Southern University Bangladesh

Faculty of Science & Engineering

Physics (PHY 0533171)

Lecture : Heat and Thermodynamics

DR. BIJOY SONKER BARUA

 Class Format and Exams

 Students should keep the class room silent.

 Students should make him concentrate to the class.

 Physics is a 3.o credit subject.

3.o credit = 300 marks

Attendance (with Punctuality and Class response)

= 15
Class test (3 out of 4) = 45
Mid Term = 90
Final Examination = 150
Heat and Thermodynamics

 Heat: It is a form of energy

associated with
 the motion of atoms or molecules
(kinetic energy) and transmitted
through
 solid and fluid media by conduction,
through fluid media by convection, and
through empty space by radiation.
 However, heat is a condition of being
hot and transferred by particles
bouncing into each other.
 The transfer of energy from one body
to another as a result of a difference in
temperature or a change in phase.
 It is often released along with other
kinds of energy such as light, radio
waves, or sound waves.
 Thermodynamics: It is a branch
of physics concerned with heat and
temperature and their relation to
energy and work.
 Thermodynamics defines
macroscopic variables, such as
internal energy, entropy, and
pressure.
 It also describes the bulk behavior
of the body, not the microscopic
behaviors, such as molecules.
 There are four laws in
thermodynamics and the laws are
explained by statistical mechanics, in
terms of the microscopic constituents.
 Historically, thermodynamics
developed out of a desire to increase
the efficiency and power output of
early steam engines.
Transmission of heat

 Conduction: When heat is

applied to one end of a metal rod,
the molecules of the rod there
vibrate more vigorously about their
mean positions of rest and transfer
the heat energy to the adjacent
molecules by collision.
 In this fashion the other end
also becomes hot.
 a material medium is necessary
but
 there is no bodily motion of the
material particles in the process.
 Convection: Convection is
a mode of heat transfer by
mass motion of a fluid such as
air or water.
 Convection above a hot
surface occurs because hot air
expands, becomes less dense,
and rises.
 Hot water is likewise less
dense than cold water and
rises, causing
 convection currents which
transport energy until the
whole mass of the substance
becomes uniformly heated.
 Radiation: Heat transfer
through radiation takes place in
form of electromagnetic waves
mainly in the infrared region.
 This process does not
require a medium.
 This thermal radiation
(infrared radiation) is
generated by the thermal
motion of charged particles in
matter.
 All matter with a
temperature greater than
absolute zero (-2730C) emits
thermal radiation.
Thermal Conductivity
 A thin slice of a metal bar
with parallel faces such that
 the direction of the flow of
heat is normal to the faces.
 There will be a gradual fall
in temperature between the
two faces.
 Upper face of the slice be at
a higher temperature θ1, the
lower face being at the lesser
temperature θ2.
 Here, assume that there is
no loss of heat from the side of
the slab.
 Let A and x be the area of
cross-section and the thickness
of the slab respectively.
Then the amount of heat Q
that flows from one face to the
other face in time t will depend,
i. directly on the face area, A
ii. directly on the temperature
difference, (θ1-θ2)
iii. directly on time, t
iv. inversely on the thickness (x)
of the slab, and
v. on the nature of the material
(different substances have
different conductivity).
 where K is a constant
depending
 on the nature of the material
and
 known as the coefficient of
thermal conductivity or
coefficient of heat conduction or
simply as thermal conductivity.
 If A= 1 cm2, θ1-θ2 = 10C, x=
1cm and t= 1 second, then from
above eqn. we will get
Q = K.
  So, thermal conductivity is the
quantity of heat that flows
 in one second through
 a cm-cube of the material
 Q = K when t= 1 second, from
A= 1 cm2, x= 1cm and  the hot face to cold face when
 there is a steady temperature
θ1-θ2 = 10C. difference of 10C between the
faces.
 Example: thermal conductivity
of iron = 0.175 C.G.S. units
implies that
 0.175 calories of heat energy
flow in one second through a
cm-cube of the material from the
hot face to cold face when there
is a steady temperature
difference of 10C between the
faces.
 Units of thermal conductivity

From this eqn. we have

[1 calorie (cal) = 4.2 joule (J); 1 kcal = 4186.8 J; 1 watt = 1 J/s]

Q1. Define thermal conductivity of a material and write its SI unit.

Q2. Explain the thermal conductivity of the materials as given in the table.
Q = K when t= 1 second,
A= 1 m2, x= 1m and
θ1-θ2 = 10C.

 Example: thermal
conductivity of silver = 429
SI units implies that
 429 Joules of heat energy
flow in one second through a
m-cube of the material from
the hot face to cold face
when there is a steady
temperature difference of 10C
between the faces.
.
Temperature gradient
 The amount of
heat flows from one
side to the other
through a cube,
Problem 1: A rectangular steel tank has 2 mm thick bottom. Water in it is boiled and
the level of water falls at the rate of 0.01 m in 5 minutes. Find out the temperature of
the lower surface of the tank. Thermal conductivity of steel = 0.012 SI units and latent
heat of steam = 540 kcal/kg.

