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Updated 23 May 2024 Reading time: 21 mins

The evolution of gridshells and techniques for form finding

and analysis

by Dr Seán Carroll

F i r s t s t e p s t owa r d s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
gridshells
In this article, we’ll begin our exploration of gridshell structures. This will be the
first of several such gridshell explorations we’ll make over the coming months
here in EngineeringSkills.

Our overall aim is to build up step-by-step,

• an appreciation for these elegant structures and their contribution to

the built environment

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• an understanding of how they behave under load

• and ultimately, how to form find and analyse them numerically

Here, we’re taking our first steps, and so let’s set ourselves some modest
objectives! We will start by,

�. referencing some of the iconic gridshell structures

�. we’ll discuss actively bent or strained gridshells versus unstrained

gridshells

�. from here, we’ll move on to a review of the role of form finding in

gridshell design

In some respects, this article can be considered a review of the landscape, where
we identify the main features to provide a suitable context for further study.

With a good map of the landscape, we can make better decisions about where
to explore next. Before too long, we’ll be moving from a narrative discussion into
coding and analysis!

What is a gridshell?
A gridshell is a 3-dimensional shell structure similar to a solid shell, wherein the
structure is discretised into linear or approximately linear elements meeting at
nodal points, Fig 1.

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Fig 1. Gridshell pavilion from the Studio of Membrane Architecture, at the CTU campus in
Prague, [1]

Gridshells share the same load-resisting mechanism as solid shells in that they
derive their ability to resist transverse loads from their double curvature. In this
way, the (grid)shell’s ability to and efficiency in resisting load is inextricably
linked to its form or shape.

Therefore, gridshell design is a two-step process: first, a suitable form is

established through physical or numerical modelling. Then, service loads are
applied to this form to determine its ability to resist these loads in service.

M e m b r a n e Ac t i o n a n d B e n d i n g

Under theoretically ideal conditions, a gridshell will develop exclusively axial

stresses through membrane action. However, practically speaking, this is not
achieved since variations in applied service loading, the need to provide edge
restraint and aesthetic considerations will almost always give rise to localised
bending and shear within the gridshell. Having said this, the design objective
should be to utilise membrane action to the greatest extent possible.

E a r l y wo r k o n g r i d s h e l l s
There is a rich history of shell and gridshell pioneers going back to the mid-20th
century: Heinz Isler, Félix Candela, Ove Arup, to name just a few. In fact, as early
as the late 19th century, the Societ Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov designed
and oversaw the construction of a steel gridshell in Vyksa near Nizhny Novgorod.
This can be seen in the well-known photographic reproduction, Fig 2.

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Fig 2. Photographic reproduction of Vladimir Shukhov’s steel gridshell in Vyksa (1897), [2]

This study and development of gridshell structures continues at pace today with
contemporary engineers and researchers continuing to provide insight into their
analysis and design. Today’s big names include Sigrid Adriaenssens, John
Ochsendorf, Chris Williams and Mike Barnes, again to name just a few of the
many hundreds of active contributors to this space.

There is undoubtedly a great history of structures course out there somewhere

that charts the evolution of gridshells far better than I can!

So, to get a flavour of the heritage of these structures, we focus on the early
work of Frei Otto (1925–2015) – one of the giants of form-found structures. This
will give us a sense of the origin story of gridshells.

Otto was actively working in architecture and engineering from the 1950’s to the
1990’s. His achievements extend far beyond gridshells into tensile and membrane
structures. An excellent review of Otto’s work was written by Philip Drew in his
book Frei Otto, Form and Structure [3]. Many of the observations in this article
are drawn from this text—it’s well worth seeking out.

If you want to get a broader sense of Otto’s contributions to Architecture and

Engineering, the 2016 documentary, Spanning the Future, is fantastic.

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Frei Otto’s gridshells

Some of Otto’s earliest explorations into gridshell structures were quite modest
by comparison to his opus, the Mannheim Multihalle gridshell, completed in 1974.

Essen Gridshell, 1962

Much earlier, in 1962, for example, he erected a much simpler timber gridshell at
the German Building Exhibition in Essen, Fig 3.

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Fig 3. The timber gridshell at Essen being raised into position [3].

The structure was originally set out in a planar lattice or grid measuring 40m ×
60m. This was gradually raised into position to assume the final shape. The
construction and erection sequence involved:

• Assembling the timber lattice, flat on the ground.

• Intersections (nodes) between the timber laths were loosely connected with
bolts

• A crane was then used to raise the lattice incrementally into its dome-like
shape.

