JANSONS INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
Karumathampatti, Coimbatore.

Department of Science and Humanities

STUDY MATERIAL
(As per Anna University Regulations - 2021)

PH3254 – PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Semester – II

Prepared by : Dr Manjula R Shenoy - AP/Physics

 PH3254 PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING L T P C

3 0 0 3

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

● To make the students to understand the basics of crystallography and its importance in
studying materials properties.
● To understand the electrical properties of materials including free electron theory,
applications of quantum mechanics and magnetic materials.
● To instil knowledge on physics of semiconductors, determination of charge carriers and
device applications
● To establish a sound grasp of knowledge on different optical properties of materials, optical
displays and applications
● To inculcate an idea of significance of nano structures, quantum confinement and ensuing
nano device applications.

UNIT I CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 9
Crystal structures: Crystal lattice – basis - unit cell and lattice parameters – crystal systems and
Bravais lattices – Structure and packing fractions of SC, BCC, FCC, diamond cubic, NaCL, ZnS
structures – crystal planes, directions and Miller indices – distance between successive planes –
linear and planar densities – crystalline and noncrystalline materials –Example use of Miller indices:
wafer surface orientation – wafer flats and notches – pattern alignment - imperfections in crystals.

UNIT II ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9

Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal conductivity,
expression - Quantum free electron theory :Tunneling – degenerate states – Fermi- Dirac statistics
– Density of energy states – Electron in periodic potential – Energy bands in solids – tight binding
approximation - Electron effective mass – concept of hole. Magnetic materials: Dia, para and
ferromagnetic effects – paramagnetism in the conduction electrons in metals – exchange
interaction and ferromagnetism – quantum interference devices – GMR devices.

UNIT III SEMICONDUCTORS AND TRANSPORT PHYSICS 9

Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram – direct and indirect band gap semiconductors –
Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – extrinsic semiconductors - Carrier concentration
in N-type & P-type semiconductors – Variation of carrier concentration with temperature – Carrier
transport in Semiconductors: Drift, mobility and diffusion – Hall effect and devices – Ohmic contacts
– Schottky diode.
UNIT IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 9
Classification of optical materials – Optical processes in semiconductors: optical absorption and
emission, charge injection and recombination, optical absorption, loss and gain. Optical processes
in quantum wells – Optoelectronic devices: light detectors and solar cells – light emitting diode –
laser diode - optical processes in organic semiconductor devices –excitonic state – Electro-optics
and nonlinear optics: Modulators and switching devices – plasmonics.

UNIT V NANO DEVICES 9

Density of states for solids - Significance between Fermi energy and volume of the material –
Quantum confinement – Quantum structures – Density of states for quantum wells, wires and dots –
Band gap of nanomaterials –Tunneling – Single electron phenomena – Single electron Transistor.
Conductivity of metallic nanowires – Ballistic transport – Quantum resistance and conductance –
Carbon nanotubes: Properties and applications - Spintronic devices and applications – Optics in
quantum structures – quantum well laser.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to
CO1:know basics of crystallography and its importance for varied materials properties
CO2:gain knowledge on the electrical and magnetic properties of materials and their applications
CO3:understand clearly of semiconductor physics and functioning of semiconductor devices
CO4:understand the optical properties of materials and working principles of various optical devices
CO5:appreciate the importance of nanotechnology and nanodevices.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. S.O. Kasap. Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, McGraw Hill Education (Indian
Edition), 2020.
2. R.F.Pierret. Semiconductor Device Fundamentals. Pearson (Indian Edition), 2006.
3. G.W.Hanson. Fundamentals of Nanoelectronics. Pearson Education (Indian Edition), 2009.
REFERENCES:
1. Laszlo Solymar, Walsh, Donald, Syms and Richard R.A., Electrical Properties of
Materials, Oxford Univ. Press (Indian Edition) 2015.
2. Jasprit Singh, Semiconductor Optoelectronics: Physics and Technology, McGraw-Hill
Education (Indian Edition), 2019.
3. Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, Wiley India Edition, 2019.
4. Mark Fox, Optical Properties of Solids, Oxford Univ.Press, 2001.
5. N.Gershenfeld. The Physics of Information Technology. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
 UNIT 1 – CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

1. Lattice
An array of points which are imaginarily kept to representthe position of atoms in
the crystal.
2. Space Lattice (or) Crystal Lattice
A three dimensional collection of lattice points in space is called space lattice (or)
crystal lattice.
3. Lattice Points: The points in space lattice are called lattice points.
4. 4. Basis (or) Motif
Each lattice point is associated with an atom or a group of atoms called basis.
6. Lattice Planes
A set of parallel and equally spaced planes in a space lattice, which are formed
with respect to the lattice points

7. Unit Cell
TheUnitCell is defined as the smallest geometric figure, the
translationalrepetition of which in all over three dimensions gives actual crystal
structure.
8. Lattice Parameters (or) Unit Cell Parameters
The lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any three faces of the unit
cell which do not lie in the same plane are calledCrystallographic Axis.
Y
b

X
a
c
Z
The intercepts a, b and c are nothing but the edges of the unit cell, which define
the dimension of a unit cell. These intercepts are known as axial lengths.
The angles between a & b, b & c and c & a, are denoted by ,
respectively. These three angles are called Interfacial Angles
8. Primitive Cell
A Primitive Cell is the simplest type of unit cell which contains only one lattice point per
unit cell.
Example: Simple Cubic (SC).

9. Non Primitive Cell

Dr. GB 1
 If there are more than one lattice points in a unit cell, it is called a Non Primitive
Cell.Example: BCC and FCC.
SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
Crystal System Axial length Interfacial Angles
Cubic a =b = c  =  =  = 90
Tetragonal a =b  c  =  =  = 90
Orthorhombic a b  c  =  =  = 90
Monoclinic a b  c  =  = 90
Triclinic a b  c  90
Trigonal or a =b = c  =  =  90
Rhombohedral
Hexagonal a =b  c  =  = 90 = 120
BRAVAIS LATTICE
There are only 14 possible ways of arranging points in space lattice where all the lattice
points have exactly the same surroundings.

Dr. GB 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIT CELL

Number of atoms per unit cell

The total number of atoms present in (or) shared by a unit cell is known as
number of atoms per unit cell.

Atomic Radius
Half of the distance between any two nearest neighbouring atoms which have
direct contact with each other.

Coordination Number
Number of nearest neighbouring atoms to a particular atom in a crystal.
Atomic Packing Factor (or) Packing Density

APF =

SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)

Number of Atoms per Unit Cell

Dr. GB 3
Every corner atom is shared by 8 adjacent unit cells.
Total number of atoms per unit cell = 8
The total number of atoms per unit cell is 1.
Atomic Radius
Here corner atoms touch each other along the edges .

Lattice constant a = 2r,

Atomic radius r= a/2
Co-ordination Number
For X atom there are four nearest atoms in theirown plane and there
are 2 more nearest atoms, one directly above (atom 5) and the other
one directly below (atom6).
the coordinationnumber for simple cubic is 6.
Atomic packing factor (APF)

Atomic packing factor =

Atomic Packing factor = = 0.52

We can say 52% of volume of the unit cell of SC is occupied by atoms.
Since the packing density is very low, SC has loosely packed structure.

BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

In BCC crystal structure the unit cell has
one atom at each corner and one at body
center,
Total Number of atoms per unit cell
In this structure, a centre atom is
surrounded by eight corner atoms.
Therefore we have
Number of centre atoms = 1
Share of corner atoms in each unit cell
= 1/8
Total number of atoms per unit cell = (1/8 × 8) + 1= 2.
Atomic radius
In BCC structure, the corner atoms do not touch each other. But
each corner atom touches the body centered atom along the body
diagonal.

Dr. GB 4
 In ADC, (AD) 2 = (AC) 2 + (CD) 2

( AD) 2 = (AB) 2 + (BC) 2 + (CD) 2

2 2 2
(4r) 2 = a + a + a

16r2 = 3a2
√
Atomic radius, r =

Co-ordination number
In BCC Each corner atom diagonally touches the centre
atom;
The coordination number is 8.

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

APF =

APF =

√
APF =

√
= 0.68
We can say that 68% volume of the unit of the unit cell of BCC is occupied by atoms .It
has tightly packed structure.
FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)
Number of atoms per unit cell
Each face centered atom is shared by only two unit cells.
Share of face-centered atoms in each of two unit cells = ½× 6= 3
Share of corner atoms = 1/8 × 8= 1
Total number of atoms per unit cell = 1/8 × 8+ ½× 6 = 4

Dr. GB 5
 Atomic radius
The corner atoms do not touch each other. But each corner atom touches the face
centered atoms along the diagonal.
From the Figure we can write
(AC)2 = (AB)2 + (BC)2
(4r)2 = a2 + a2
16r2 = 2a2
√
Atomic radius r =
Co-ordination Number
Let us consider a corner atom.
This atom has four face-centered atoms on its plane
4atoms in the above plane, and 4 face centered atoms in
the plane below as nearest neighbors.
Hence,the coordination number is 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
APF =Number of atoms per unit cell xVolume of
one atom
Volume of unit cell

APF = =
√
∴Atomic packing factor (APF) = = 0.74
We can say that 74% volume of the unit cell of FCC is occupied by atoms
FCC structure has closely (or) tightly packed structure.

DIAMOND CUBIC STRUCTURE

Diamond has three types of atoms namely

Corner atom, Face centered atoms and four
atoms present inside the unit cell represented as 1,2,3,4 in
Fig.
Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
Number of Corner Atoms
Each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells.
The number of corner atoms per unit cell = 8
1

Dr. GB 6
 Number of Face Centered Atoms per Unit Cell
Each face centered atom is shared by 2 unit cells. Similarly, we have 6 face
centered atoms
The number of face centered atoms per unit cell = 6 3
Number of Atoms inside the Unit Cell
Inside the unit cell, we have 4 atoms which is shared by the particular unit cell alone.
The total number of atoms per unit cell = 1+3+4=8
Coordination Number

From Fig 5.25 the number of nearest atoms for “Y” atom is 4.
Therefore the coordination number of diamond is 4.

Atomic Radius
Here both the face centered atom and corner atom have contact with 4 atoms (1,2,3,4)
situated inside the unit cell .

From Fig ,

2 = +

4 =

√3
8
Atomic Packing Factor

√
8 8

√
8 √3
0.34
16
Packing density = 34%
Since the packing density is very low, it is termed as loosely packed structure.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) structure
Sodium chloride NaCl is an ionic erystal, It has FCC structure with a basis of one Na ion
(sodium) and one Cl ion (Chlorine), in an alternate fashion as shown in Fig.. Most of the

Dr. GB 7
alkali halides and sulphides exhibit this type of structure.
Structure composition: The Cl ions are situated at the corners ss well as at the centres of the
faces of the cube. The Na jons are situated exactly at the mid point of the axial length of the
unit cell along each axis.
Thus, NaCl crystal can be thought to be composed of two FCC sublattices. One of Cl ion
having the origin of 0,0,0 and the other of Na ion having the origin , 0,0
Let us discuss the important parameters of the NaCl crystal.

1 Number of atoms per unit cell

(i) Number of Nat ions per unit cell
(a) Each Na jon situated at the mid point of the axial length is shared by 4 unit cells.
Similarly, we have 12mid point Na ions.
∴ Number of mid point Na ivons per uait cell
12 3 ions

(b) Each body centered Na ion is stared by that

particular unit cell alone
∴ Number of body centred Na jon 1 1 ion
∴ Total number of Na ions per unit cell 3 1
4 jons
(ii) Number of Cl ions per unit cell.
Here we have two types of Cl ions viz, (a) corner Cl ions and (b) face centred
Cl ions, as shown in Fig.
(a) Number of corners Cl ions per unit cell 8 1 ion
2 (b) Each face centered Cl ion is shared by 2 unit cells, similarly we have 6 face
centred Cl ions.
∴ Number of face centred Cl ions per unit cell 6 3 ions
∴ Total number of Cl jons per unit cell 1 3 ⇒ 4
Thus there are 4Na ions and 4Cl ions per unit cell in a NaCl crystal.
2. Coordination Number
Each Cl ions have 6Na ions as nearest neighbour. Similarly, each Na ion has
6Cl ions as nearest neighbours. Hence, the coondination number of NaCl for opposite
kind of ions is 6 .
3. Atomic radius- The distance between any two nearest neighbours is a/2
Zinc blende (or) Zinc sulphide structure
Similar structure to that of a diamond.

Formation of structure: We know the diamond structure is made by

carbon atoms. In the diamond structure if the comer and face
centered atoms are replaced by sulphur atoms and the four atoms
present inside the unit cell are replaced by zinc Zn atoms, then we
get zinc sulphide structare as shown in Fig. It also has the
coordination number as 4.

Dr. GB 8
MILLER INDICES
The reciprocal of the intercepts made by the plane on the crystallographic axis
which are reduced to smallest set of three numbers are called miller indices.

Steps for finding Miller Indices:

Step 1:
Find the intercepts made by the plane ABC along the three axis.
i.e., OA: OB: OC = pa: qb: rc
[p=3, q=1, r= 2]

The intercepts are 3a : 1b : 2c

Step 2 :
Find the coefficients of the intercepts ie.,3,1,2
Step 3 :
Find the reciprocal of these numbers.
1 1 1 1 1 1
: : . ., : :
3 1 2
Step 4:
Convert these reciprocals into whole numbers by multiplying each and every reciprocal
with their LCM.
Since 6 is the LCM in this case, we get 6 x 6× 6×

Therefore we have 2 6 3

Step 5:

Enclose these number into a bracket like this  ( ).

Miller indices are generally denoted by (h k l).
CHARECTARISTICS OF MILLER INDICES
 All equally spaced parallel planes have the same Miller indices.
 A plane parallel to one of the co-ordinate axes has an intercept of
infinity and the Miller indices of that plane are zero
 If the Miller indices of two planes have the same ratio (like 422 or
211), then the planes are parallel to each other.

Dr. GB 9
  The indices should be enclosed within the parentheses without the
commas in between the number.
 If the plane cuts the negative side of the axes, the intercept is a
negative number and the miller indices are negative.
 The negative miller indices are denoted by (h k l).