More Problems: See Book: - Dr. Gias Uddin Ahmad, Vol. 1.

 Thermodynamics: In heat engine there
was an input in the form of heat whose output
was mechanical work (principle of
thermodynamics).
 Therefore, it concerned with both thermal
and mechanical or dynamical concepts.
 Today scientists and engineers use the
principle of thermodynamics in the design of
 internal combusting engines,
 refrigeration and air-conditioning systems,
 conventional and nuclear power stations,
and
 propulsion systems for aircrafts, rockets,
missiles, ship and land vehicles.
 Thus thermodynamics deals with
 the transformation of heat energy to other
forms of energy, such as mechanical,
electrical, magnetic, and radiant, etc.
 Efficiency of heat engines:
 A heat engine is a device for converting heat into
mechanical energy.
 The efficiency (ɳ) of a heat engine is defined as
 the ratio of the output to the input-
 where the output being the mechanical work done (W)
during a cycle and
 input is the heat absorbed (Q) during the cycle.

Q3. What do you mean by efficiency of a heat engine?

 The zeroth law of
thermodynamics
 It states that when any
two bodies are each
separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third,
then they are also in
thermal equilibrium with
each other.
First law of thermodynamics:

Q4. Explain the significance of the first

law of thermodynamics.
 Reversible and irreversible processes
 When a system undergoes a
change from its initial state to the
final state,
 one or more of the thermodynamics
properties of the system like
 temperature, pressure, volume,
enthalpy or heat, entropy, etc.
initial state changes.
 Reversible process: During the
thermodynamic process,
 if the system and surroundings can
be restored to the initial state from
the final state
 without producing any changes in
the thermodynamics properties of the
final state system is called a reversible process.
 For example,
 a mixture of water and ice at 00C
in a vessel in which the temperature
and heat exchange can be controlled
as required.
 When the mixture is cooled so that
its temperature falls by the slightest
amount, then water will freeze and
its volume will increase.
 If the mixture is now heated so
that its temperature rises by the
same slightest amount, then the ice
will melt and so decrease in volume.
 Hence, the changes of volume is
reversed as the substance freezes or
melts.
 It can be said that the process takes
place at practically
 constant temperature and
 considered as isothermal process.
 Moreover, the reversible process is
possible if the changes in
 pressure and volume of the working
substance must take place at an extremely
slow rate and
 no friction and no loss of heat are
occurred by conduction, convection and
radiation.
 Therefore, during reversible process
 all the changes in state that occur in the
system are in thermodynamic equilibrium
with each other.
 However, this is not a spontaneous
process.
  Irreversible process:
 In this process the system with the
surroundings can never be completely
restored to its initial condition by
reversing the controlling factors.
 All the changes, which occur suddenly
like
 explosions,
 heat produced by friction and during
the current flows through an electrical
resistance,
 sudden unbalanced expansion and
 all the natural processes are the
examples.
 Therefore, this is
 a spontaneous process and
 no changes in state that occur in the
system are in thermodynamic
equilibrium with each other.
Q5. Distinguish between reversible and
irreversible processes.
 Second law of thermodynamics
 Kelvin-Plank statement:
 It is impossible to construct an
engine, which, operating in a cycle, will
produce no other effect than the
extraction of heat from a reservoir and
the performance of an equivalent
amount of work.
 Clausius statement:
 It is not possible to construct a
device, which operates in a cycle. While
operating, it does not produce any
effect other than transferring the heat
from cooler to hotter body.
 In other words, it is not possible for
heat to flow from a colder body to a
warmer body without any work having
been done to accomplish this flow.

Q6. State second law of thermodynamics.