• Once in position, the ends of the laths were connected to the perimeter
beam and the bolted joints were tightened.

• The gridshell was stiffened with additional ropes, further locking it into
shape.

Fig 4. The gridshell under construction, propped from below (left) and the lattice being
raised into position by a mobile crane (right) [3].

This, at the time experimental, gridshell demonstrates some of the fundamental

features of a gridshell structure; the unique erection process and the “locking in
place” by making joints rigid and fixing boundaries into position. This process of
“raising the structure” into its final position is still used today.

The erection of the Essen dome was actually the final step in a longer form study

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on the shape of the structure. During his form finding (discussed below), Otto
built both hanging chain and scale models of the structure to try and predict the
form that would emerge from the erection process. Both of these techniques
remain central to form finding studies today—although much greater use is now
made of numerical models.

Fig 5. Hanging chain model (left) and 1:20 scale timber model (right) [3].

Berkeley, 1962

That same year, while at The University of California, Berkeley, Otto continued his
experimentation with lattice structures – this time constructing a gridshell from
steel rods, Fig 6.

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Fig 6. Steel rod gridshell at The University of California, Berkeley, 1962 [3].

Otto again made use of hanging chain nets to investigate the optimal shape for
the structure. Both the material and form of the full-scale structure mean that it
bears a striking resemblance to the scale models.

It’s worth noting however, that the full-scale structure is formed by flexing
continuous rods – this leads to fundamentally different structural behaviour to
that observed from the linked-chain hanging nets. Despite this, the geometry of
the latter can still be used to guide the former, as we’ll see below.

Fig 7. Suspended (shown inverted) chain model studies of the Berkeley gridshell [3].

In contrast to the Essen structure, note that in the Berkeley gridshell, the
structure only has four points of support versus the continuous ground beam
observed at Essen. The immobility of the perimeter or ground beam is typically
central in achieving and maintaining the gridshell shape. Without this, the
Berkeley gridshell relied exclusively on the locking of joints to maintain its form.

The Mannheim Multihalle Gridshell (1970–1974)

From Essen and Berkeley in 1962, we jump forward to 1970 and to arguably one of
the greatest examples of large-scale gridshell construction, the Mannheim
Multihalle Gridshell, conceived, designed and built between 1970–1974.

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Fig 8. The Mannheim Multihalle Gridshell [4].

This enormous structure has a curved surface area of 9000m2 . Otto was the
architect for this project and as such, was one part of a large team including
engineers Bräuer and Späh and Ove Arup and Partners.

Ian Liddell, part of the original design team, has produced an excellent case
study [4] on the design and construction of the project. This can be freely
downloaded here and is a relatively rare first-hand account of the development
of such an iconic, and now relatively old structure.

Of particular relevance to our discussion is the elaborate hanging chain model

that was used to define the geometry of the structure. Liddell reports that,

“The ends of the link lines were connected to the boundary line with
small springs that could be adjusted to achieve a reasonably uniform
tension in the grid.”

Fig 9. The hanging chain model used to define the geometry of the Mannheim gridshell [4].

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The erection of the Mannheim gridshell used the same techniques that Otto has
experimented with in Essen over a decade earlier; the grid, consisting of straight
continuous ribs, was originally laid out flat and post-formed by imposing
displacements on the gridshell boundaries.

The in-plane shear stiffness of the structure was enhanced by triangulating the
quadrilateral timber grid with steel cables. This remains a common practice,
typically required when the gridshell is required to resist additional
superimposed loads beyond its own self-wight.

The Mannheim Multihalle and other early gridshell structures continue to provide
inspiration to the many thousands of architects and engineers that have followed
Frei and his fellow early pioneers. With these examples as our motivation, let’s
now consider some of the more technical aspects of gridshell behaviour.

Fig 10. View from inside the Mannheim Gridshell [5].

A c t i v e l y B e n t o r S t r a i n e d ve r s u s
U n s t ra i n e d G r i d s h e l l s
There are two distinct flavours of gridshell – the actively bent or strained
gridshell and the unstrained gridshell. They are quite different in terms of how

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they are designed and built. We consider each in turn.

A c t i ve l y b e n t g r i d s h e l l s

Actively bent gridshells are formed by bending continuous straight laths into
their final shape. This bending into shape induces stresses in the structure –
leading to the actively bent designation. All of Otto’s gridshells discussed above
are actively bent gridshells.