‘d’ SPACING (OR) INTERPLANAR DISTANCE IN CUBIC LATTICE

Interplanardistance or ‘d’ spacing is the perpendicular distance between any two
successive planes in cubic lattice.
• Let us consider a plane ABC with Miller Indices (h k l).
• Let ON = d1. ’, , ’ be the angles between the coordinate axis X, Y, Z and ON.
• Here the intercepts are expressed as reciprocals of miller indices of the plane.
i.e OA:OB:OC = : :
Multiplying by a lattice constant,

OA = ,

Now the direction cosines can be

expressed as
∝′

′
cos
The law of direction cosines is
′ ′ ′
1

Dr. GB 10
 Substituting for cos ′ , cos ′ , cos ′ we have,

Taking square root on both sides, we have

√
√

√
Linear density–Number of atoms per unit length whose centers lie on the direction
vector for a specific crystallographic direction
Planar density – Number of atoms per unit areathat are centered on a crystallographic
direction

CRYSTALLINE, POLYCRYSTALLINE & AMORPHOUS MATERIALS

 Crystalline Solids are those in which molecules are arranged in an orderly
fashion throughout the solid, in a three dimensional pattern.

 Polycrystalline solids which has an aggregate of many small crystals separated

by well-defined boundaries but oriented in different directions.
 In amorphous solids, theatoms (or) molecules are not arranged in an orderly
fashion.
Example: Plastics, Rubber and Glass.

Differences between Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Materials

S.NO Crystalline Material Non- Crystalline Material

1 They have a regular arrangement of atoms, They do not have regular arrangement
or molecules therefore they have well of particles; therefore do not have well
defined geometrical shape. defined particles.

2 They have long range order They have short range order

3 They have sharp melting point. They do not have sharp melting point.

4 They are anisotropic They are isotropic

Dr. GB 11
 5 They are true solids, i.e., they show all the They are pseudo – solids, i.e., they do
characteristic properties of solids. not show all the characteristic
properties of solids.

6 They are most stable. They are less stable. Example: Plastic ,
Example:NaCl , KCl Glass, Rubber

WAFER SURFACE ORIENTATION

Introduction

 Silicon wafers are thin slices of semiconducting materials widely used in the
production of electronics and micromechanical devices.
 Integrated circuits are also manufactured with a silicon wafer.
Wafer Surface Orientation
For certain applications, a defined tilting to the main crystallographic plane may be
desirable.
Optimum orientation is critical for semiconductor manufacturing. The (100)
orientation is the best option for most application.

Importance

1 The orientation of the silicon wafer is important because it affects the electronic
properties and efficiency of the device.
2 It also more important for semiconductor because it can affect the conductivity,
thermal resistance and optical properties.
Flats - A flat is a vinal reference to the orlenataricn of a wafer, which indicates the crostal
orientation.
Types
There are two types of flats, viz.,
(i) Primary flats: A primary flat is ground relative to a specific crystal orientation. This acts
as a visual reference to the orientation of the wafer,
(ii) Secondary flat: A secondary falt is used far identification of the wafer, dopant type and
orientation.
PATTERN ALIGNMENT
Wafer pattern alignment of a semiconductor device is provided to exactly measure at critical
dimension of the pattern by using two different pattern elements.
CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS
The disturbance occurred in the regular orientation of atoms
Properties such as mechanical strength, ductility, crystal growth, magnetic hysteresis,
dielectric strength are greatly affected by the imperfections.
Point Defect
Point defects take place due to imperfect packing of atoms during crystallization
The different types of point defects are
i) Vacancies ii) Interstitial iii) Impurities
i) Vacancies
It refers to a missing atom or vacant atomic site.
The two kinds of vacancies are
a) Schottky defect, b) Frenkel defect
a) Schottky Defect

Dr. GB 12
It refers to the missing of a pair of positive and negative ions in an ionic crystal.
b) Frenkel Defect
A vacancy associated with interstitial impurity is called Frenkel defect.

If a positive ion moves into an interstitial site in an ionic

crystal, a cation vacancy
is created in normal ion site, this vacancy-interstitial
pair is known as Frenkel defect.

ii) Interstitial Defect

When an extra atom occupies interstitial space within the crystal structure without removing
the parent atom, the defect is called interstitial defect.
Types of Interstitial Defect
a) Self interstitial b) Foreign interstitial
a) Self Interstitial
If an atom from the same crystal occupies interstitial
site then it is called self interstitial
b) Foreign Interstitial
b) If an impurity atom occupies interstitial site, then it is called foreign interstitial
iii) Impurities
When the foreign atoms are added to crystal lattices, they are known as impurities.
There are two types of impurity defects
c) a) Substitutional Impurity, b) Interstitial
Impurity
a) Substitutional Impurity - It refers to a foreign atom
that replaces a parent atom in the lattice
b) Interstitial Impurity - It is created when impurity atom occupies the
interstitial position (void) without replacing the parent atom.
2. Line defects or Dislocations
The defects due to dislocation or distortion of atoms along a line are
known as line defects or dislocations.In line defect, a line of atoms is
missing or displaced from its regular site. There are two types of line
defects
(i) Edge dislocation (ii) Screw dislocation
i) Edge Dislocation
An edge dislocation arises when one of the atomic planes forms partially and does not extend
through the entire crystal

Classification of Edge Dislocation

a) Positive edge dislocation b) Negative edge dislocation.
a) Positive Edge Dislocation - Here the extra plane of atoms
is above the slip plane of the crystal
b) Negative edge dislocation - Here the extra plane of atoms
is below the slip plane
ii) ScrewDislocation
Screw dislocation is due to a displacement of atoms in one part of a
crystal relative to the rest of crystal
3. Surface defects
The defects on the surface of a material are called surface defects or
plane defects.
i) Grain Boundaries
A grain boundary is formed when two growing grain surfaces meet.

Dr. GB 13
This type of defect generally takes place during the solidification of the liquid metal.

ii) Tilt or Twist Boundaries

Tilt Boundaries
It is an array of parallel edge dislocations
Twist boundaries
It consists of atleast two sets of parallel screw dislocations

iii) Twin Boundaries

If the atomic arrangement on one side of the boundary is
somewhat a mirror image of the arrangement of atoms of
the other side is called twin Boundaries.
iv) Stacking Fault
Whenever the stacking of atoms is not in proper sequence throughout the
crystal, the defect caused is called Stacking Fault.
4. Volume Defects
The defects such as cracks or pores occur at the
surface of the crystal results in variation of
properties and that type of defect is called
Volume Defects.

Burger Vector – It indicates the direction and magnitude of the shift of the lattice on the slip
plane

Dr. GB 14
 QUESTION BANK

PART – A (2 MARKS)

1. Define crystal.
2. What are the differences between crystalline and non-crystalline materials?
3. What is an amorphous solid? Give example.
4. Define unit cell.
5. Define atomic radius.
6. Define co-ordination number.
7. Define space lattice or crystal lattice.
8. What are lattice parameters?
9. Define lattice planes.
10. What is meant by primitive and non-primitive cell? Give example.
11. Distinguish between primitive cell and unit cell.
12. Define Basis.
13. What is crystallography?
14. What are miller indices?
15. Define Bravais lattice.
16. Draw (111), (110) and (101) planes in simple cubic.
17. Define interplanar distance.
18. Define Atomic packing fraction.
19. Write the atomic radius, co-ordination number for diamond structure.
20. Name seven crystal systems.
21. Name the crystal structure of the following: a) Gold, b) Germanium, c) Barium,
d) Zinc.
22. Bismuth has a = b = c = 4.74 AU and angles α = β = γ = 60˚. What is its crystal
structure?
23. State the values of coordination number of NaCl, ZnS and diamond structure.
24. Which crystal structure is having least coordination number? Give example.
25. What is meant by closed packed structure? Give one example.
26. What are the coordination numbers for SC, BCC, FCC structures?
27. Defects in crystals are not always harmful. Justify.
28. What are point defects? (Or) Zero dimensional defects?
29. What is a line defect? (Or) a one dimensional defect?
30. What is edge dislocation?
31. What is screw dislocation?
32. What is meant by stacking fault?
33. Define Burger vector
34. List the different type of point defects.
35. Explain the role of orientation of silicon wafer in fabrication of devices.
36. Calculate the first and second nearest neighbour distances in the body centered
cubic unit cell of sodium, which has lattice constant of 4.3 × 10-10 m. [Ans:
3.723Å]
37. Calculate the inter planar distance for (321) plane in simple cubic lattice with
inter atomic spacing equal to 4.12 Å . [Ans: 1.10 Å]

Dr. GB 15
 38. Calculate the inter-planar spacing for (101) and (221) planes in a simple cubic
lattice whose lattice constant is 0.42nm. [Ans: 2.9698Å, 1.4Å.]
39. Iron has BCC structure with atomic radius 0.123Å. Find the lattice constant and
also the volume of the unit cell.[ Ans: 0.284× 10-10 m, 2.2906× 10-32 m3 ]
40. A crystal plane cuts at 3a, 4b, and 2c distances along the crystallographic axes.
Find the Miller Indices of the plane. [Ans: (436)]
PART B

Questions
1. a) Derive an expression for the interplanar spacing in a cubic structure
b) Determine the atomic radius, coordination number and packing factor for SC
structure
2. a) Explain the crystal structure of Diamond (6 mark) (Jan 2009).
b) What are Miller indices? Give the procedure for finding Miller indices of
crystal planes. (10 mark) (Jan 2010, Jan2011, Jan. 2009, Jan2005, Jan2013).
3. a) The lattice constant of a cubic crystal is 2.5Å. Find the lattice spacing for
(310) and (213) planes in the lattice. (June 2014)
b) Explain the physical basis of classifying crystals into seven systems and
14Bravais lattices. (Dec 2014)
4. Determine the atomic radius, coordination number and packing factor for BCC
and FCC structure.
5. Explain crystal defects in a detailed manner

Dr. GB 16
 Unit 2 – ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
POSTULATES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY
In an atom electron revolve around the nucleus. The valence electrons of atoms are free to move
about the whole volume of metals like the molecules of a perfect gas in a container.
In the absence of electric field, these free electrons move in random directions and
collide with each other and all the collisions are perfectly elastic.

When an electric field (E) is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated in the direction
opposite to the direction of applied electric field. Since the electrons are assumed to
be perfect gas, they obey the laws of classical kinetic theory of gases
BASIC DEFINITIONS:
Drift velocity (vd) The average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular
direction, due to the application of electric field is called drift velocity.

Relaxation time (τ) It is the time taken by the free electron to reach its equilibrium position from
its disturbed position, in the presence of applied field.

Mobility (µ) Mobility is defined as the drift velocity (vd) acquired by the free electron per unit
v
electric field (E) applied to it. µ= d
E

Collision time (τc) It is the average time taken by a free electron between two successive
collision.

Mean free path (λ) The average distance travelled between two successive collision is called mean
free path. λ −
τc = λ = cτ
vd c

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Definition: electrical conductivity is defined as the quantity of electricity flowing per unit area per
unit time maintained at unit potential gradient. Unit: Ω−1 𝑚𝑚−1
2
𝜎𝜎 = 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚 𝜏𝜏
Expression For Electrical Conductivity

Dr. GB 17
When an electric field (E) is applied to a conductor, the free electrons will move in positive field
direction and give rise to current (I). The flow of charges is given in terms of
current density (J).
If ‘n’ is the free electron density and ‘e’ is the charge of electron then current

density is given by, J = n (–e) vd ....................................(1)

Due to electric field electron gains acceleration ‘a’

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 (𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑)
Acceleration (a) = (or) 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 …….(2)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝜏𝜏)

Let us consider that ‘E’ be the electric field intensity applied to a conductor, ‘e’ be the charge of
electron, ‘m’ be the mass of the electron, Then F = – eE ……………(3)
From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the force acquired by the electrons can be written as F = ma
……...(4)
−𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Equating (3) and (4) => – eE = ma ; a = ….....(5)
𝑚𝑚
−𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Now, substituting the value of ‘a’ from eqn (2) in eqn. (5), we get 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑 = 𝜏𝜏………(6)
𝑚𝑚

𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
Sub eqn (6) in eqn (1) we have 𝐽𝐽 = ……..(7)
𝑚𝑚

The current density depends on the applied field(E), ∴ we can write 𝐽𝐽 ∝ 𝐸𝐸 (𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) 𝐽𝐽 =
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎………(8)
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 = ; 𝜎𝜎 = ………..(9)
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (K)

Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the amount of heat flowing per unit time through
unit area of cross section of the material maintained at unit temperature gradient. Unit: 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾−𝟏𝟏 𝑲𝑲−𝟏𝟏 .
Expression For Thermal Conductivity
consider a uniform rod AB with temperatures T1 (hot) at end ‘A’ and T2 (cold) at end B. Heat flows
from hot end ‘A’ to the cold end ‘B’. Let us consider a cross sectional area ‘C’ which is at a distance
equal to the mean free path (λ) of the electron between the ends A and B of the rod as shown in
figure.

The amount of heat (Q) conducted by the rod from the end A to B of length 2λ is given by
𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )𝑡𝑡
𝑄𝑄 α
2λ

Dr. GB 18
 𝑄𝑄 =
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )𝑡𝑡
…........(1)
2λ

K = Coefficient of thermal conductivity.

A = Area of cross section .