The Carnot cycle
 A cycle in which the
working substance starting
from a given condition of
 temperature, pressure and
volume is made to
 undergo two successive
expansions (one isothermal
and another adiabatic),
 and then two successive
compressions (one
isothermal and another
adiabatic)
 at the end of which the
working substance is brought
back to its initial condition, is
called Carnot’s cycle.
 The essentials of any heat
engine proposed by Carnot,
are-
 (i) a cylinder with a Piston,
 (ii) a source,
 (iii) a sink and
 (iv) a non-conducting stand
 Consider the four stages of a
Carnot cycle.
 The original condition is
presented by
 the point A (P1, V1, T1) on the
P-V diagram (Fig. 2),
 where P1, V1 and T1 are
pressure, volume and
temperature respectively of the
working substance like air.
 Operation I (isothermal
expansion):
 Let the bottom of the cylinder
be placed in contact with the
source and the gas is allowed to
expand slowly.
 The fall in temperature during
expansion is compensated by
absorption of heat from the
source.
 So the gas expands isothermally
to the point B represented by P2,
V2 and T1.
 During the process an amount
of heat energy Q1 is absorbed
from the source at constant
temperature.
 This heat energy is equivalent
to the amount of external work
done by the gas, W1.
 Where W1 = area ABV2V1.
 Operation II (adiabatic
expansion):
 The cylinder is removed from
the source and its bottom is
placed in contact with the non-
conducting stand.
 The gas is allowed to expand.
 As the gas is completely
isolated no heat enters or leaves
the system during expansion
(adiabatic) and
 the temperature of the system
falls to that of the sink (T2).
 Therefore, at the end of the
adiabatic expansion the gas gets
the point C (P3, V3, T2).
The work done at this stage,
W2 = area BCV3V2.
 Operation III (isothermal
compression):
 To bring the gas back to the
initial conditions,
 the cylinder is removed from
the non-conducting stand and its
bottom is placed in contact with
the sink at T2K.
 The piston is then pressed
very slowly and the gas is
compressed.
 The heat generated is given
out to the sink and
 the compression, therefore,
takes place isothermally at the
constant temperature T2K and
 gets the point D (P4, V4, T2).
 The work is done on the gas,
W3 = area CDV4V3.
 Operation IV (adiabatic
compression):
 The cylinder is now removed
from the sink and its bottom is
placed in contact with the
insulating stand.
 The gas is compressed
adiabatically until its
temperature rises to T1K and
 its pressure and volume
become P1 and V1, represented
by the point A.
 The work done, W4 = area
DAV1V4.
 The net work (W) done by
the system during the cycle is
 W = W1 + W2 - W3 - W4
W = W1 - W3 (since W2 = W4 )
W = area ABCD
Q7. Describe Carnot cycle. Explain the each operation of the
four stages of the Carnot cycle with the help of a P-V
diagram.

Q8. Obtain an expression for the work done in each

operation of the Carnot cycle and the net work done in the
cycle.
Entropy:
 2nd law of thermodynamics state
that
 it is not possible for heat to flow
from a colder body to a warmer body
without any work having been done
to accomplish this flow.
 This implies that heat naturally
flows in the direction of decreasing
temperature, i.e., identifies the
direction of the process.
 In other words, heat can only
spontaneously transfer from a hot
object to cold object, not vice versa.
 It also implies that energies always
flow to equilibrate and introduces the
concepts of reversible and irreversible
process.
For example
 spontaneous
processes in
nature
 always proceed
in such a way
that the disorder
of the universe
increases.
 The quantitative measure of the
disorder in a system is known as
entropy (randomness) and
 there are no negative values of
entropy.
 A highly ordered system has low
entropy.
 The law of disorder states the
natural tendency is for systems to
move to the direction of maximum
disorder, not vice-versa.
 An increase in entropy favors the
spontaneous chemical reaction.
 A decrease in entropy favors the
non-spontaneous reaction.
 Therefore, all things tend toward
entropy (randomness).
 The entropy of the system is
measured
 in terms of the changes of the system
from the previous state to the final
state.
 Thus, the entropy is always
measured
 as the change in entropy of the
system denoted by ∆S and not merely
S.
 If a system receive or gives out a
quantity of heat ∆Q at a temperature T
K then
 the change in entropy of the system,

 and its unit of measurement is J/K

(Joule per degree Kelvin).
  Entropy is nothing but the
unavailability of energy.
 The entropy of a body
 in all reversible processes
remains constant (total change
in entropy is zero), but
 in the irreversible cycle there
is a net increase in entropy.

Q9. Entropy of a substance is a measure of its state of disorder- discuss fully.

Third law of thermodynamics:
 It states that the entropy of a
system at absolute zero is a well-
defined constant (this constant is zero).
 This is because a system at zero
temperature exists in its ground state,
so that its entropy is determined only
by the degeneracy of the ground state.
 In its shortest form, the Third Law of
Thermodynamics says: The entropy of
a perfect crystal, at absolute zero (zero
Kelvin), is exactly equal to zero.
 At zero Kelvin, the system must be in
a state with the minimum possible
energy, and this statement of the third
law holds true if the perfect crystal has
only one minimum energy state.
 The Third Law of Thermodynamics can be visualized by thinking about water.
 Water in gaseous form has molecules that can move around very freely. Water
vapor has very high entropy (randomness).
 As the gas cools, it becomes liquid. The liquid water molecules can still move
around, but not as freely. They have lost some entropy.
 When the water cools further, it becomes solid ice. The solid water molecules
can no longer move freely, but can only vibrate within the ice crystals. The entropy
is now very low.
 As the water is cooled more, closer and closer to absolute zero, the vibration of
the molecules diminishes.
 If the solid water reached at absolute zero, all molecular motion would stop
completely. At this point, the water would have no entropy (randomness) at all.
 In actuality, no object or system can have a temperature
of zero Kelvin,
 because of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
The Second Law, in part, implies that heat can never
spontaneously move from a colder body to a hotter body.
 So, as a system approaches absolute zero, it will
eventually have to draw energy from whatever systems are
nearby.
 If it draws energy, it can never obtain absolute zero.
 So, this state is not physically possible, but is a
mathematical limit of the universe.

Q10. State third law of thermodynamics with example. Why this

statement is not physically possible?