The bending into shape is achieved by starting with a flat square grid of (usually
timber) strips or laths, loosely connected at intersecting points. The laths are
free to rotate in-plane relative to each other. The grid is then raised into position.

When the gridshell has been raised to the desired shape, supports are restrained
and in some cases the joints may be locked or made rigid, stopping the gridshell
from settling back into its original flat position, as described above.

To increase the in-plane shear stiffness of the gridshell, diagonal cables or timber
struts can be used to brace the structure, Fig 11. Since the gridshell can only
resist in-plane forces along the lines of the laths, these bracing elements are
needed to allow the gridshell to approach the in-plane resistance seen on solid
shells.

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Fig 11. Diagonal cable bracing in the Mannheim gridshell [4].

To increase the out-of-plane bending resistance of the gridshell, multiple grid

layers may be used – provided that the layers are free slide relative to each other
during erection. When sufficient packing is provided between the layers, they
will act compositely, significantly increasing the gridshells bending resistance.

Fig 12. Three different double layering techniques showing connection details; slotted hole
(left), clamping plate (middle) and shear block (right) [6].

The key thing to appreciate with actively bent gridshells is that they have a level
of bending stress baked-into the structure—thus there is a baseline of stress
present before the application of any service loading.

The nuance here is that the identification of a suitable form is dependent on the
flexural rigidity of the laths.

“Form finding can, therefore, not be purely a geometric exercise but

must result from an elastic analysis.”

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This is why Otto used both a hanging chain and scale timber model when
researching his Essen gridshell—the hanging chain informed the optimal
geometric surface while the influence of the model lath bending resistance
mimicked the full-scale structural behaviour.

Aesthetically we can recognise actively bent gridshells by their smooth flowing

lines and relatively simple nodal points.

U n s t ra i n e d g r i d s h e l l s

By contrast, unstrained gridshells do not have forming-stresses baked in. They

are constructed from linear or pre-curved elements that meet at nodal
connectors. Geodesic domes fall within the family of unstrained gridshells.
Visually, unstrained gridshells are noticeably different to strained gridshells,
recognisable by their linear edges and faceted planar surfaces.

Fig 13. Murinsel gridshell by Vito Acconci, Graz [7].

Unstrained gridshells are typically constructed element-by-element with nodal

connections providing the direction change between individual linear elements.

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Fig 14. Unstrained gridshell roof at The Pods sports academy, Scunthorpe [8]

Since unstrained gridshells are not limited to the organic (and optimal) shapes
that emerge from raising the flat grid into position – they are free to adopt
almost any required shape. This freedom to adopt a wider variety of shapes has
led to the term freeform being used to describe such shells. As a result, the
shape of unstrained freeform gridshells is driven by aesthetic, architectural and
construction considerations to a far greater degree than actively bent gridshells.

Unstrained gridshells are more complex (in their connections) and, therefore,
more costly to manufacture. The geometry of the gridshell usually means that
these are unique across the structure, inflating their cost.

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Fig 15. Nodal connection from The Pods gridshell [8]

On the other hand, they benefit from the speed and efficiency of offsite
manufacturing. The erection process is also more straightforward since the
complete structure does not need to be raised and stressed in a single
operation.

The resulting faceted surface can also lead to more straightforward cladding or
glazing since the gridshell surface consists of planar panels rather than a
continuously curving surface.

Form finding
We have already said that the ability of a shell to resist loading is directly related
to its shape or form, particularly in the case of a strained gridshell. As a result, a
process known as form finding must be completed, which involves identifying
the optimal shell geometry for a given set of loading and boundary conditions.

There are various form finding methods but they all have the same underlying
objective, to identify the surface shape that minimises the strain energy in the
structure while force balance is maintained between internal and external forces.
The shell boundary conditions must also be respected and are a key ingredient in

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the form finding process.

The Funicular Form

Funicular forms refer to the bending-free forms that are adopted when
structures, typically cables, chains or nets, are subject to some loading. The term
funicular means tension only or compression only for a given loading. We explore
funiculars in more detail in our graphic statics tutorial.

The most familiar funicular form is the catenary, the shape that a hanging cable
or chain makes under gravity loading. Since the chain only experiences tension
while hanging, and not bending, if we invert the catenary, we obtain an arch in
pure compression. The arch shape is said to be a funicular for self-weight loading,
Fig 16.

Fig 16. Hooke’s hanging chain (pure tension) and mirrored arch (pure compression), as
depicted by Poleni, 1748. Reproduced here from [9].

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This is often referred to as Hooke’s principle after the English engineer Robert
Hooke (1635–1703). This shouldn’t be confused with Hooke’s law – also coined by
Robert Hooke.