2λ = Length of rod.
t = Time for conduction.
From eqn. (1) we can write coefficient of thermal conductivity per unit area per unit time
𝑄𝑄
𝐾𝐾 = 2λ ……. (2)
(𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 )

Let us assume that there is equal probability for the electrons to move in all the six directions as
shown in Fig. Since each electron travels with thermal velocity ‘v’ and if ‘n’ is the free electron
density, then on an average 1/6 nv electrons will travel in any one direction.
The number electrons crossing unit area per unit time at ‘C’ =1/6 nv …..(3)
The average kinetic energy of an electron at hot end ‘A’ of temperature (T1) =
3
K B T1
2

The average kinetic energy of an electron at cold end ‘B’ of temperature (T2) =
3
K B T2
2

The heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from end A to B across C
=Number of electrons x Average K.E of electron moving from A to B
1 3
= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇1 …………………(4)
6 2

Similarly, the heat energy transferred per unit area per unit time from end ‘B’ to ‘A’ across ‘C’=

………..(5)
The net heat energy transferred from end A to B per unit area per unit time across ‘C’ can be got by
subtracting eqn. (5) from eqn. (4)
1 1
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇2
4 4
1
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 ) ……… (6)
4
1 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 (𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 ) .2λ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 λ
Substituting eqn. (6) in eqn. (2) we get K= ; 𝐾𝐾 =
4 (𝑇𝑇1 −𝑇𝑇2 ) 2
………………(7)

Dr. GB 19
 λ
For metals = 𝜏𝜏𝑐𝑐 = ; 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 = λ …… (8)
𝑣𝑣

𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣 2 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵 𝜏𝜏
Substituting eqn. (8) in eqn. (7) we get 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝐾𝐾) = ….
2
(9)
WIEDEMANN - FRANZ LAW
“the ratio between the thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity of a metal is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal”.
𝐾𝐾 𝐾𝐾
i.e ∝ 𝑇𝑇 ; = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎

where “L” is a constant called Lorentz number whose value is equal to 2.44 x 10–8 W Ω k–2 at 293
K.
(a)By Classical theory
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏 𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣 2 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
We know electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎 = ; Thermal conductivity 𝐾𝐾 =
𝑚𝑚 2

𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣 2 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝜏𝜏
𝐾𝐾 2
∴ =
𝜎𝜎 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏
𝑚𝑚
1 3
We know energy of an electron = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
2 2

𝐾𝐾 3 𝐾𝐾 2 𝐾𝐾 3 𝐾𝐾 2
Sub this in equation (1) we can write = � 𝐵𝐵� 𝑇𝑇; = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿; Where 𝐿𝐿 = � 𝐵𝐵�
𝜎𝜎 2 𝑒𝑒 𝜎𝜎 2 𝑒𝑒

L = 1.12 x 10–8 W Ω k–2

It is found that the classical value of Lorentz number, is only half of the experimental (i.e.) 2.44 x
10–8 W Ω k–2. This discrepancy of “L” value is the failure of classical theory. This draw back can be
rectified by quantum Theory.
(b)By Quantum theory
2
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏𝜏 𝜋𝜋2 𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝜏𝜏
The electrical conductivity 𝜎𝜎 = ; The thermal conductivity 𝐾𝐾 = � � 𝑇𝑇
𝑚𝑚∗ 3 𝑚𝑚∗
2
𝜋𝜋2 𝑛𝑛𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝜏𝜏
� 𝑚𝑚∗ �𝑇𝑇
𝐾𝐾 3 𝐾𝐾 𝜋𝜋2 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 2
= 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒2 𝜏𝜏
; As, = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ; Where L = � �
𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎 3 𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑚∗

Substituting the values we get L =2.448 x 10–8 W Ω k–2

Thus quantum theory verifies Wiedemann - Franz law and has good agreement with the experimental
value of Lorentz number.
SUCCESS

Dr. GB 20
 i. It verifies ohms law
ii. It explains the electrical and thermal conductivity of metals
iii. The optical properties of metals can be explained using this theory
FAILURES
i. It is a macroscopic theory
ii. Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb energy, but quantum theory states
that only few electrons will absorb energy.
iii. This theory cannot explain the compton, photo-elecric effect, paramagnetism, etc.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

S.No. Electrical Conductivity Thermal Conductivity

1.
The Co-efficient of electrical The Co-efficient of Thermal
conductivity is defined as the conductivity is defined as the quantity
quantity of electricity flowing per of heat conducted per unit area per
unit area per unit time maintained unit time maintained at unit
at unit potential gradient. temperature gradient.
2. Electrical conductivity is purely Thermal conductivity is due to both
due to number of free electrons. free electrons and phonons.
3. Conduction of electricity takes Conduction of heat takes place from
place from higher potential end to hot end to cold end.
the lower potential end.
4. Unit: ohm- 1234 m- 1 Unit: Wnf1 K"1

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

1. The electrical and thermal conductivity decreases with the increase in temperature and impurities.
2. The electrical and thermal conductivity is very high at low temperature.
3. For non-metals, the electrical and thermal conductivity is very less.

QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The drawbacks of classical theory can be rectified using quantum theory. According to classical
theory , the particles of a gas at zero kelvin will have zero Kinetic energy. But according to quantum
theory when all the particles at rest all of them should filled in ground state energy level. In order to
fill the electrons in energy level, we should know
(i)energy distribution of electrons
(ii) no of available energy states
(iii) Number of filled energy states

Dr. GB 21
 (iv) Probability of filling an electron in a given energy state, etc.

For cubical box,

ℎ2
We can write eigen value as, 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 = [𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧2 ]
8𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎2

8 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

The corresponding wave function ψ𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 = �𝑎𝑎3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑎𝑎

Degeneracy: For several combination of quantum number we have same eigen value but different
eigen functions. such states are called degenerate state.
Non-Degeneracy: For various combination of quantum numbers we have same eigen value and
same(one) eigen function are called non-Degenerate state.

FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

In the case of Fermi-dirac statistics the following points are considered.

(i) The particles (electrons) are indistinguishable.

(ii) The electrons which obey the Fermi-dirac statistics are called as fermions.
(iii) Each energy state can have only one particle with one spin.

(iv) The number of energy states should be greater than (or) equal to number of particles, for
example to fill say 9 particles, atleast 9 states should be available.
(v) There is no restriction in choosing the particle, (i.e) we can choose any particle to fill in any
state.
(vi) The total energy of the system = Sum of all the energies of the particles.

Fermi Energy and its importance

Fermi energy level (£)?): Fermi energy level is the maximum energy level upto which the electrons
can be filled at OK.

Importance
i. Thus it act as a reference level which seperates the vacant and filled, states at OK.
ii. It gives the information about the filled electrons states and the empty states.
iii. At OK, below Fermi energy level electrons are filled at above Fermi energy level it will
be empty.
iv. When the temperature is increased, few electron gains the thermal energy and it goes to
higher energy levels.

FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION:

Dr. GB 22
The probability F(E) of an electron occupying a given energy level is given by Fermi-Dirac
distribution function and it is written as
1
𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸 ) = 𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 ; where EF is called fermi energy
1+exp( )
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾

1 1
Case 1 : At T = 0 K & for, E < EF ; 𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸 ) = = = 100 %
1+exp(−∞) 1+0

 It means that 100% chance to find the particle [electron].

 At zero Kelvin all energy states below E F are occupied by electrons.
1 1
Case 2 : At T = 0 K & for, E > EF ; 𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸 ) = = = 0%
1+exp(∞) 1+∞

It means that 0% chance to find the particle [electron]

· At zero Kelvin all energy states above EF are empty.
1 1
Case 3 : At T = 0 K & for, E = EF ; 𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸 ) = = = 50 %
1+exp(0) 1+1

It means that 50% chance to find the particle [electron].

· At zero Kelvin energy states above EF are empty and below EF are filled.

Fermi distribution function at different temperatures

DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES
Density of states is defined as the number of energy states present in the energy range from E to E
+ dE per unit volume of the material.

N ( E )dE
Z ( E )dE = --------(1)
a3
The energy of the free electron is the same as the energy of a particle in a box. i.e.,

---------(2)

Dr. GB 23
 ------(3)

Where n2 = nx2 + ny2 + nz2, nx, ny and nz are quantum numbers corresponding to three
perpendicular axes x, y and z. m = the mass of the electron
a = the side of cubically shaped metal.

4 3
Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius n is = πn .
3

Since n1, n2 and n3 can have only positive integer values, we have to consider only one octant of the
sphere.

1 4 3
Hence available energy states = × πn .
8 3
In order to calculate the number of states within a small energy interval E and E + dE, we have to
construct two spheres with radii n and (n + dn) and calculate the space occupied within these two
spheres.

1 4
Similarly, the number of available energy states within the sphere of radius n+dn = × π (n + dn)3
8 3
Therefore number of available energy states between the shells of radius n and n + dn (or) between
the energy levels E and E + dE is given by

1 4 1 4
N ( E )dE = × π (n + dn)3 − × π n3
8 3 8 3
1 4
N ( E )dE =× π ((n + dn)3 − n3 )
8 3
π
N ( E )dE= ((n3 + dn3 + 3ndn 2 + 3n 2 dn − n3 )
6
omitting .Higher.Powers.of .dn.
π
N ( E )dE = (3n 2 dn)
6
π
N (=
E )dE n 2 dn − − − − − (4)
2
n2h2
from.Eqn.3 = >E= 2
8ma
2
8ma
=n2 E − − − − − (5)
h2
1
 8ma 2  2 1 2
n =  2  E − − − −(6)
 h 
8ma 2
differentiate.Eqn.5 =
> 2ndn = dE
h2

Dr. GB 24
 4ma 2
=
ndn dE − − − − − − − (7)
h2
substituting (6) & (7)in(4)
1/2
π π  8ma 2   4ma 2 
=
N ( E )dE = n(ndn)   E1/2  2 dE 
2 2  h2   h 

3/2
π  8ma 2 
=N ( E )dE   E1/2 dE − − − − − − − (8)
4  h2 
3/2
π  8ma 2 
1/2
 2  E dE
Densityofstates, Z ( E )dE = 
4 h 
a3
π  8m 
3/2

=
Z ( E )dE   E1/2 dE − − − − − −(9)
4  h2 
π  8m 
3/2

=
Z ( E )dE   E1/2 dE × 2
4  h2 
π  8m 
3/2

=
Z ( E )dE   E1/2 dE − −(10)
2  h2 

Density of Electrons (or) Carrier Concentration and Fermi Energy at 0K

Carrier concentration in metals:

Let N(E)dE represents the number of filled energy states between the interval of energy dE.
Normally all the energy states will not be filled. The probability of filling of electrons in a given
energy state is given by Fermi function F(E)

Therefore N(E)dE = Z(E)dE.F(E) -------(11)

π  8m 
3/2
ELECTRON IN PERIODIC POTENTIAL = N ( E )dE 1/2
 2  E dE. F( E) )
2  h assumed
In quantum free electron theory of metals the electrons were  to be moving in a region of
constant potential and hence it moves freely about the crystal. But it fails to explain why some solids behaves
as conductors, some as insulators and some an semiconductors etc.
Therefore instead of considering an electron to move in a constant potential, In Zone theory of solids the
electrons are assumed to move in a field of periodic potential

In a metal piece, the positive ions are arranged in a regular and proper order, therefore a periodic
potential (i.e) the potential field which varies periodically with the same period as the lattice, exists in the
metal. Also the potential is minimum near the centre of positive ions and is maximum between the centres of
ions as shown in Fig.

Dr. GB 25
 Therefore the potential energy of the electron near by the centre of positive ion is maximum and will
not be able to move freely, but the electrons which are above these potential peaks are free to move inside the
metal and hence they are termed as free electrons.

TIGHT BINDING APPROXIMATION

Before discussing about the tight binding approximation, Let us know about free electron
approximation.

Free electron approximation

We know in solids, there exist the Ionic core which are tightly bounded to the lattice location, while
the electrons are free to move here and there throughout the solid. This is called the free-electron
approximation.

In free electron approximation the following points are observed, viz.

1. The potential energy of the electron is assumed to be lesser than its total energy.
2. The width of the forbidden bands (E ) are smaller than the allowed bands as shown in fig
3. Therefore, the interaction between the neighbouring atoms will be very strong.
4. As the atoms are closer to each other, the inter atomic distance decreases and hence the wave functions
overlap with each other as shown in fig
Tight Binding Approximation
Tight binding approximation is exactly an opposite approach of discussing the atomic arrangements,
when compared to free electron approximation.
Here instead of beginning with the solid core, we begin with the electrons, i.e., All the electrons are
bounded to the atoms. In other way we can say that the atoms are free, while the electrons are tightly
bounded. Hence, this is called tight binding approximation.

Dr. GB 26
 The following points are observed in tight binding approximation, viz.
1. The potential energy of the electrons is nearly equal to the total energy.
2. The width of the forbidden bands (Eg) are larger than the allowed bands,
as shown in fig 1.20(b).
3. Therefore, the interactions between the neighbouring atoms will be weak.
4. As the atoms are not closer, the interatomic distance increases and hence
the wave functions will not overlap, as shown in fig 1.20.
Explanation
Let us consider the atoms with larger inter atomic distance (a2) as shown in fig 1.20. Here the atoms
are far apart, and all the bounded electrons have fixed energy levels. Therefore when a solid is formed by
using the same element, then the energy levels occupied by the electrons in each atom will be identical,
which lead to tight binding approximation. Now, when we bring the atoms closer to each other to form the
solid, then inter atomic distance, (af), decreases. Therefore, the outer shell electrons begin to overlap and the
energy levels also splits as shown in fig 1.20. If the inter atomic distance is further reduced, then the splitting
of energy level happens for the inner shall electrons also, which lead to free electron approximation.

