Introduction to Communication

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (TC- 306), SPRING, 2024

Basic Terms
Multiplexing
When several communication channels are needed between the same two points for either multiple access
or channel diversity (i.e., message redundancy), significant economies may be realized by sending all the
messages on one transmission facility—a process called multiplexing.
Applications of multiplexing range from the telephone network to wireless cell phones, wireless networks,
FM stereo, and space-probe telemetry systems.
Three basic multiplexing techniques are frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time-division
multiplexing (TDM), and code division multiplexing.
An objective of these techniques is to enable multiple users to share a channel, and hence they are
referred to as frequency-divison multiple access (FDMA), time-division multiple access (TDMA), and
code-division multiple access (CDMA).
Multiplexing can serve two purposes: First, it enables several users to share a channel resource. Second,
with the appropriate redundancy using frequency, code, time, or spatial diversity, we can improve the
reliability of a message reaching its destination.
 Multiplexing
 Frequency Division Multiplexing:
The principle of FDM is illustrated in Figure 7.2–1a, where several input messages (three are
shown) individually modulate the subcarriers fc1, fc2, and so forth, after passing through LPFs
to limit the message bandwidths.
The subcarrier modulation as SSB is used, but any of the CW modulation techniques could
be employed, or a mixture of them. The modulated signals are then summed to produce the
baseband signal, with spectrum Xb(f) as shown in Fig. 7.2–1b.
Multiplexing (1)
Multiplexing (2)
Assuming that the subcarrier frequencies are properly chosen, the multiplexing operation has assigned a
slot in the frequency domain for each of the individual messages in modulated form, hence the name
frequency-division multiplexing.
The baseband signal may then be transmitted directly or used to modulate a transmitted carrier of
frequency fc and produce bandpass signal.
Message recovery or demodulation of FDM is accomplished in three steps portrayed by Fig. 7.2–2.
First, the carrier demodulator reproduces the baseband signal xb(t). Then the modulated subcarriers are
separated by a bank of bandpass filters in parallel, following which the messages are individually detected.
The major practical problem of FDM is crosstalk, the unwanted coupling of one message into another.
Intelligible crosstalk (cross-modulation) arises primarily because of nonlinearities in the system which
cause one message signal to appear as modulation on another subcarrier.
Hence, negative feedback is used to minimize amplifier nonlinearity in FDM systems.
Multiplexing (3)
Multiplexing (4)
Unintelligible crosstalk may come from nonlinear effects or from imperfect spectral separation
by the filter bank.
 To reduce the latter, the modulated message spectra are spaced out in frequency by guard bands
into which the filter transition regions can be fitted.
 For example, the guard band marked in Fig. 7.2–1b is of width fc2-(fc1+W1).
 The net baseband bandwidth is therefore the sum of the modulated message bandwidths plus the
guard bands.
The commercial AM or FM broadcast bands are everyday examples of FDMA, where several
broadcasters can transmit simultaneously in the same band, but at slightly different frequencies.
TDM Basics
Multiplexing (5)
 Time Division Multiplexing:
 A sampled waveform is “off” most of the time, leaving the time between samples available
for other purposes.
Sample values from several different signals can be interleaved into a single waveform. This
is the principle of time-division multiplexing (TDM).
The simplified system in Fig. 7.2–7 demonstrates the essential features of time division
multiplexing. Several input signals are pre-filtered by the bank of input LPFs and sampled
sequentially. The rotating sampling switch or commutator at the transmitter extracts one
sample from each input per revolution. Hence, its output is a PAM waveform that contains the
individual samples periodically interleaved in time.
A similar rotary switch at the receiver, called a decommutator or distributor, separates the
samples and distributes them to another bank of LPFs for reconstruction of the individual
messages.
Multiplexing (6)
Multiplexing (7)
If all inputs have the same message bandwidth W, the commutator should rotate at the rate fs ≥
2W so that successive samples from any one input are spaced by Ts = 1/fs ≤ 1/2W. The time
interval Ts containing one sample from each input is called a frame. If there are M input channels,
the pulse-to-pulse spacing within a frame is Ts/M = 1/Mfs. Thus, the total number of pulses per
second will be:
r=Mf s≥ 2MW
which represents the pulse rate or signaling rate of the TDM signal.
Multiplexing (8)
TDM systems require careful synchronization between commutator and decommutator.
Synchronization is a critical consideration in TDM, because each pulse must be distributed to the
correct output line at the appropriate time.
A popular brute-force synchronization technique devotes one time slot per frame to a distinctive marker
pulse or non-pulse, as illustrated in Fig. 7.2–9. These markers establish the frame frequency fs at the
receiver, but the number of signal channels is reduced to M-1.
Other synchronization methods involve auxiliary pilot tones or the statistical properties of the TDM
signal itself.
Multiplexing (9)
Multiplexing (10)