P h ys i c a l m o d e l s ( h a n g i n g c h a i n m o d e l s )

The 2D hanging chain can be expanded to three dimensions in the form of a

hanging chain net. The same funicular principle also extends to 3D; a hanging net
in pure tension, when inverted, reveals the shape of a pure compression
(membrane) shell – but again, only for the specific case of gravity loading.

Build an iterative solution toolbox to analyse structures that

exhibit geometric non-linearity due to large deflections.

After completing this course...

• You will understand the concept of geometric non-linearity and when it should be

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considered.

• You will understand how to modify the axially loaded element stiffness matrix to
account for large deflections and changes in geometry.

• You will have implemented a Newton-Raphson iterative solution algorithm that

seeks to converge on the deformed state of the structure.

• You will have a workflow that leverages open-source modelling tools in Blender to
quickly generate the initial structural geometry.

More Details

This observation led to the first practical form-finding techniques that employed
hanging chain models to identify funicular shell forms. As we’ve seen above, Otto
and others used this technique extensively to identify optimal membrane shapes
with Otto’s elaborate hanging chain model of Mannheim perhaps being one of
the most well-known examples, Fig.9 above.

A hanging chain model will adopt a funicular form which, it must be

remembered, by definition, is associated with a single loading arrangement. In
form studies, this is typically gravity loading. Thus, the prediction of pure
membrane action in the corresponding (grid)shell, only holds for self-weight and
is intolerant of geometric imperfections and loading variations in the real
structure. As such, joints must also resist moments to provide buckling resistance
to the real-world shell.

Hanging chain models and the related soap-film technique, also employed by
prominent early pioneers, can be considered purely geometric approaches to
form-finding. That is, they don’t capture the influence of the gridshell’s bending
stiffness on the found shape. Furthermore, they cannot provide any information
on the stresses that develop in actively bent shells during erection. For this, we
turn to numerical models.

M a te r i a l l y a cc u ra te s c a l e m o d e l s

Materially accurate scale models are also employed to capture the influence
of element stiffness on the gridshell shape identified through form-finding
(see Essen). One contemporary example is the Trio gridshell in Lecce, Italy

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2010, excellently documented by Bernardino D'Amico in his Masters Thesis

[10].

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Fig 17. Full-scale timber gridshell (top) and collection of model images (bottom 4) [10].

Co m p u t a t i o n a l a p p ro a c h e s

Physical form-finding models still have an important role in the design of gridshell
structures. They can provide valuable insight into the anticipated gridshell shape
and act as a sanity check to numerical analysis.

A physical model will almost always be directionally correct, even if the accuracy
is somewhat limited by the fidelity and scale of the model. In contrast,
computational models have the potential to provide wildly inaccurate results due
to programming and other simulation errors.

Having said that, the ease with which one can identify minimum energy surfaces
with complex loading and boundary conditions through simulation means that
numerical analysis has become the de facto technique for lightweight structure
form finding.

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Fig 18. Compression-only funicular form, obtained using Thrust Network Analysis method.
[11].

Numerical approaches afford us the ability to explore many more parameters and
initial configurations than would be feasible with scale modelling. Some
algorithms also allow us to identify the baked-in stresses developed in actively
bent shells as a natural output from the simulation. One such algorithm is
Dynamic Relaxation – probably the most widely used technique, originally
developed by Alistair Day in 1965.

Dynamic Relaxation and non-linear finite element analysis

For an actively bent gridshell, numerical form finding through dynamic relaxation
involves simulating the erection process to identify the final settled position of
the structure and the associated stresses induced. To do this, we need as inputs,

• The undeformed and unstressed grid shape, often termed the cutting
pattern. This takes the form of a flattened or planar square grid or mat.

• The displacements that will be imposed to force the mat into the desired
shape. This vector of displacements may be boundary displacements – in this
case the shell can be thought of as being pushed up into its final shape by
the displacement of the boundaries. This mimics the actual construction
process. The initial boundary displacements can be conveniently obtained
from scale model testing. Alternatively, the mat can be allowed to deflect
under a fictitious gravity load with suitable boundary conditions respected.

Re f e r e n c e s u r f a c e s

A variation of this simulation approach involves the use of a reference surface

to guide the final shape of the gridshell. In this method, the initially flat mat
is bent to match the reference surface using spring forces.