EFFECTIVE MASS OF AN ELECTRON & CONCEPT OF HOLE

Definition: Effective mass of an electron is the mass of the electron when it is accelerated in a periodic
potential and is denoted by m*.
31
Explanation: When an electron of mass ‘m’(9.11 x 10“ Kg) is placed in a periodic potential and if it is
accelerated with the help of an electric (or) magnetic field, then the mass of the electron will not be a constant,

Dr. GB 27
 rather it varies with respect to the field applied. That varying mass is called as effective mass (m*).
Expression: To study the effect of electric field on the motion of an electron in one dimensional periodic
potential, let us consider the Brillouin Zone which contains only one electron (1st Brillouin Zone) of charge
‘e’ in the state k, placed in an external field ‘E’. Due to the field applied the electron gains a group velocity
(vg) [Quantum mechanically] and therefore the acceleration changes.
The group velocity with which the electron can travel is

dω
v=
g − − − − − −1
dk
where.k → wave.vector
ω → angular.velocity.of .electron
E
ω 2πυ
As,= = 2π (= E hυ ) − − − − − 2
h
2π dE
sub.(2)in(1) ⇒ group.Velocity (vg ) = .
h dk
1 dE h
=
vg . (= )−−−−−3
 dk 2π
If the field (E) is applied to the electron for a time say dt seconds then
Change in field (or) work done = Force x distance; dE = Force x velocity x time
= eEvg dt ( force
dE = eE ) − − − − − − − 4
eE dE dk eE
sub(3)in(4) ⇒ dE
= . .dt ;(or ) = −−−−−−−5
 dk dt 
d d  1 dE 
=
We.know. Acceleration (a) =
vg ; sub.(3) ⇒ a .
dt dt   dk 
1  d 2 E  dk
=a   − − − − − −6
  dk 2  dt ft

2 2
1 d E eE 1 d E
sub(5)in=
(6) ⇒ a 2
.= ;⇒ a .eE
 dk   2 dk 2
2
=eE a − − − − − −7
d 2E
( 2)
dk

Equation 7 resembles with the Newton’s force equation\

F = eE = m*a

Where m* is the effective mass of the electron.

Dr. GB 28
 h2
=
Comparing eqn (7) & (8), we can write m *
2
−−−−−9
(d E 2 )
dk

2
Eqn. 9 represents the effective mass of an electron in a periodic potential, which depends on (d E )
dk 2

Special Cases

2
Case 1. If (d E ) is +ve, then effective mass m* is also +ve.
dk 2

2
Case 2. If (d E ) is –ve, then effective mass m* is also -ve.
dk 2

2
Case 3. If (d E ) is 0, then effective mass m* is becomes ∞.
dk 2

Thus we can say that it is not so the effective mass (m*) should always be greater than real mass (m), it may
also have negative value.

Negative effective mass (or) Concept of hole:

The electron with the negative effective mass is called Hole, in other words the electron which behaves as a
positively charged particle is called hole. It has the same mass as that of an electron but with positive charge.

Therefore, the advantage of the concept of hole is, for a nearly filled band with ‘n’ number of empty
states as shown in Fig. ‘n’ number of holes (empty states), arises.
In other words we can say that the presence of hole is attributed to an empty state, for an electron to be filled.
Thus, based on the hole concept several phenomenon like Thomson effect, Hall effect are well explained.

ENERGY BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

Energy band theory of solids plays a very important role in determining whether a solid is a conductor,
insulator or a semiconductor. This theory explains how an energy band occurs in a solid.

(i) Free and bound electrons

In an isolated atom all the electrons are tightly bounded with the central positive
nucleus and revolves around various orbits. The number of electrons at the
outermost orbit are called valence electrons. In the outermost orbits, the attractive
force between the nucleus and electrons will be very less, so that the electrons can

Dr. GB 29
be easily detached from the nucleus. These detached electrons from the outer most orbits are called free
electrons. But as far as the innermost orbits are concerned, the electrons are tightly bounded with positive
nucleus, and hence they are termed as bound electrons. The free and bounded electrons are shown in Fig.
1.29.

(ii) Energy levels

We know that each orbit of an atom has fixed amount of energy associated with it. The electrons
moving in a particular orbit possess the energy of that orbit. The larger the orbit, the greater is its energy. So,
the outermost orbit electrons possess more energy than the inner orbit
electrons.
A convenient, way of representing the energy of different orbits is called
energy levels, as shown in Fig. 1.30. Let E{ be the energy level of the K- shell,
E2 be the energy level of the Af-shell, E3 be the energy level of the L-shell and
so on. The larger the orbit of an electron, the greater is its energy and higher is
the energy level. From the Fig. 1.30 it is clear that the electrons can revolve
only in certain permitted orbits of radii rp r2, r3... and not in any arbitrary orbit.
The unallowed energy levels are called forbidden energy levels.

(iii) Energy bands

It has to be noted that as long as the atoms are
widely separated, they have identical energy levels.
But, once the atoms are brought together, the
interatomic force of attraction between the atoms in
the solid may modify the energy levels of a solid as
energy bands.
Now let us discuss how energy levels of single
free atom becomes energy bands in solids. c

Let us consider two identical atoms of

diameter(d) separated at a distance (r), so that the
electronic energy levels of one atom [E{ (K -shell) and
E\ (L- shell)] do not affect the electronic energy levels of the other atom [E1(K - shell) and E\ (L - shell)] as
shown in Fig. 1.31. Now, when we bring the atoms closer together, some force of attraction occurs between
them and according to Quantum mechanics, their wave functions will start overlapping, Therefore when two
atoms are brought closer, it does not remain as two independent atoms, rather it forms a single two-atom
system with two different energy levels to form energy band as shown in Fig. 1.32.

ORIGIN OF ENERGY BAND FORMATION IN SOLIDS

We know that when two atoms of equal energy levels are brought closer together, the original energy
levels E1 and E2 splits each into two energy levels i.e., the K- shell energy E1 splits into E11 and E21, similarly
the L- shell energy E2 splits into EP12 and E22 (Fig. 1.31 and Fig. 1.32 These type of transformations from the
original energy levels into two (or) more energy levels is known as Energy Level Splitting.

Energy Bands
Therefore, if N number of atoms of equal energy levels are brought closer to form a solid, then it forms
a closely spaced continuous energy levels, so called energy bands as shown in fig 1.34.

Dr. GB 30
 Hence an energy band can be defined as, the range of energies possessed by an electron in a solid. The
magnified view of the energy band which consists of a large number of very closely spaced energy levels is
shown in Fig. 1.35.

Inner Filled Bands, Valence Band

During the formation of energy bands, the inner filled energy levels forms a
energy band, called Inner filled bands.
Similarly the electrons in the outermost shells of atoms forms a energy band,
called valence band. The valence band will be of completely filled (or) partialy filled
with electrons, based on the type of the materials. If an electron comes out from valence
band for conduction, then they form an energy level corresponding to the energy band
called conduction band
Forbidden Band

While referring to energy bands, they are separated by small regions which does,
not allow any energy levels. Such regions between the energy bands are called forbidden
bands (or) forbidden energy gap as shown in Fig. 1.36.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS INTO METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS AND

INSULATORS ON THE BASIS OF BAND THEORY

Based on band theory, and on the basis of the presence of forbidden band gap the materials are
classified into three categories, viz.
(i) Metals (or) Conductors,
(ii) Semi-conductors and
(iii) Insulators.

(i) Metals (or) Conductors

In conductors, there is no forbidden band gap. Here. the valence and conduction band overlap each
other as shown in Fig. 1.37. In metals the availability of free electrons will be very high due to the
overlapping of conduction band and valence band. Hence, even when a small external field is applied to it, the
electrons from valence band freely enters into the conduction band and produces current.
Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Iron etc.,

Dr. GB 31
(ii) Semi Conductors
In semiconductors, the forbidden band gap is very small, in the order 0.5 eV to 1.5 eV and hence there
will be a very small gap between the valence and conduction band as shown in Fig. 1.38.
Examples: Germanium, Silicon etc.,
Generally, in semiconductors the availability of free electrons in conduction band will be less compared
to metals, due to the presence of forbidden band gap between the valence band and conduction band.
Therefore, when external field of energy, equal to (or) greater than forbidden band gap energy (£ ) is applied
to a semiconductor, immediately the conduction will take place.

(iii) Insulators
In Insulators, the forbidden gap is very wide, in the range of 3 eV to 5.47 dV and hence there will be a
very large gap between the valence band and conduction band as shown in Fig. 1.39. Since the forbidden
band gap energy is very very high in the case of insulators, very large amount of energy (external field) is
required for conduction to occur.
Examples: Diamond, Dielectrics etc.,

Dr. GB 32
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

BASIC DEFINITIONS

Magnetic Lines of Force

The continuous curve in a magnetic field that exists from North Pole to South Pole is called as
magnetic lines of force.

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT (M)

The dipole moment of a magnet is defined as the product of its pole strength and the distance
between two poles.

M=lm Unit: Wb .m
Magnetic Flux ( ). The total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a surface is
known as magnetic flux. Unit: Weber.

Magnetic induction (B) or Magnetic flux density

It is the number of magnetic lines of force passing through unit area of cross section.
B= /A Unit:Wb/m2
Magnetic field intensity(H)

It is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at a given point in a

magnetic field. H= F/m Unit: A/m (or) N/Wb

Intensity of magnetization (I)

It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

I = M / V. Unit : Weber / m2
Magnetic permeability ( )

It is the ratio of the magnetic induction (B) to the applied magnetic field intensity (H).
= B / H Unit: Henry m–1.
Relative permeability ( r)

It is defined as the ratio of permeability of the medium ( ) to the permeability of the free space (
0)

Magnetic susceptibility ( )

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization (I) and intensity of magnetic field (H).
= I / H.

Dr. GB 33
Bohr magneton ( B )

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an
atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr
magneton.

Relation between susceptibility ( ) and Relative permeability ( µr )

i.e., the total flux density, B = µ0 (I + H) ... (1)

But we know that µ = B/ H ... (2)

From equations (1) and (2) we get,

µH = µ0 (I + H)

µ/µo= (I + H)/H

µr = (I/H) + 1
µr = 1 + , = µr -1

TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Materials not having permanent magnetic moment

a) Diamagnetic materials

Materials having permanent magnetic moment

a) Paramagnetic material b) Ferromagnetic materials c) Anti Ferro d) Ferri magnetic

materials.

➢
In the absence of external magnetic field:
➢
In these materials there are even numbers of electrons which spin in two opposite
directions are almost equal and so they cancel out and the net magnetic moment is
zero.
➢
∴ They do not have any permanent magnetic moment in the absence of external
magnetic field.
➢
Presence of external magnetic field
➢
when the magnetic field is applied these electrons reorient themselves that
they align perpendicular to the field direction
➢
Dia magnetic materials repel the magnetic lines of force

Properties

1. They repel the magnetic lines of force.

2. Susceptibility is negative and is independent of temperature and field.

3.
The value of Permeability is less than 1.

Dr. GB 34
 4. No permanent dipole moments in the absence of magnetic field.

5. When temperature is less than critical temperature diamagnetic become normal

material. Ex. Gold, Germanium, Silver, etc,

PARAMAGNETISM

Absence of magnetic field:

➢
In paramagnetic materials the spins in two opposite materials will not be
equal. There exist some unpaired electrons. Hence resultant magnetic
moment will not be equal to zero.
➢
The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of an external
magnetic field. Hence the materials possess very less magnetization in it.

Presence of magnetic field:

➢
When an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles tend to
align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field and the material is
magnetized.
➢
The magnetic lines of force pass through the material.
Properties

1.Magnetic susceptibility is positive . It is given by

= −

where

C - Curie constant, T - Absolute temperature,θ - Curie temperature

2. Since magnetic lines of force pass through the material, they

posses permanent dipole moment.

4. Permeability is greater than one.

5. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field.

6. When the temperature is less than Curie temperature, paramagnetic material

becomes diamagnetic material.

5.They possess permanent dipole moment.

Examples : CuSO4, MnSO4 etc.

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

In ferro magnetic materials the number of unpaired electrons is more. Hence even in
absence of magnetic field, the magnetic moments align themselves parallel to each
other.

Presence of magnetic field

• When placed in a magnetic field it strongly attracts the magnetic lines of forces.

Dr. GB 35
 • Magnetic moments which already aligned parallel reorient themselves
along the direction of the magnetic field.

Properties

1. They have paramanent dipole moment. So they act as strong magnets.

2. They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of external

field. This property is called Spontaneous magnetisation.

3. Its susceptibility is positive and high.

4. When the temperature is greater than Curie temperature,

ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material.

5. Permeability is very much greater than 1.

Examples : Ni, Co, Fe etc.,

PARAMAGNETISM IN THE CONDUCTION ELECTRONS IN METALS

Concept
Metals contain large number of electrons (i.e.,) free electrons. Each electron
possesses a magnetic moment. When magnetic field is applied, then the elementary
electrons behave as magnetic dipoles, which tend to orient along the direction of, external
magnetic field. Thus, the electrons affect the Para magnetism volume susceptibility .

Explanation
Langevin showed that paramagnetic susceptibility varies as
i.e.,
where is the classical paramagnetic susceptibility.
Its value is at room temperature but experimental observation shows that the
paramagnetic susceptibility value has very small value say, in the order of and is
independent of temperature.

Pauli applied Fermi Dirac statistics to explain this disagreement as follows

Each electron has a magnetic moment along the direction of the magnetic field.
If there are ' ' number of conduction electrons per unit volume, then

The Net magnetization is (or)

- (1)

Where )

- (2)

Dr. GB 36
 Here is the number of electrons with magnetic moments parallel to the magnetic
field " "and is the number of electrons with magnetic moments anti-parallel to the
magnetic field ' '

----- (1)

Equation (1) is called as the Pauli's paramagnetic susceptibility of a Fermi gas of

conduction electrons.

Here, in equation (1) we can note that the susceptibility is independent of

temperature thus verifying the experimental results also.

Interference
The physical interference of this result is that only a small fraction of electrons at
the top of the Fermi distribution has a chance to turn over in the field ' ' and only these
electrons will contribute for the susceptibility .

In another way, we can say that when a paramagnetic material is exposed to an

external field, then, only those electrons close to the Fermi level will respond and hence a
small surplus of these type of spins will exist. This effect is a weak form of Para magnetism
known as Pauli's Para magnetism.

EXCHANGE INTERACTION

The Weiss theory of ferromagnetism explains about the molecular field but it is not
possible to explain large value of internal field.

To explain the large internal field, Heisenberg gave an explanation which is based on
the non-magnetic interaction called the exchange interaction between electrons. These
exchange forces are caused by coulomb interaction and generally it should be larger than
magnetic interaction.

Exchange force appears in the form of spin-spin interaction and the strength of the
interaction depends upon the interatomic separation; it may change its sign as the
separation is varied. If the interatomic distance is decreased, the electron spins are
decreased and therefore the exchange force decreases and finally they favour the anti-
parallel spins.