Synchronous TDM
Multiplexing (11)
Difference B/W FDM and TDM
Differences b/w Multiplexing and
Multiple Access
Frequency Division Multiple Access
Features of FDMA
Example
Example 2
FDMA vs FDD and FDM
Example
Example
Example
TDMA Features
CDMA
Phasors and Line Spectra
 Consider the familiar sinusoidal or AC (alternating-current) waveform v(t) plotted in Fig. 2.1–1.
 By convention, we express sinusoids in terms of the cosine function and write v(t)=Acos(wot+Ø) (1).
where A is the peak value or amplitude and wo is the radian frequency. The phase angle Ø represents
the fact that the peak has been shifted away from the time origin and occurs at t=-Ø/wo.
Equation (1) implies that v(t) repeats itself for all time, with repetition period To = 2pi/wo. The
reciprocal of the period equals the cyclical frequency Fo=1/To=wo/2pi measured in cycles per second, or
hertz (Hz).
In particular, AC steady-state circuit analysis depends upon the assumption of an eternal sinusoid—
usually represented by a complex exponential or phasor.
 Phasors also play a major role in the spectral analysis.
Phasors and Line Spectra (1)
The phasor representation of a sinusoidal signal comes from Euler’s theorem: 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ±
jsin 𝜃
Phasors and Line Spectra (2)
where j= −1 and 𝜃 is an arbitrary angle.
 If we let 𝜃 = wot+Ø, we can write any sinusoid as the real part of a complex exponential, namely
Acos(wot+Ø) =A Re [𝑒𝑗(wot+Ø)]= Re [A𝑒 𝑗Ø 𝑒𝑗wot ] (2)
This is called a phasor representation because the term inside the brackets may be viewed as a rotating
vector in a complex plane whose axes are the real and imaginary parts, as Fig. 2.1–2a illustrates.
The phasor has length A, rotates counterclockwise at a rate of f0 revolutions per second, and at time t=0
makes an angle Ø with respect to the positive real axis. The projection of the phasor on the real axis
equals the sinusoid in Eq. 2 mentioned above.
 Three parameters completely specify a phasor: amplitude, phase angle, and rotational frequency.
To describe the same phasor in the frequency domain, we must associate the corresponding amplitude
and phase with the particular frequency f0. Hence, a suitable frequency-domain description would be the
line spectrum in Fig. 2.1–2b, which consists of two plots: amplitude versus frequency and phase versus
frequency.
 Phasors and Line Spectra (3)

1.In all our spectral drawings the independent variable will be cyclical frequency f hertz, rather than radian frequency
wo, and any specific frequency such as f0 will be identified by a subscript.
2.Phase angles will be measured with respect to cosine waves or, equivalently, with respect to the positive real axis of
the phasor diagram. Hence, sine waves need to be converted to cosines via the identity sin wt=cos (wt - 90°) (3)
Phasors and Line Spectra (4)
3.We regard amplitude as always being a positive quantity. When negative signs appear, they must be
absorbed in the phase using –A cos wt= A cos(wt±180°) (4).
It does not matter whether you take +180° or -180° since the phasor ends up in the same place either way.
4. Phase angles usually are expressed in degrees even though other angles such as wt are in radians.
 Phasors and Line Spectra (5)
 consider the signal w(t)= 7-10 cos(40pit-60°)+4sin(120pit)
which is sketched in Fig. 2.1–3a. Converting the constant term to a zero frequency or DC (direct-current) component and
applying Eqs. (3) and (4) gives the sum of cosines w(t)=7 cos2pi0t+10 cos(2pi20t +120°) 2 +4 cos(2pi60t-90°).
whose spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.1–3b.
Fig. 2.1–3b, called one-sided or positive-frequency line spectra, can be constructed for any linear combination of sinusoids.
But another spectral representation turns out to be more valuable, even though it involves negative frequencies.
We obtain this representation from Eq. (2), Re[z]=1/2(z+z*),where z is any complex quantity with complex conjugate z*.
Hence, if z=A𝑒𝑗Ø 𝑒𝑗w ot then z*=A𝑒−𝑗Ø 𝑒−𝑗wotand Eq. (2) becomes

so we now have a pair of conjugate phasors.

The corresponding phasor diagram and line spectrum are shown in Fig. 2.1–4. The phasor diagram consists of two phasors
with equal lengths but opposite angles and directions of rotation. The phasor sum always falls along the real axis to yield A
cos (w0t +Ø).
Phasors and Line Spectra (6)
Phasors and Line Spectra (7)
The line spectrum is two-sided since it must includes negative frequencies to allow for the
opposite rotational directions, and one-half of the original amplitude is associated with each of the
two frequencies ±f0.
The amplitude spectrum has even symmetry while the phase spectrum has odd symmetry
because we are dealing with conjugate phasors. This symmetry appears more vividly in Fig. 2.1–
5, which is the two-sided version of Fig. 2.1–3b.
It should be emphasized that these line spectra, one-sided or two-sided, are just pictorial ways of
representing sinusoidal or phasor time functions. A single line in the one-sided spectrum
represents a real cosine wave, whereas a single line in the two-sided spectrum represents a
complex exponential, and the conjugate term must be added to get a real cosine wave.
Thus, whenever we speak of some frequency interval such as f1 to f2 in a two-sided spectrum,
we should also include the corresponding negative-frequency interval -f1 to -f2. A simple notation
for specifying both intervals is f1 ≤ |f| ≤ f2.
Phasors and Line Spectra (8)
Phasors and Line Spectra (9)
The amplitude spectrum in either version conveys more information than the phase spectrum. Both
parts are required to define the time-domain function, but the amplitude spectrum by itself tells us what
frequencies are present and in what proportion.
 Putting this another way, the amplitude spectrum displays the signal’s frequency content.

Solve Exercise 2.1-1

Time Domain and Frequency Domain
Plots
Time Domain and Frequency Domain
Plots (1)
Time Domain and Frequency Domain
Plots (2)
Time Domain and Frequency Domain
Plots (3)