Once the mat has deformed to match the reference surface, its perimeter
nodes are restrained and the spring forces are disabled. This allows the mat

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to settle to a new equilibrium minimum energy position that closely

approximates the reference surface. Since the reference surface guides the
shape of the gridshell, there is no need to specify the cutting pattern or
boundary displacements.

The numerical form finding outlined above requires us to evaluate the force
distribution in the structure at each timestep. One of the most convenient tools
for the job is finite element analysis. However, the very large deformations
involved in the form-finding process result in geometrically non-linear behaviour.
So, an iterative non-linear analysis is called for. This is where dynamic relaxation
enters the picture.

The form-finding procedure and its application to gridshell structures is

explained by Andriaenssens and Barnes in their seminal 2001 paper [12]. We’ll
save the details of its implementation for a future tutorial but outline the basic
idea here.

Dynamic relaxation treats the geometrically nonlinear problem like a dynamic

analysis. The motion of each node in the system, under the influence of the
applied loads, is simulated over successive time increments until the system
comes to rest in equilibrium. A viscous damping force (or kinetic damping) is
introduced to the analysis such that the system does eventually converge to
within an acceptable tolerance.

Once the structure has converged, an optimal surface for the given boundary
conditions and applied loads has been obtained. The benefit of this numerical
scheme is that the internal member forces required to maintain equilibrium can
be reported directly from the model. We’ll explore the technique in detail in a
future EngineeringSkills project.

Fr e e f o r m g r i d s h e l l s

All of our discussion on form finding up to this point has focused on actively bent
shells. However, in addition to practical hanging chain models, there are various
numerical methods that yield funicular forms, e.g. the Particle Spring Systems

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and Thrust Network Analysis, Fig 18 above. We will likely examine these in future
tutorials or projects.

As we’ve already mentioned, a freeform (unstrained) shell is exactly that, free to

take up any form that the designer conjures up and not necessarily one that
emerges from a minimum energy analysis. In addition to the structures we’ve
highlighted above, another notable example is the steel roof above the courtyard
at the Dutch Maritime Museum, Fig 19.

Fig 19. Steel roof above the courtyard of the Dutch Maritime Museum [13].

This is an example of a shell where aesthetic and symbolic considerations drove

the structural form. The steelwork arrangement covers a plan area of 30m × 30m
and was inspired by compass rose lines on old nautical charts, Fig 20.

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Fig 20. The compass rose lines that inspired the steelwork arrangement of the steel shell
above the Dutch Maritime Museum, as shown on the project architect's website, Ney +
Partners [14].

N ex t s te p s
We set out at the start of this article with the goal of developing a better
understanding of gridshell structures; their origins, how they work and how their
forms are found through experimentation and analysis. Hopefully, you feel like
we’ve gone some way towards accomplishing this.

So, what next? To deepen our understanding of the topics discussed above, we
really need to explore the analysis techniques firsthand. So, in our next gridshell
tutorial, we’ll set about building a workflow for modelling and analysing our own
gridshell structures.

In our next installment, we’ll start by considering unstrained gridshells. This will
give us a good foundation on which to build our own dynamic relaxation
algorithm for actively bent gridshells a little further down the line.

Plenty more to come!

Re f e r e n c e s

[1] Wikipedia

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[2] Wikipedia

[3] Philip Drew, “Frei Otto, Form and Structure”, Westview Press, 1976

[4] Liddell, I. “Frei Otto and the development of gridshells”, Case Studies in
Structural Engineering, 4 (2015) 39–49

[5] Wikipedia

[6] D’Amico, Bernardino, Timber Grid-shell Structures: form-finding, analysis

and optimisation, PhD Thesis, Edinburgh Napier University, 2015

[7] Wikipedia

[8] Harris, R, Gusinde, B & Roynon, J 2012, 'Design and construction of the
pods sports academy, Scunthorpe, England', Paper presented at World
Conference of Timber Engineering 2012, Auckland, New Zealand, 16/07/12 –
19/07/12 pp. 510–517.

[9] Adriaenssens et al. “Shell Structures for Architecture, Form Finding and
Optimisation”, Routledge, 2014

[10] B. D’Amico. Design and building of a post-formed timber gridshell.

Master’s thesis, University of Naples Federico II, Italy, 2010

[11] M. Rippmann, L. Lachauer, and P. Block. Interactive vault design.

International Journal of Space Structures, 27(4):219–230, 2012

[12] S. Adriaenssens and M. Barnes. Tensegrity spline beam and grid shell
structures. Engineering structures, 23(1):29–36, 2001

[13] Wikipedia

[14] Ney + Partners

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