Heisenberg developed his theory on the analogy of Heitler-London model of

hydrogen molecule. According to this, the exchange interaction between electrons in
different quantum states lead to a lower energy, provided the spin quantum numbers of
both the states are same. i.e., the spins are parallel. Therefore, the exchange interaction
between the electrons is represented as

Dr. GB 37
 where is the exchange integral for the twoatoms and and are the spin
angularmoments associated with the and state.A plot of exchange integral value
andthe interatomic distance is shown inFig. 3.I1.

Let us consider as the interatomicdistance and as the orbital radius

ofFig. electron. From the graph (Fig. 3.11) we cansay,

Fig. 3.11

(1) The value of is positive when . i.e., the exchange energy is negative and
hence the parallel orientation is high. Due to this the atom possess ferromagnetic
properties. (Examples: Fe, Co, Ni and Gd).

(2) The value of is negative when . i.e., the exchange energy is positive and
hence the atoms coming under these criteria possess anti-ferromagnetic properties.
(Examples: Cr, Mn).

The ratio is the criteria for a magnetic material whether it is ferro (or)
antiferromagnetic materials. Moreover, alloys of any two materials give rise to favourable
ratio value. This is a great boom in solid state for the production of new materials of any
desired characteristics.

FERROMAGNETIC DOMAINS

The entire ferromagnetic volume splits into a large number of small regions called
Domains

Within each domain, the magnetic moments (spin) are oriented parallel to another
and hence these domains are spontaneously magnetized.

The direction of spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to domain and

the net magnetization is zero.

When the magnetic field is applied the magnetization occurs in two ways,

1. By the movement of domain walls

2. By the rotation of domain walls

Dr. GB 38
BY THE MOVEMENT OF DOMAIN WALLS

Movement of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic field. When a small
magnetic field is applied, the boundary of domains displaced, so the volume of domains
changes.

BY ROTATION OF DOMAINS

Rotation of domain walls occurs during strong magnetic field. As the magnetic field is
increased to a larger value, further domain growth becomes impossible. Therefore, domains
tend to rotate so as to be in complete alignment with the field direction.

ENERGIES INVOLVED IN THE DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

The total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material is made up
from the following contributions.

i. Exchange energy

ii. Anisotropy energy.

iii. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.

iv. Magnetostriction energy.

Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy

Dr. GB 39
 “The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves” is the called
exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy.

• This exchange energy also called magnetic field energy, the energy required in
assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this work done is stored as
potential energy.

• The energy can be reduced by dividing the specimen into two domains as shown.

Anisotropy energy

• The excess energy required to

magnetize a specimen in hard direction over
that required to magnetize it along the easy
direction is called the crystalline anisotropy
energy

• In easy direction of magnetization, weak field

can be applied and in hard direction of
magnetization, strong field should be applied.

• For example, in iron the easy direction is [100], the

medium direction is [110], and the hard direction is
[111].

Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

• A thin boundary or region that separates adjacent domains magnetized in different

directions is called domain wall or Bloch wall.

• The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic energy
.Based on the spin alignments, two types of bloch walls may arise, namely

(i) Thick Wall: if the direction of the spin changes gradually, it leads to a thick bloch wall.

(ii) Thin Wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the
anisotropic energy becomes very less, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

Magnetostriction energy

Dr. GB 40
 When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in dimensions. This
phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction. if the domains are magnetized , they will either
expand or shrink. This means that work must be done against the elastic restoring forces. The
work done by the magnetic field against these elastic restoring forces is called the
magnetostrictive energy.

QUANTUM INTERFERENCE DEVICES

Concept

A Quantum interference device is a very sensitive device which is used to measure

very weak magnetic fields at the order of Tesla, using the principle of
interference.
Examples

1. Superconducting quantum interference devices.

2. GMR devices etc.
Applications
1. These devices are used in research and biological studies.
2. They are used in ultra-sensitive electronic and magnetic measurements.
SUPERCONDUCTING QUANTUM INTERFERENCEDEVICES (SQUID)

SQUIDS [Super conducting QuantumInterference Devices] are the improved

model of Josephson devices. It has highefficiency, sensitivity and quick performance.

Principle

Super conducting ringsmall change in magnetic field, produces variation in the flux
quantum.

Explanation
It consists of a super conducting ring which can have
magnetic fields of quantum values of flux placed in
between the two Josephson junctions as shown in Fig. .
When the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane
of the ring, current is induced at the two Josephson junctions
and produces interference pattern.
The induced current flows around the ring so that the
magnetic flux in the ring can have quantum values of flux,
which corresponds to the value of magnetic field applied.

Therefore, SQUIDS are used to detect the variation in very minute magnetic signals in term
of quantum flux. They are used as storage devices for magnetic flux.
They are also used in the study of earth quakes, removing paramagnetic impurities,
detection of magnetic signals from the brain, heart etc

GMR DEVICES - MAGNETIC HARD DISK DRIVE [HDD] WITH GMR SENSOR

Dr. GB 41
Magnetic hard disc drive is a mass data storage device recently used for storing data to a very
high level in terms of tera byte.

•GMR( Giant Magneto Resistive) sensors ,which has a very high magnetic sensitivity are used to
read the data.

PRINCIPLE:

•In hard disc, the binary data in terms of zero‟s and one‟s are stored by inducing magnetic
moment in a thin magnetic layer and GMR effect is used as the principle to read the data in
HDD.

CONSTRUCTION:

•The HDD consists of recording medium

made up of thin layer of magnetic
garnets grown over the substrate.
The GMR sensor made up of ferrites
are used as a reading element.

•The writing element is made up

of inductive magnetic transducer.

•The writing element and GMR sensor shall be made to slide over the recording media in
the longituditional direction.

WORKING: writing/storing

•Initially the current is passed through the writing element and magnetic field is induced.

•During writing the amplitude of current is constant and the direction of current is reversed.
Due to reversal current, the magnetization orientation is reversed in the recording medium.
(South to north )

•When the induced magnetic field is greater than the coercivity of the recording media the data is
stored as 1.

•Thus 1 is stored as data in the recording medium as a magnetic transition.

•When there is no magnetic transition it is referred as 0.

Reading/retrieving

• Giant magneto resistive (GMR) effect is the principle used to read the data from the recording
medium.

• The resistance of GMR sensor varies, with respect to the orientation of the magnetic moments.
When the layers are magnetised in parallel manner, then the resistance in the GMR sensor
is minimum, so maximum current flows through the sensor, which represent the data as 1.

Dr. GB 42
•When the layers are magnetised in anti parallel manner, resistance of GMR sensor is maximum,
so no current flows through the sensor, which represent the data as 0.

•With the help of reading current, the zero‟s and one‟s can be retrived from magnetic hard disc.

•It has very large storage cacapity

•HDD can store data in terms of tera byte,it is compact in size.

Dr. GB 43
QUESTION BANK- ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS – PART A
1. Define electrical conductivity. What is its unit?
2. Define electrical resistivity. Write its unit?
3. Define thermal conductivity. Give its unit.
4. Define mobility of electrons and give its unit.
5. Give the postulates of quantum free electron theory.
6. Define drift velocity.
7. Define mean free path and relaxation time.
8. Define collision time.
9. Define Relaxation time.
10. Define current density.
11. Distinguish between electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity?
12. What are the similarities between electrical and thermal conductivity?
13. Define degenerate and non- degenerate states?
14. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory?
15. What is the need for quantum theory for free electrons? Or Mention any two important
features of quantum free electron theory of metals.
16. Define Fermi energy level and Fermi energy with its importance.
17. Write the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and give its importance.
18. How does the Fermi function vary with temperature?
19. Give expression for carrier concentration in metals.
20. Define density of energy states.
21. Define valence band.
22. What are the differences between Quantum theory and Zone theory?
23. State Bloch theorem.
24. What is the classification of solid based on band theory?
25. What is meant by conduction band and forbidden energy gap?
26. Define tight binding approximation.
27. What is meant by hole?
PROBLEMS
28. Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity of electrons. (Ans:
0.8633X 106).
29. The thermal conductivity of copper at 300 K is 470.4 W/m/K. calculate the electrical
conductivity of copper at 300K. Lorentz number L= 2.45 X10-8[Ans:6.4 X107]
30. The Fermi energy of silver is 5.51 eV. What is the average energy of a free electron at
0K.[Ans: 3.306 eV]
31. If the energy level is lying 0.01eV above the Fermi level in a solid, what is the probability of
this level being occupied by an electron at 270K.[ Ans: 39.43%]
32. Density of free electron in aluminium is 18.1 X 10-28 m-3. Calculate its Fermi energy at zero
Kelvin.[Ans:11.66]
33. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons [with a mobility of 3.5 X 10-3 m2 V-1 s ] in copper for
an electric field strength of 0.5 V/m. (Ans: 1.75 X 10-3 ]
34. Calculate the temperature at which there is 1% probability of a state with energy 0.5eVabove
Fermi energy . [Ans:1261.6K]

Dr. GB 44
35. Resistivity of copper is 1.73X10-8 ohm-m. Its density is 8.92X103 kg/m2 and atomic weight is
63.5. Assuming classical laws, calculate the mobility of electrons.[Ans:0.427X 10-2 m2 V-1 s].
36. Calculate thermal conductivity in copper if the mean free path of electrons is 4 × 10-8 m,
electron density is 8.4 × 1028 m-3 and average thermal velocity of electron is 1.6 ×106
m/s.(Ans. K=37 x 103 W/mK).

PART - B
37. State the assumptions of classical free electron theory of metals. Obtain an expression for
Thermal Conductivity.
38. State the assumptions of classical free electron theory of metals. Obtain an expression for
Electrical conductivity.
39. Deduce a mathematical expression for electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of a
conducting material and hence obtain Wiedemann – Franz law.
40. What are the basic assumptions of classical free electron theory? Based on the assumptions
derive an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity of metals. What are the success
and failure of the theory?
41. What is meant by density of energy states. Obtain an expression for the same.
42. Derive an expression for the density of energy states and based on that calculate the carrier
Concentration in metals.
43. Explain the origin of band gap when the electron is moving in a periodic potential. Also
explain the effective mass of electron in a periodic potential.
44. Discuss how zone theory is used to classify the solids as conductor, semiconductors and
insulators.
45. Discuss Bloch theorem and also explain free electron approximation and tight binding
approximation with suitable diagrams.
46. Write the expression for Fermi distribution function and explain with suitable diagram, how
does it vary with temperature?
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Part A

1. Define magnetic field intensity. Give its unit.

2. Define magnetic induction and give its unit.
3. What is intensity of magnetisation? Give its unit.
4. Define magnetic susceptibility and permeability.
5. Define Bohr Magneton.
6. What are diamagnetic materials? Give examples.
7. Mention any four properties of diamagnetic materials.
8. What are paramagnetic materials? Give examples.
9. Mention any four properties of paramagnetic materials.
10. What are ferromagnetic materials? Give examples.
11. Mention any four properties of ferromagnetic materials

Dr. GB 45
 12. What is the origin of magnetic moment in magnetic materials?
13. Define exchange or magnetic field energy.
14. Define anisotropy and crystalline energy.
15. Define domain wall energy or Bloch energy.
16. What is Magnetostrictive energy?
17. What is permittivity of a material? Give its unit of measurement.
18. Calculate the relative permeability of a magnetic material if the material has a
magnetization of 3000A/m and flux density of 0.044Wb/m2
19. A magnetic material has a magnetization force 5230 A/m and flux density of 10.20 X 10-3
Wb/m2. Find magnetization of the material. (Ans: 2891)
20. A magnetic field strength of 2 X105 amperes/m is applied to a paramagnetic material
with a relative permeability of 1.01. Calculate the values of B and M.(Ans:0.2537,2000)
PART B

21 (i) Explain the classification of magnetic materials with their properties in detail.(Or)
Distinguish between dia, Para and Ferro, antiferro and ferrimagnetic materials.
22 Explain domain theory of ferromagnetism and the types of energy involved in the process
of domain growth in detail.

Dr. GB 46
 UNIT III- SEMICONDUCTOR AND TRANSPORT PHYSICS

DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTORS

ELEMENTAL(OR) INDIRECT BAND GAP COMPOUND (OR) DIRECT BAND GAP

SEMICONDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTORS
Single element. (Ge, Si) Two (or) more elements. (GaAs, InP)

Group IV elements. III-V (or) II-VI elements.

Recombination of e-s and holes take place Recombination of e-s and holes take place
through traps directly
Heat is produced during recombination. Photons are produced during recombination

Lifetime of charge carriers is more Lifetime of charge carriers is less.

