keyhole is less extended in absence cracks are present in layer 1 and 2 and other small cracks exist
of strong convective field. at the interface between layer 1 and melted zone (Fig.2b). The
The solidification of dissimilar interface starts in layer 2 by additional NDT study is needed to understand if these cracks
 germination above 1500 °C, in Fe rich zones near stainless appear during the cooling of the welds or during the cutting
steel. Then, in Fe-rich zones, the formation of (Fe) +  + 1 process.
eutectics takes place at 1290°C, and in Ti-rich zones the
peritectic FeTi + 1+ (Ti) form at 1200-1300°C. When the 3.3. Mechanical tests
solidification of layer 2 is in this way achieved, the layer 1 is
still liquid and continues to develop between stainless steel All welds showed brittle behavior in both tensile and
and unmelted titanium. From opposite side, the germination flexure tests and fractured at the interface between stainless
of (Ti) has already started at  1500°C. In this way, the steel and MZ. Average values of ultimate strength were
layer 1 solidifies in the last place at 1100-1200°C. increasing with the beam offset from 0.17 mm to 0.32 mm
and then quickly collapsed for both tensile and flexure tests

This is a resupply of March 2023 as the template used in the publication of the original article contained errors. The content of the article has remained unaffected.
 488 Antoine Mannucci et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 485–490

(Fig. 5). For  = 0.42 mm, many samples broke during the
cutting. This evolution corresponds to the progressive a 1,0
reduction of brittle zone dimensions (Fig.4) followed by the b 1,5

ln(ln(1/Ps))
lack of fusion for the highest . The highest ultimate strength

Survival probability
was observed for 0.32 mm beam offset: 174±69 MPa for 0,8 0
tensile test and 297±48 MPa for flexion test. -1,5
The welds with  = 0.27-0.37 mm showed high ultimate 0,6
tensile strength, but also the widest dispersion between -3
individual values (Fig.5a). Data dispersion was more constant 0,4 4 4,25 4,5 4,75
for flexure tests (Fig.5b), which can be attributed to a less ln(UTS)
brutal crack propagation. The ultimate strength of brittle 0,2
materials is usually determined by the size of the biggest
defect that is statistic. This results in dispersion of UTS values 0,0
for the welds performed in the same condition [14]. Such 0 100 200 300
behavior is well described by Weibull formula (equation 1) UTS (MPa)
0.17 0.22
[15]: Δ (mm) 0.27 0.32
0.37 0.42
 V   T 
m

PS (V0 )  exp        (1)
  V0   0  
  Fig.6. (a)Weibull curves for tensile tests, (b) linearized curve for Δ=0.22 mm.

where Ps - survival probability, V/V0 – ratio between volumes

of a sample and the reference sample, T – threshold strain, 0
- strain for 37% survival probability, and m - form factor (low
for brittle materials).

a 300
200
UTS (MPa)

175
144
100 110
68 78
0 14
0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45
(mm)
400
b
300 297
271 267
UFS (MPa)

254
200 213
170 Fig. 7. The topography of fracture surfaces on the stainless steel side of the
100 welds with (a)  =0.32 mm and (b) = 0.17 mm.

0
0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 3.4. Fractography
(mm)
Fig. 5: The effect of beam offset on average (a) tensile and (b) flexure Fracture surfaces reveal the periodical fluctuation of
ultimate strength of the joints. 316L/MZ interface each 2.5 mm. Such periodical fluctuation
may be caused by the unsteady behavior of the liquid zone.
All survival probability curves (Fig.6 a) have characteristic This periodicity makes it difficult to establish an accurate
form of Weibull curve, but with different parameters correlation between tensile properties and interface
depending on beam offset. Additional experimental values dimensions.
will be necessary for the accurate determination of 0 and m. The observation of stainless steel side of the fracture
These parameters can be calculated with the help of provides rich information about fracture propagation in
ln(ln(1/Ps)) = f(ln(UTS)) linearization. The concave form of different areas of dissimilar interface. For >0.17 mm, flat
the curve allows supposing the possibility of threshold zone is observed in the center of the interface, which
behavior (Fig. 6.b). corresponds to the fracture between stainless steel side and
When the beam offset is important (0.42 mm), the fracture unmelted titanium layer (Fig.7.a). Top and bottom parts of the
suffers from a lack of fusion that explains the catastrophic fractured surface have a coarse aspect due to the fluctuation of
decrease of tensile properties. With a decrease of , the MZ limit and the propagation of the fracture between different
continuous reactive interface develops more and more, which layers of dissimilar interface and the MZ. For = 0.17 mm,
increases the survival probability of the samples. However, the unmelted titanium layer has almost dissolved and the
for the offsets0.27 mm, the progressive decrease of tensile fracture presents a very rough aspect (Fig.7.b) with coarse
strength is determined by the increase of defects sizes cleavages at the top and the bottom of the weld.