Diode, transistor, etc., LED, Laser diodes, etc.,

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTION BAND

∞
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 ) = � 𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. 𝐹𝐹(𝐸𝐸) … … . . (1)
𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐

Density of states Z(E)dE is,

3
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 2 1�
𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝐸𝐸 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ2

Sub 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐
3
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 2 1
𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 � (𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 ) �2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 … … . . (2)
2 ℎ
Fermi function F(E) gives probability of finding an electron in a given energy state is,

Dr. GB 47
 1
F (E) =
E − EF
1 + exp( )
K BT

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 3 ∞ (𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 )1⁄2
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 … … . . (3)
2 ℎ2 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇

 E − EF   E − EF 
1 + exp  =exp  
 K BT   K BT  (1 is neglected)
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 3⁄2 ∞
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = �
2 ℎ2
� ∫𝐸𝐸 (𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 )1⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −𝐸𝐸)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ………(4)
𝑐𝑐

Let us assume that 𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥𝑥𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇

E = Ec + xK B T

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Limits: When E = Ec ; x =0

When E =∞; x= ∞ , Limits are 0 to ∞

Eqn (4) can be written as,

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 3 ∞
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � 2 � � (𝑥𝑥𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇)1⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −𝑥𝑥𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇−Ec )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ 0

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 3 ∞
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � 2 � � (𝑥𝑥)1⁄2 (𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇)3⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹−Ec )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ 0

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 ∞
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 � (𝑥𝑥)1⁄2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ2 0

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 √𝜋𝜋
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇
2 ℎ2 2

∴ Density of electrons in conduction band is,

⁄2
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 … … … … … … … . . (5)
ℎ2
DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND
𝐸𝐸𝑣𝑣
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑛𝑛ℎ ) = � 𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. [1 − 𝐹𝐹(𝐸𝐸)] … … . . (6)
−∞

Density of states Z(E)dE is,

Dr. GB 48
 3
∗
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚ℎ 2 1
𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 � 𝐸𝐸 �2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ

Sub 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 − 𝐸𝐸
3
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 2 1
𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 � (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 − 𝐸𝐸) �2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 … … . . (7)
2 ℎ
Fermi function F(E) gives probability of finding an electron in a given energy state is,

1-F(E) = 1−
1
 E − EF 
1 + exp  
 K BT 
 E − EF 
exp  
=  K BT 
 E − EF 
1 + exp  
 K BT 

 E − EF 
1 + exp  =1
 K BT 

 E − EF 
∴1 − F ( E ) =exp  
 K BT 
∗ 3⁄2 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚ℎ
𝑛𝑛ℎ = �
2 ℎ 2 � ∫−∞ (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 − 𝐸𝐸)1⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ……… (8)

Let us assume that 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 − 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇

E = EV − xK B T

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Limits: When E = -∞ ; x =∞

When E = 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 ; x= 0, Limits are ∞ to 0

Eqn (8) can be written as,

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 3 0
𝑛𝑛ℎ = � 2 � � (𝑥𝑥𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇)1⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−𝑥𝑥𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇−EF )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 (−𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ ∞

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 3 ∞
𝑛𝑛ℎ = � 2 � � (𝑥𝑥)1⁄2 (𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇)3⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−EF)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ 0

⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 −EF )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
∞
𝑛𝑛ℎ = � � 𝑒𝑒 � (𝑥𝑥)1⁄2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 ℎ2 0

Dr. GB 49
 ⁄2
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 √𝜋𝜋
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−EF )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇
2 ℎ2 2

∴ Density of holes in valence band is,

⁄2
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−EF )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 … … … … … … … . . (9)
ℎ2
VARIATION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL AND CARRIER CONCENTRATION
WITH TEMPERATURE

For an intrinsic semiconductors number of electrons in conduction band (density of electrons)

is equal to number of holes in valence band.

(i.e) 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 𝑛𝑛ℎ

Equating equations (5) and (9), we can write

{𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ }3⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 = {𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ }3⁄2 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−EF)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇

⁄2
𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 3 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇
� � =
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−EF)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇

= 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec−EV +EF )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇

⁄2
𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 3
� ∗� = 𝑒𝑒 (2𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −(Ec +EV )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒

Taking log on both sides,

∗
3 𝑚𝑚ℎ 2𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −(𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 +𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 )
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =
2 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇

 Ec + Ev  3  mh*  …………(10)
=EF   + K B T log  * 
 2  4  me 

If 𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ = 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ then log 1 = 0

 Ec + Ev  3  mh* 
=EF   + K B T log  * 
 2  4  me 
𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏.

DENSITY OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES INTERMS OF 𝑬𝑬𝒈𝒈

Sub the value of 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 in equation (5) we get,

⁄2 𝐸𝐸 +𝐸𝐸 3 𝑚𝑚∗
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 � 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑉𝑉 +4𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙� ℎ∗ �−Ec ��𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒
ℎ2

Dr. GB 50
 ⁄2 𝑚𝑚∗
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 �2𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 +2𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 +3𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇� ℎ∗ �−4Ec ��4𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒
ℎ2
𝑚𝑚∗
2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2 ∗ 3⁄2 [2(𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶)]⁄4𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇+34𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙� 𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ �
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
ℎ2

Since 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 − 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 , we can write,

3⁄4
−𝐸𝐸 𝑚𝑚∗
2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2 ∗ 3⁄2 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔𝑇𝑇+𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙� 𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ �
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
ℎ2
⁄
2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2 ∗ 3⁄2 𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 3 2 2𝐾𝐾−𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
ℎ2 ∗
𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 3⁄2

2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2 ∗ ∗ 3⁄4 2𝐾𝐾−𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔

……………………..(11)
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � 2
� (𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚ℎ ) 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇
ℎ

Similarly, by substituting 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 in equation (9) we get

2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2 ∗ ∗ 3⁄4 2𝐾𝐾 −𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔

……………………..(12)
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 2 � 2
� (𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒 ℎ ) 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
ℎ

𝑇𝑇hus it is found that 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 𝑛𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION

We know that 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 𝑛𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

2 2
2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2 −𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 = 2 �� 2
� � �(𝑚𝑚 ∗ ∗ 3⁄4 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒 ℎ ) 𝑒𝑒 �
ℎ2

2𝜋𝜋𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 ∗ ∗ 3⁄2 𝐾𝐾−𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔𝑇𝑇

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 = 4� � (𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚ℎ ) 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵
ℎ2

 2π K BT   Eg 
3/ 2

(m me* )
3/ 4
=ni 2   h
*
e xp −  
 h 
2
 2 K BT 

MOBILITY AND CONDUCTIVITY OF INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Conductivity in terms of mobility of charge carrier is given by

= σ i ni e( µe + µh )
Substituting the value of 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖

 2π K BT 
3/ 2
( − E g / 2 K BT )
σ
= i ( µe + µh )2e   (me*mh* )3/ 4 e
 h 
2

Dr. GB 51
 −𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
……..(1)
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇

DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP ENERGY

We know for intrinsic semiconductors

−𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇
2𝐾𝐾

1
𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

1 2𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇
𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵
𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎
𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖 =
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 1 2𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇
= 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵
𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝐶
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶1 𝑒𝑒 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 Where 𝐶𝐶1 =
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Taking log on both side

𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = log 𝐶𝐶1 +
2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
=
1⁄𝑇𝑇 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵

If a graph is plotted between 1/T and 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 a straight line

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
is obtained with a slope =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 = 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

Density of electrons in the conduction band is written as,

2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄2

𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 −Ec )⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 …………………………(1)
ℎ2

Dr. GB 52
If some electrons are donated from conduction band to donor level, then vacant sites will be
created in donor level.

Density of donar ions in donor energy level is,

𝑛𝑛ℎ = 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 (1 − 𝐹𝐹(𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 ) ………….. (2)

We know

 E − EF 
exp  d 
1 − F ( Ed ) =  K BT 
 E − EF 
1 + exp  d 
 K BT 

 E − EF 
1 − F ( Ed ) =
exp  d 
 K BT 
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 −𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 ………… (3)

Density of electrons in conduction band = Density of donor ions

in donor energy level.

Taking log on both sides,

Dr. GB 53
 ………………………(4)

At T= 0K,

……………. (5)

𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 will lie exactly between in the midway of conduction band and donor level.

VARIATION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL WITH

TEMPERATURE AND IMPURITY CONCENTRATION IN N-
TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

When temperature is increased some electrons in donor level may be

shifted to conduction band and hence vacant site will be created in
donor level. Therefore, Fermi level shifts down.

EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN

CONDUCTION BAND IN TERMS OF 𝑵𝑵𝒅𝒅

Sub equation (4) in eqn (1)

⎛𝐸𝐸 +𝐸𝐸 𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇 ⎛ 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 ⎞ ⎞

𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑 𝐵𝐵
⎜ 2 + 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⎜
⎜ ⎜ ∗ 3⁄2 ⎟
⎟ ⎟�𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
−Ec ⎟
⁄2 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
2� 2 �
ℎ
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
ℎ2

⎡ ⎡ ⎤⎤
⎢𝐸𝐸 +𝐸𝐸 ⎢ ⎥⎥
⎢ 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑−2𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 +1𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⎢ 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 2 ∗
⎢ 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇
3⁄ 2 ⎥⎥
⁄
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 2 ⎢ ⎢2�
⎣ ℎ 2
𝐵𝐵 � ⎥⎥
⎦⎦
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2� � 𝑒𝑒 ⎣
ℎ2
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎥
𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 �2
⎢𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ 3� ⎟⎥
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚 ∗ 4
⎢ 1 𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇 ⎥
⁄2 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 +𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑−2𝐸𝐸 2 �2 𝐵𝐵
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 � 2𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶 �𝑒𝑒 ⎣ ⎝ ℎ2 ⎠⎦
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵
ℎ2

⁄2 1�
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 𝐸𝐸 −𝐸𝐸
� 𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐 � ⎛ 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 2 ⎞
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 ⎜ 3� ⎟
ℎ2 ∗
1� 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
4
2 2
⎝ ℎ2 ⎠

Dr. GB 54
Here 𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 − 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 = ∆𝐸𝐸 is called ionization energy.

⁄2 1�
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 �
−∆𝐸𝐸 ⎛
� 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 2 ⎞
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
⎜ 3� ⎟
ℎ2 ∗
1� 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
4
2 2
⎝ ℎ2 ⎠
−∆𝐸𝐸
1� 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3⁄4 �2𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇�
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = (2𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 ) 2� � 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 ………….. (6)
ℎ2

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

𝜎𝜎 = 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒(𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 )

Hole mobility is zero (𝜇𝜇ℎ = 0).

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

At low temp some electron from valence band fills the holes in the acceptor
energy level.

Density of holes in valence band

∗ 3⁄2
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉−EF)⁄𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 ………….(1)
ℎ2

Density of acceptor ions in acceptor energy level can be written as,

𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 (1 − 𝐹𝐹(𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 ))………… (2)

1
F ( Ea ) =
 Ea − EF 
1 + exp  
 K BT 

1
𝐹𝐹(𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 ) = (𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 −𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 ) ………… (3)
�𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇
𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵

Sub eqn (3) in eqn (2), we get

𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = (𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 −𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 ) …………… (4)
�𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇
𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵

At equilibrium condition,

Density of holes in valence band = Density of acceptor ions in acceptor

energy level

 EV − E f
3/ 2
 2π mh* K BT    EF − Ea 
2 2  exp   = N a exp  
 h   K BT   K BT 
Dr. GB 55
 e( EV − EF ) / K BT Na
( EF − Ea ) / K BT
= 3/ 2
e  2π mh* K BT 
2 2 
 Nh 
e(( EV + Ea ) − 2 EF ) / K BT = a
3/ 2
 2π mh* K BT 
2 
 h2 
Taking log on both sides,

 
 
( EV + Ea ) − 2 EF
= log  
Na
3/ 2 
 2  2π mh K BT  
K BT *

  h2  
 
 

2 EF = ( EV + Ea ) − K BT log 
Na 
3/ 2 
2 2π m *
K T 
 
h B
  h2  

 
 ……………..  (5)
( EV + Ea ) K BT
log  
Na
=EF − 3/ 2 
 2  2π mh K BT  
2 2 *

  h2  
At T=0K,
( EV + Ea )
EF = ………… (6)
2

VARIATION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL WITH

TEMPERATURE IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

When the temperature is increased, some of the electrons in valence

band will go to acceptor energy level and hence the Fermi level
shifted in upward direction.

At low temp the Fermi level may be increased up to intrinsic Fermi energy
level.

EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF HOLES IN TERMS OF𝑵𝑵𝒂𝒂

Sub equation (5) in equation (1) we get,

Dr. GB 56
 ⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
⎜𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 −𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 +𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 −𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⎜ 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 ⎟�𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
⎜ 2 2 ⎜ ∗ 3⁄2 ⎟
⎟⎟
⎜ 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾 ⎟
⁄2 𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 �
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 ⎝
2�
ℎ2 ⎠⎠
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 ⎝
ℎ2

⎡ ⎡ ⎤⎤
⎢ ⎢ ⎥⎥
⎢2𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 −𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉− 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 +1𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⎢ 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 2 ∗
⎢ 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝐾𝐾 3⁄2 ⎥
⎥
3⁄ 2 𝑇𝑇
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 ⎢ ⎢2�
⎣ ℎ 2
𝐵𝐵 � ⎥⎥
⎦⎦
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 2� � 𝑒𝑒 ⎣
ℎ2
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎛ 1� ⎞⎥
𝑁𝑁 𝑎𝑎 2
⎢𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜ 3� ⎟⎥
∗ 4
⎢ 1� 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 ⎥
⁄2
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 3 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 −𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 ⎣ ⎝2 2
� 2𝐾𝐾 �𝑒𝑒 ℎ2 ⎠⎦
𝑛𝑛ℎ = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
ℎ2
Here 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 − 𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉 = −∆𝐸𝐸,

∗ 3⁄2 −∆𝐸𝐸 1
2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 �2𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇� 𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 �2
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = 2 � � 𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵 � 3� �
ℎ2 ∗
1 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇 4
2 �2
ℎ2

∗
1� 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚ℎ 3⁄4 � −∆𝐸𝐸 �
𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = (2𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 ) 2� � 𝑒𝑒 2𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇 …………… (7)
ℎ2

CARRIER TRANSPORT - DRIFT AND DIFFUSION

• Any motion of free carriers in a semiconductor leads to a current. This motion can be
caused by an electric field due to an externally applied voltage, since the carriers are
charged particles. This transport mechanism is carrier drift.
• Carriers also move from regions where the carrier density is high to regions where the
carrier density is low. This carrier transport mechanism is due to the thermal energy
and the associated random motion of the carriers. This transport mechanism is carrier
diffusion. The total current of a semiconductor equals the sum of the drift and the
diffusion current.

`.

Dr. GB 57
 • Ficks law describes diffusion as the flux ‘F’ is proportional to the gradient in
concentration.
• i.e. Diffusion flux α– concentration gradient
• i.e.

• Here,Dn and Dp and represents diffusion coefficient for electrons and holes
respectively. Negative sign indicates that particles diffuse from high to low
concentration.
• We know that,
• Diffusion current density = charge x carrier flux
•

Einstein derived the relationship between the mobility and diffusion coefficient using non-
uniformly doped semiconductor model

HALL EFFECT

When conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current (I) is placed in a transverse

magnetic field (B), an electric field (EH) is produced inside the conductor in a direction
normal to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as “Hall
Effect”. The generated voltage is called “Hall Voltage”.

Hall effect in N-Type semiconductor

Force due to potential difference = −eEH

Force due to magnetic field = − Bev
∴ At equilibrium,

−eEH = −Bev
(or) EH = Bv

Dr. GB 58
We know the current density 𝐽𝐽𝑥𝑥 in the 𝑥𝑥 direction is
𝐽𝐽𝑥𝑥 = −𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 ev
𝐽𝐽x
(or) 𝑣𝑣 = −
𝑛𝑛e 𝑒𝑒
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3) we get

BJ𝑥𝑥
EH = −
n𝑒𝑒 e

(cr) EH = R H ⋅ Jx ⋅ B
Where R 𝐻𝐻 is known as the Hall ovefficient, given by R 𝐻𝐻 = −1/(n𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒)

The negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative y direction.
Hall Effect in p-type Semiconductor
Let us consider a 𝑝𝑝-type material for which the current is passed along 𝑥𝑥-direction from left
to right and magnetic field is applied along 𝑧𝑧-direction as shown in Fig. Since the direction of
current is from left to right, the holes will also move in the same direction.

Now due to the magnetic field applied, the boles move towards the
downward direction with velocity ' 𝑣𝑣 ' and accumulates at the face
(1) .
∴ A potential difference is established between face (1) and (2) in the
positive y direction.
∴ Force due to the potential difference = 𝑒𝑒𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻
Force due to the magnetic field = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
At equilibrium,

∴ 𝑒𝑒𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

(or)
We know current density 𝐽𝐽𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝐽𝐽𝑥𝑥
(or) 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛ℎ

where 𝑛𝑛ℎ → hole density.

𝐵𝐵𝐽𝐽𝑥𝑥
Substituting the value of v, 𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 =
𝑛𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝑒

(or) 𝐸𝐸𝐻𝐻 = 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 𝐽𝐽𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵

1
where 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 =
𝑛𝑛h 𝑒𝑒

𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 represents the Hall coefficient and the posirive sign indicates that the Hall field is
developed in the positive 𝑦𝑦 direction.

Dr. GB 59
Hall coefficient in terms of Hall voltage

Experimental determination of Hall effect

Mobility of Change Carriers

1
In general the Hall Co-efficient can be written as 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 = −
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
The above expression is valid only for conductors where the velocity is taken as the drift
velocity. But for semiconductors velocity is taken as average velocity so 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 for an 'n' type
semiconductor is modified as

3𝜋𝜋 1
R 𝐻𝐻 =− � �
8 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
−1.18
𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 =
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒

Dr. GB 60
We know the conductivity for n type is 𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 = n𝑒𝑒 e𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒
𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒
(or) 𝜇𝜇e =
n𝑒𝑒 e
From equation (1) we can write

1 −R H
=
ne e 1.18

Substituting equation (3) in equation (2) we get

𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻
𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 = −
1.18

∴ The mobility of electron is in an 𝑛𝑛-type semiconductor is

−𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉H 𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻 𝑏𝑏

𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 = �∵ 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 = �
1.18𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 𝐵𝐵 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 𝐵𝐵

Similarly, for 𝑝𝑝-fype Semiconductor, the mobility of hole is

𝑉𝑉11 𝑏𝑏
𝜇𝜇ℎ = 𝜎𝜎ℎ
1.18 I𝑋𝑋 𝐵𝐵

Thus, by finding Hall voltage, Hall coefficient can be calculated and thus the mobility of the
charge carriers (𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 and 𝜇𝜇ℎ ) can also be determined.
Hall Angle (𝜽𝜽𝑯𝑯 )
We know if the current (𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 ) is applied to a specimen along 𝑥𝑥 direction, magnetic field (𝐵𝐵)
along z-direction then Hall voltage (EH ) is produced along y-direction.

Here the Hall angle can be measured from the formula

EH
tan 𝜃𝜃H =
Ex

we know, EH = R H 𝐽𝐽x B
We know EH = vx B
Substituting equation (3) in equation (1) we get

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝐵𝐵
tan 𝜃𝜃𝐻𝐻 = (or)
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥
tin 𝜃𝜃B = 𝜇𝜇H
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥
Where 𝜇𝜇 = . Thus, the mobility ( 𝜇𝜇) can be defined as the velociry acquird by the charge
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥
carrier per unit electric field.

APPLTCATIONS OF HALL EFFECT

(i) It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n-type semiconductor. (i.e.,) if

Dr. GB 61
R H is negative then the material is n-type. If the 𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 is positive then the material is p-type.
1
(ii) It is used to find the carrier concentration, 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = − � � and
e𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻

1
𝑛𝑛ℎ = � �
𝑒𝑒𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻
(iii) It is used to find the mobility of charge carriers 𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 , 𝜇𝜇ℎ .
(iv) It is used to determine the sign of the current carrying charges.
(v) It is used to design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall voltage.
(vi) It is used to find the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.

OHMIC CONTACT

• An ohmic contact is a non-rectifying electrical junction (a junction between two

conductors that has a linear current – voltage (I-V) curve as with Ohm’s law).
• Low resistance ohmic contacts are used to allow charge to flow easily in both
directions between the two conductors, without blocking due to rectification or excess
power dissipation due to voltage thresholds.

Before contact the fermi levels are in different position and they line up on contact to give an
accumulation region in the semiconductor. The accumulation region has a higher
conductivity than the bulk of the semiconductor due to this higher concentration of electrons.
Thus, a Ohmic junction behaves as a resistor conducting in both forward and reverse bias.

SCHOTTKY DIODE

It is a unilateral device, in which current flows from metal to

semiconductor (n-type) in one direction.

The diode is forward biased. The voltage applied to the diode is slowly increased in steps of
0.1V, 0.2V and the current is measured. The V-I characteristics is as shown in the figure.

Dr. GB 62
 The forward voltage drop
(0.3V) is very less, when
compared to p-n junction
diode (0.7V0 and hence for a Schottky diode the current increases
enormously even for a small applied voltage.

Applications

1. Used in high switching system efficiency component

2. Used in bipolar junction transistor
3. Used in voltage clamping and rectifying applications
4. Used in high power applications

Dr. GB 63
 Question Bank – Semiconductor and Transport Physics
PART A
1. Give few properties of semiconductors. (June-2014)
2. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? Give an examples. (June 2012)
3. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor increases while that of
metals decreases. Give reasons. (May 2015, Dec 2014)
4. How are n-type and p-type semi conductors produced? (Dec 2012)
5. Give examples of pentavalent and trivalent impurities. (June-2014)
6. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductors. (June 2012)
7. Define Hall Effect and Hall voltage. (Dec 2013)
8. What is meant by law of mass action in semiconductors? (June-2014)
9. Differentiate direct and indirect band gap semiconductors. (Dec 2014)
10. Define elemental semiconductor and compound semiconductor. (May 2015, June-2014)
11. Name any two compound semiconductors with applications. (June-2014)
12. What are the applications of Hall Effect? (June 2012)
13. Why do we prefer silicon for transistors and GaAs for diodes? (June2012)
14. What are donor and acceptor atoms? (June 2012)
15. How can you distinguish p-type and n-type semiconductors using Hall effect? (June 2013)
16. An intrinsic semiconductor is doped with p-type impurities to increase the hole concentration
by 5%. What is the percentage change in electron concentration? (June-2014)
17. What is meant by ‘operating temperature’ of a semiconductor? Give example.
18. What is meant by doping agent?
19. Define carrier transport in semiconductor.
20. Define carrier drift.
21. Define carrier diffusion.
22. What do you meant by p-n diode?
23. What is the effect of forward biasing to a p-n diode?
24. What is the effect of reverse biasing to a p-n diode?
25. Define ohmic contact.
26. Explain schottky diode.
27. Determine the number density of donor atoms which have to be added to an intrinsic
semiconductor to produce an n-type semiconductor of conductivity 5 Ω-1cm-1. Given the
mobility of electrons = 3850 m2V-1s-1. (Dec 2013)
28. A copper wire whose radius is 0.08 cm carries a steady current of 10 A. Calculate the
current density of the wire and drift velocity of the free electron. (n = 8.46 X 1028/m3).
(4)
(Dec 2014)
29. The Hall coefficient of a silicon specimen was found to be -7.35 x 10-5 m3C-1 from 100 to
400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor and its density of charge carrier. (4)
(May 2014).
21 3
30. An n-type Germanium sample has a donor density of 10 /m . It is arranged in a Hall
experiment having B=0.5 W/m2 and J=500 A/m2. Find the Hall voltage if the sample is 3
mm thick. (4) (June 2014)

Dr. GB 64
 Part B

1. Derive an expression for the concentration of electron in the conduction band of an intrinsic
Semiconductor and explain the variation of Fermi energy level and carrier concentration with
temperature. (May 2014) (16)
2. Derive an expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
Semiconductor and explain the variation of Fermi energy level and carrier concentration with
temperature. (May 2015, June 2014) (16)
3. Write the necessary theory and describe the method of determining the band gap of an
intrinsic Semiconductor. (8)
4. Derive an expression for density of holes in the valance band of P type semiconductor.
Also, discuss variation of Fermi energy level with temperature and impurity concentration in
it. (16)
5. Derive an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band of N type
semiconductor. Also, discuss variation of Fermi energy level with temperature and impurity
concentration in it. (May 2014, Dec 2014) (16)
6. What is Hall Effect? Give the theory of Hall Effect and hence justify how Hall coefficient
depends on the doping concentration. Describe an experimental set up to determine the Hall
Co-efficient. (May 2015, June 2014) (16)
7. (i) Explain Hall effect in semiconductors. Derive an expression for Hall co-efficient.
Explain how Hall probe is used to detect weak magnetic fields. (2+6+4)
(ii) A rectangular slab of silicon of thickness 1 mm is placed in the region of the magnetic
field perpendicular to the field and the current in the slab is 20 mA, the Hall voltage is 150
µV. The free electron concentration of that particular silicon is 6 x 1024 electrons/m3. What
is the strength of the magnetic field? (Dec 2014) (4)
8. What do you understand by the term Ohmic contact? Where it is used?
9. With a neat sketch, describe the principle, construction and working of a schottky diode.
10. Compare the V-I chacteristics of schottky diode with p-n junction diode.

Dr. GB 65
 UNIT 4 - OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION

In this computer world, optics plays a vital role in processing the information from one
place to another. This leads to the design of opto (light)-electronic (electrons) devices which
process the information faster, accurate and at low cost, consuming less space.

The interaction between electrons and photons in a material is the basis of all opto-
electronic devices.

Thus, optical materials are the materials in which the conductivity is increased due to
photons falling on it. They are used in opto-electronic devices such as cathode ray tube (CRT),
light emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal display (LCD), LASER, Quantum dot laser, Photo
detectors, computers, calculators, Laptops, Mobiles etc. The optical properties of the materials
makes us to understand the interaction between the electrons and photons.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS

Optical materials can be classified into three categories, based on their interaction with
visible light, viz.

1. Transparent materials
2. Translucent materialsand
3. Opaque materials
1. Transparent materials
Materials that are capable of transmitting almost all light, with very little absorption and
reflection are called transparent materials. Therefore, using these materials, we can see the
objects clearly.
Examples: Plain glass, clear water, etc
2. Translucent materials
Materials that allow only certain amount of light to pass through it and absorbs rest of
the light are called translucent materials. Therefore, using these materials we can see the object
diffusely (or) not clearly.
Examples: Butter paper, plastic covers, trace paper, frosted glass, hydrogel and colloidal
materials.Smoke, fog and clouds can also be considered as translucent materials.

3. Opaque materials

Materials which do not allow any light to pass through it and absorbs (or) reflect almost
all the light are called opaque materials. Thus, we can't see the objects through these materials.

Examples: Metal is the best example, other materials such as wood, brick, stone, etc are
also good examples for opaque materials. (Note: Metals when exposed to high frequency 𝑋𝑋-rays
(or) 𝛾𝛾-rays, are considered to be transparent)

Dr. GB 66
OPTICAL PROCESSES IN SEMICONDUCTOR -OPTICAL ABSORPTION

When light is allowed to fall over semi-conductors the electrons in the valence band
absorb the energy from light and it moves from valence band to conduction band. The transition
depends purely on the energy band gap between the valence band and conduction band. The
energy band gap of a semiconductor is given by

ℎ𝑐𝑐
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = ℎ𝑣𝑣 =
𝜆𝜆

ℎ𝑐𝑐
⇒ 𝜆𝜆 =
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔

From this relation we can say that the absorption edge (𝜆𝜆) is inverselyproportional to
the energy band gap, (i.e.) the materials having small energy band gap �𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 � will absorb the
lower wavelength and allow the higher wavelength of light.

OPTICAL EMISSION (LUMINESCENCE) AND CHARGE INJECTION

When the atoms in the solid isexcited by some means (optical,electrical excitation etc.)
and if theatoms return from excited state to theground state by emitting light,(Fig. 5.2) it is
called Luminescence.

From Fig. We can see that the Fig difference in energy is emitted in the
ℎ𝑐𝑐
form of light.i.e.,𝐸𝐸2 − 𝐸𝐸1 = ℎ𝑣𝑣 =
𝜆𝜆

ℎ𝑐𝑐
∴ Wavelength of light emitted𝜆𝜆 =
𝐸𝐸2 −𝐸𝐸1

CARRIER GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION PROCESSESS

Carrier Generation

We know the valence electrons for the semiconductors are four. Below the absolute
temperature all the four valence electrons are tightly bounded with the central positive nucleus,
hence it acts as an insulator.

But above absolute temperature, some covalent bonds in the structure (semiconductor)
breaks and setting up free electrons and holes. Here the number of free electrons produced is
equal to the number holes created. In this way charge carriers are generated in pure
semiconductors.

Recombination processes

Recombination is simply a process of converting free electrons into valence electrons.

Consider an energy band structure for the semiconductors. It is observed that the energy of the
conduction band (where the free electrons are situated) is high when compared valence band
(where the valence electrons and holes are situated).

Dr. GB 67
 Suppose an electron moves from the conduction band to the valance band, an empty
place (i.e., hole) in the valence band is occupied. Here, since an electron travels from higher
energy state to lower energy state some amount of energy is emitted as heat. So, whenever the
free electron comes the fill up with the hole, the process called recombination takes place.