This is a resupply of March 2023 as the template used in the publication of the original article contained errors. The content of the article has remained unaffected.
 Antoine Mannucci et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 485–490 489

The analysis of X-maps of fractured surfaces allowed to

identify the zones with a different composition and to define
three main types of fracture behavior.

Fig.9. XRD spectra of fracture surfaces.

Table 5. Relative XRD pic intensity of different phases, SS side and Ti side,
illustrated with highest standalone peaks for each phase.
UTS 
  (Ti) FeTi (Fe) -Fe
(MPa) (mm)
2: 53.2 55.8 69.9 73.2 98.7 111.4
Stainless steel side
64 0.17 13 4 6 6 6 37
97 0.22 10 4 14 9 7 64
74 0.27 6 3 19 10 4 72
Fig. 8. Schematic representation of different zones present at stainless steel 260 0.27 7 2 18 8 4 69
side of the fracture: (a) Δ = 0.37 mm, (b) Δ = 0.27 mm, (c) Δ = 0.17 mm. 54 0.32 7 0 16 9 4 83
115 0.32 7 0 13 8 4 70
The fractured surfaces of the welds with offset 0.37 mm 259 0.32 5 3 11 6 4 86
305 0.32 5 3 12 7 3 88
(Fig. 8.a) present periodical areas with absence of interaction 43 0.37 3 0 12 6 0 100
(F1) that increase with the beam offset. These zones are 159 0.37 3 0 11 5 3 93
surrounded with belts (F2) where the fracture occurred in a 61 0.42 4 0 11 5 0 94
very thin layer 1. Here the dissimilar interface is thin enough UTS 
to observe unmelted stainless steel. At the top and bottom of (MPa) (mm)   (Ti) FeTi -Ti -Ti
2: 53.2 55.8 69.9 73.2 46.1 46.9
dissimilar interface, the little zones with fracture involving a Titanium side
well-developed layer 1 and layer 2 (F3) are present. In the 64 0.17 6 0 9 8 0 0
rest of the dissimilar interface, the fracture involves a well- 97 0.22 6 2 14 8 2 21
developed layer 1 or occurs between layer 1 and unmelted 74 0.27 6 2 15 8 7 33
stainless steel (F4). 260 0.27 5 0 14 7 4 35
54 0.32 3 2 16 7 11 65
For beam offsets between 0.37mm and 0.22 mm (Fig.8.b), 115 0.32 3 2 17 9 3 24
the zones with absence of fusion (F1) are no longer present 259 0.32 4 0 14 7 7 48
and are replaced with zones F2 neighboring with F4. The zone 305 0.32 4 1 14 6 8 59
43 0.37 2 1 15 5 8 79
F3 forms two belts at the top and at the bottom of dissimilar 159 0.37 3 1 12 5 10 76
interface. 61 0.42 3 0 10 6 11 100
XRD analysis of fracture surfaces (Fig. 9 and Table 5)
shows a smooth evolution of relative peak intensity in The peaks (Ti) phase that dominates in the layer 1, are
function of the beam offset. The -Fe and -Ti are the main the most important after those of bulk materials, and their
peaks observed on stainless steel and titanium side of the intensity follows the same tendency that was observed for
fracture respectively. With an increase of , -Fe gains in average UTS values, with maximum for =0.27-0.32 mm.
intensity because of the increase of the zones F1, F2 and F4, The peak intensities of FeTi phase that can be found in layer 1
where the fracture partially involves unmelted stainless steel, as well as in layer 2, diminish for beam offsets > 0.32 mm,
and because of diminution of layer 1 between unmelted which corresponds to the development of the zones with a
stainless steel and Ti. lack of interaction. Metastable -Ti phase that contains
-Ti peak also gains in intensity with increasing  for the approximately 95 %at. Ti and 5 %at. Cr, was observed only
same reason: unmelted Ti layer becomes revealed because of on the titanium side of the fracture.
reduction of layer 1 and the lack of interaction between 316L The intensity of peaks of individual samples does not
and unmelted Ti layer. always correlate with their UTS value, which confirms
The peak intensities of  and (Fe) phases associated probabilistic fracture determined by the maximum size of
with layer 2, diminish with the beam offset. Low intensity defects situated in the interfacial layers irrespectively of their
peak of ternary  phase does not show a significant tendency. composition (for example beam offset of 0.32 mm).
(Fe) can form on solid stainless steel side under the effect
of Ti diffusion or appear during the solidification of eutectics
of  +(Fe).

This is a resupply of March 2023 as the template used in the publication of the original article contained errors. The content of the article has remained unaffected.
 490 Antoine Mannucci et al. / Procedia CIRP 74 (2018) 485–490

4. Conclusion References

1. Appropriate laser beam offset on the titanium side [1] Okamoto H. Fe-Ti Iron-Titanium. J Phase Equilib 1996; 17:369.
[2] Tomashchuk I, Sallamand P. Metallurgical strategies for the joining of
allows reducing the formation of brittle intermetallic phases to titanium alloys with steels. Adv Eng Mater, 2018:
several 10 µm thin interface on the limit between stainless https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201700764.
steel and the melted zone. The thickness of this interface is [3] Kamachi Mudali U, Ananda Rao BM, Shanmugam K, Natarajan R,
not uniform because of the hourglass shape of the welds and Baldev R. Corrosion and microstructural aspects of dissimilar joints of
titanium and type 304L stainless steel. J Nucl Mater 2003; 321:40-48.
the presence of unmelted Ti layer. However, the relation [4] Kahraman N, Gülenç B, Findik F. Joining of titanium/stainless steel by
between the beam offset and the maximal thickness of the explosive welding and effect on interface. J Mater Process Technol
reaction layer can be established. The interface is composed 2005; 169:127-133.
by two layers with complex microstructure: Ti+FeTi+1 [5] Fazel-Najafabadi M, Kashani-Bozorg SF, Zarei-Hanzaki A. Joining of
CP-Ti to 304 stainless steel using friction stir welding technique. Mater
and FeTi+1+. Des 2010; 31:4800-4807.
2. Tensile and flexure behavior of the welds can be [6] Ishida K, Gao Y, Nagatsuka K, Takahashi M, Nakata K.
described by Weibull statistics, related with the development Microstructures and mechanical properties of friction stir welded lap
of statistic cracks in intermetallic layers. The best average joints of commercially pure titanium and 304 stainless steel. J Alloys
Compd 2015; 630:172-177.
tensile and flexure strength were 174±69 and 297±48 MPa [7] Sun Z, Ion JC. Laser welding of dissimilar metal combinations. J Mater
respectively for beam offset of 0.32 mm. Sci 1995; 30:4205-4214.
3. The analysis of fracture surfaces revealed a complex [8] Tomashchuk I, Sallamand P, Andrzejewski H, Grevey D. Dissimilar
mode of fracture determined by the local development of laser welding of AISI 316L stainless steel to Ti6–Al4–6V alloy via pure
vanadium interlayer. Mater Sci Eng 2015; 622:37-45.
intermetallic layers. The welds with a too high beam offset [9] Shanmugarajan B, Padmanabham G. Fusion welding studies using laser
suffer from a lack of fusion at mid-height, whereas the welds on Ti–SS dissimilar combination. Opt Las Engineer 2012; 50:1621-
with a too low beam offset break in thick intermetallic zones 1627.
[10] Satoh G, Yao Y, Qiu C. Strength and microstructure of laser fusion-
and even in the embrittled melted zone, which has a negative
welded Ti–SS dissimilar material pair. Internat J Adv Manuf Technol
consequence on their strength. 2013; 66:469-479.
4. Additional investigation is necessary for an accurate [11] Chen HC, Bi G, Lee BY, Cheng CK. Laser welding of CP Ti to
description of tensile behavior of the welds in light of Weibull stainless steel with different temporal pulse shapes. J Mater Process
Technol 2016; 231:58-65.
statistics, as well as NDE tests to understand if the micro-
[12] Chen S, Zhang M, Huang J, Cui C, Zhang H, Zhao X. Microstructures
cracks appear immediately after the welding or during cutting and mechanical property of laser butt welding of titanium alloy to
process. stainless steel. Mater Des 2014; 53:504-511.
5. Further work on numerical simulation will allow better [13] Ivanchenko V, Pryadko T. Chromium - Iron – Titanium. In: Effenberg
G, Ilyenko S, editors. Ternary alloy systems Landolt-Börnstein - Group
understanding of the relation between operational parameters,
IV Physical Chemistry. Berlin:Springer; 2008. p. 365-381.
resulting thermal fields and the local thickness of intermetallic [14] Ashby MF, Jones DRH. Probabilistic fracture of brittle materials. In:
layer. Engineering materials 4th ed. Boston: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann;
2012. p. 219-228.
Acknowledgements [15] Tomashchuk I, Sallamand P, Duband M, Laser assisted brazing of
titanium to aluminum alloy. Proc COMSOL conf, Grenoble, 2015.
[16] Métais A, Matteï S, Tomashchuk I, Gaied S, Modeling of transport
This work was carried out as a part of joint laboratory phenomena in laser welding of steels. Proc COMSOL conf, Grenoble,
project LabCom FLAMme between Laboratoire 2015.
Interdisciplinaire Carnot de Bourgogne, University of [17] Weibull W. A statistical distribution function of wide applicability. J
Bourgogne-Franche-Comté and SME Laser Rhône-Alpes. Appl mech 1951; 18:293-297.
This project was funded by French National Agency of [18] Murray JL. The Cr-Ti system. Bull Alloy Phase Diagrams 1981; 2:174-
Research. 181.
[19] Liao J, Yamamoto N, Liu N, Nakata K. Microstructure at friction stir
lap joint interface of pure titanium and steel. Mater Lett 2010; 64:2317-
2320.

This is a resupply of March 2023 as the template used in the publication of the original article contained errors. The content of the article has remained unaffected.