OPTICAL ABSORPTION- LOSS AND GAIN

Optical GainOptical gain in semiconductor lasers describes the optical amplification of

the semiconductor material which is due to the stimulated emission associated light emission
created by recombination of electrons and holes.

we can see that due to recombination of Electrons and holes, we get Photons. Here, we
get two photons due to stimulate emission process. Hence there is increase in intensity.Since
there is increase in intensity it is called optical amplification (or) optical gain.

Optical Absorption and Loss

Optical loss is due to light which could have generated an electron-hole pair but due to
absorption of light there is loss in intensity of light.

we can see that a photon is absorbed by the electron in the valence band and hence the
electron goes to conduction band. Here, a photon is lost in the absorption process and hence the
intensity decreases.Since there is decrease in intensity of light, this phenomenon is known as
optical loss.

OPTICAL PROCESSES IN QUANTUM WELLS

We can make heterogeneous structure with sufficiently thin layers; quantum

interference effects begin to appear prominently in the motion of the electrons due to the
influence of external field.

The simplest structure in which these may be observed is a quantum well, which simply
consists of a thin layer of a narrower gap semiconductor between thicker layers of a wider gap
material.

Fig. shows the band profile of a structure containing three quantum wells showing the
confined states in each well. The gaps in the lines indicating the confined state energies show
the locations of nodes of the corresponding wavefunctions.

The wave function of electrons in such a well consists of a series of standing waves, such
as might be found in a resonant cavity in acoustic, optic or microwave technologies. The energy

Dr. GB 68
separation between these stationary states is enhanced by the small effective mass of electrons
in the conduction bands of direct gap semiconductors.

Quantum sized effects

While dealing the electronic properties of bulk materials, the electron means free path
due to the application of external electric field (or) de Broglie wavelength is much smaller than
the sample dimensions. Suppose the mean free path of the carriers are most comparable with
the dimensions of the material, quantum sized effects (QSEs) become important, which
dominates the electronic properties of the material.

Referring quantum well structures formed by band gap modulation, the quantized
electron energies are given by

𝑛𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛 = , where 𝑛𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
8𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿2

Where 𝐸𝐸𝑛𝑛 is measured from the edge of the conduction band in the well region and 𝐿𝐿 is
the well thickness.The same equation is true for hole sub bands in the valence band.

OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES - LIGHT DETECTORS

Type equation here.

PHOTO CURRENT IN A P-N JUNCTION DIODE

Principle

When a p-n junction is exposed to light under reverse bias, it produces electron – hole pairs. Flow of
these charge carriers produces a reverse current.

Construction

It is made up of p and n type materials with a small glass window on the top for the light to pass
through it. The p-n junction mounted on the insulated substrate sealed in the
metal case.

Symbol of photodiode,

Working

• When no light is incident on a p- n junction, then no charge carriers

are created. Very little reverse current flows through the circuit.
This current is called dark current
• When light made to incident on a p-n junction electron-hole pair is
created.
• These charge carriers moves towards the potential and give rise to a current known as
photo current
• Photo current increase with the increase of intensity of light on the p-n junction.
• Current reaches a maximum and is called saturation current.

Advantages

*They have long life period * It is light in weight * very compact

Dr. GB 69
 Disadvantages

*Dark current is temperature dependent * Efficiency Is poor in rainy/ winter seasons

Applications
1. Photo- diodes are very useful in electronic devices such as smoke detectors, CD players,
TVs, remote controls.
2. Photo- diodes are used in charge –couple devices [CCD], photo conductors and photo-
multiplier tubes.

LIGHT DETECTORS

Opto-electronic devices such as light detectors (or) photo detectors are the, devices which
convert the light signal into electrical signals. The two main photo detectors used in optical fiber
communication system are (i) p-i- n - Photo diode (PIN Diode)(ii) Avalanche Photo Diode
(APD)

PIN Photo Diode(photodetector)

• It is a device which consists of a p and n regions

separated by a lightly doped intrinsic region.

• The cross-sectional view of p-i-n photodiode is as

shown.

• A sufficiently large reverse bias is applied across

the device.

• When an incident photon has energy greater than

or equal to the band gap energy of the
semiconductor material, an electron excites from
valence band to conduction band.

• These carriers are mainly generated in the depletion region where most of the incident light
is absorbed.

• The high electric filed present in the depletion region causes the carriers to separate and be
collected across the reverse biased junction. This
gives rise to a current flow in the external circuit.

Avalanche photo detector

• An avalanche photodiode is more sophisticated

than a p-i-n diode and it incorporates internal
gain mechanism. So the photo-electric current is
amplified within the detector.

Dr. GB 70
 • It consists of four regions, viz., p+, I , p, n+ with necessary reverse biasing that is operated at
voltage close to the breakdown voltage.

• The electron and hole pairs are generated in the depletion layer acquire sufficient energy
from the field to liberate secondary electrons and holes with in the layer by impact
ionization.

• The secondary electron – hole pair drift in opposite directions and together with the primary
carriers may produce new carriers. Thus, carrier multiplication and internal amplification
occurs. This internal amplification process enhances the responsivity of the detectors.

OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES - SOLAR CELL

Principle

A solar cell is a p-n junction diode which converts sunlight (solar energy) directly into electrical
energy.

Construction

• A solar cell is made up of a heavily doped ‘p’ and ‘n’ type

materials grown over the substrate with larger exposure area
for the sunlight to pass through it.
• Thickness of p and n region is made small so that charge
carriers can easily diffuse to the junction. P and n type material

connected to the load resistance through the ohmic contacts.

The symbol of the solar cell is

Working

1. When solar cell is exposed to light, the photons are allowed to fall on the P and n type
materials. These photons collide with the valence electrons and thus electron –hole pair is
created.
2. The electrons from ‘p’ type moves towards the ‘n’ side and similarly holes from ‘n’ type
move towards ‘p’ side.
3. The electrons and holes accumulate on either side of the junction which gives rise to an
open- circuit voltage.
4. Now if load resistance is connected across the diode, then the reverse current flows
through the circuit.
5. Here the magnitude of current in solar cell is proportional to the intensity of light falling on
it.

Dr. GB 71
Advantages

*The energy used is renewable energy * solar cells are eco- friendly and save electricity charges
*pollution free device * long life time

Disadvantage

*installation cost is high * poor performance in winter and rainy seasons * they occupy more space
during installation.

Applications

1. It is used to provide electricity to our daily and commercials purposes.

2. Solar panels are used in calculators, watches, street lights, toys etc.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

• It is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which emits light when it is forward biased.

Principle:

• The electrons injected into the p- region make a direct downward transition from the
conduction band into valence band and they recombine with holes and emit photons of
energy Eg.

Construction

• A n- type layer is grown on a substrate and a

p- type layer is deposited on it by diffusion.
Since carrier recombination takes place in the
p-layer, it is deposited upper most.

• For maximum light emission, a metal film

anode is deposited at the outer edges of the
p-layer. The bottom of the substrate is coated
with metal (gold) film for reflecting most of the light surface of the device and also to
provide connection with n- type layer.

Working:

• When the p –n junction diode is

forward biased, the barrier width is
reduced, raising the potential energy on
the n-side and lowering that on the p-
side.

• The free electrons and holes have

sufficient energy to move into the
junction region. If a free electron meets
a hole, it recombines with each other resulting in the release of a photon

Dr. GB 72
 • Thus light radiation of the LED is caused by the recombination of holes and electrons that
are injected into the junction by forward bias voltage.

Advantages

• Smaller in size * Cheap * Long life time * Operates at very ;ow voltage * Available in all
colors

Disadvantages

• Power output is low * Intensity is less * Low directionality * Incoherent output

LASER DIODE (GaAlAs-Laser)

Laser diode is of two categories viz.

1. Homojunction semiconductor diode

2. Heterojunction semiconductor diode. Let us discuss in detail about hetero-junction
semiconductor laser diode.
Characteristics
Type : Heterojunction semiconductor laser
Active medium : p-n- junctions (with various layers)
Active Centre : Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping Process : Direct pumping
Optical resonator : Polished junctions of diode
Power Output : 10mw
Nature of output : Continuous wave form
Wavelength of output : 8000Å
Band Gap : 1.55eV

Principle:
The electron in conduction band combines with a hole in the valence band and hence the
recombination of electron and hole produces energy in the form of light. This photon, in turn
may induce another electron in the conduction band (CB) to valence band (VB) and thereby
stimulate the emission of another photon.

Construction
It consists of five layers as shown in Fig. 5.18. A layer of GaAs- p-type ( 3rd layer) which
has a narrow band gap will act as the active region. This layer ( 3rd layer) is sandwiched
between the two layers having wider band gap viz. GaAlAs - p-type �2nd layer) and GaAlAs - n-
type (4 layer).

Dr. GB 73
 A contact layer made of GaAs - p-type ( 1st layer) is made to form at the top of the 2nd
layer for necessary biasing. All these four layers are grown over the substrate �5th layer) made
of GaAs-n-type.

The junctions of GaAs - p-type ( 3rd layer) and GaAlAs - n-type (4 layer) are well
polished and hence it acts as an optical resonator. The upper and lower electrodes help in
forward biasing the diode.

Working
The working of a heterojunction laser is similar to that of the working of a homojunction
laser.

1. The diode is forward biased with the help of upper and lower electrodes.
2. Due to forward biasing the charge carriers are produced in the wide band gap layers
( 2 and 4 ).
3. These charge carriers are injected into the active region (layer 3 ).
4. The charge carriers are continuously injected from 2nd and 4th layer to the 3rd
layer, until the population inversion is achieved.
5. At this state some of the injected charge carriers recombines and produces
spontaneously emitted photons.
6. These spontaneously emitted photons stimulates the injected charge carriers to emit
photons.
7. As a result more number of stimulated emission arises and thus large number of
photons are produced.
8. These photons are reflected back and forth at the junction and hence an intense,
coherent beam of LASER emerges out from the P-N junctions of active region i.e.,
between layer- 3 and layer-4 as shown in Fig.
9. The wavelength of the emitted radiation is given by

6.625×10 −34 ×3×30 8

(or) 𝜆𝜆 =
1.55×1.6×10 −19

∴ 𝜆𝜆 = 8014Å

This wavelength lies in IR region.

Advantages

Dr. GB 74
 (i) Power output is very high.
(ii) It produces continuous wave output.
(iii) It has high directionality and high coherence.
(iv) It has low threshold current density compared to homojunction laser.
(v) These diodes are highly stable and has longer life time.
Disadvantages
Cost is higher than homojunction laser.(ii) Practical difficulties arises while growing the
different layers of p-n junction.

OPTICAL PROCESS IN ORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES - ORGANIC LED [OLED]

Introduction

• Organic Light Emitting Diode, shortly called as OLED is new type of electronic
device which emits light, consuming very less energy. It overcome the drawback of
LCD, in which we suffer from poor viewing angle.
• Organic LEDs are generally made up of many layers with organic molecules
ofdifferent conductivity levels, ranging from insulators to conductors.Let us discuss
a 2-Layer OLED in detail.

• They're super-light, almost paper-thin, theoretically flexible enough to print onto clothing,
and they produce a brighter and more colorful picture.

Principle

An electron moves from the cathode to the emissive layer and the hole
moves from the anode to the conductive layer and they recombine to
produce photons.

Construction

A simple OLED is made up of six different layers. On the top and bottom
there are layers of protective glass or plastic.

• The top layer is called the seal and the bottom layer the substrate.

• In between those layers, there's a the cathode and the anode.

• Finally, in between the anode and cathode are two layers made from organic molecules
called the emissive layer (where the light is produced, which is next to the cathode) and
the conductive layer (next to the anode).

Working

• To make an OLED light up, potential difference is given across the anode and cathode.

• As the electricity starts to flow, the cathode receives electrons from the power source and
the anode loses them (or it "receives holes).

• Positive holes jump across the boundary from the conductive layer to the emissive layer.

• When a hole meets an electron, the two things cancel out and release a brief burst of energy
in the form of a particle of light—a photon, in other words. This process is
called recombination.

Dr. GB 75
Advantages.

• Very thin and more flexible * Light in weight * Brighter than LED * More efficiency * Do not
require backlighting * Large field of view

Disadvantages

• Costly * Easily damaged by water * Less life time * Maintenance cost is more

Applications

• In cell phones, digital cameras etc., * In TV screens, computer monitors * In flexible display
boards

EXCITONS and EXCITONIC STATE

• When photons of energy less than the energy gap (Eg) is

made to fall on some crystals the electrons from valence
band will not go to conduction band exactly, instead they
will got to a level below the conduction band level called
exciton bands as shown in figure.

• Hence eventhough an electron is released from valence

band it does not become free electron, it is still bound to the hole (created) in the valence
band by the coulomb force of attraction. Thus, this bound electron-hole pair is known as
Exciton.

• Definition – The bound electron – hole pair which occurs due to the combination of electron
in exciton energy level and the associated hole in valence band is known as EXCITON

• This bound electron hole pair as a whole is neutral and will not contribute to any electrical
conduction to the crystal, but will transfer its energy from one ion to the next ion.

Types

• Weakly bound excitons : Here the electron hole interparticle distance is large compared to
the lattice constants . Ex. Cu2O

• Tightly bound excitons – Here the electron hole interparticle distance is less than the atomic
radius. Ex. NaCl, KBr

Quantum Confined Stark Effect

• It describes the response of a quantum confined system to an external electric field.

• Small electric fields can ionize the excitons by pushing the electrons and holes in opposite
directions.

• If field is applied in z-direction, the field still pushes the electrons and holes in opposite
directions, but the barriers prevent the exciton from breaking part.

• Hence the excitons interact with the field abd shift to lower energy.

• In atomic physics, the shift to the energy levels in an electric field is called the Stark Effect.

• Definition – The shift of the quantum-confined energy levels in a quantum well due to the
application of electric field

Dr. GB 76
The following points are observed on comparison of figures.

 The application of electric field

causes a decrease of the
energies in the confined states.

 The stark shift of the levels

causes the energy difference to
decrease form 1462.4 meV at
zero field to 1438.5 meV at
107Vm-1. Hence there is a red
shift to the transition energy.

Applications

1. It is used to control the shape of the absorption spectrum by applying a voltage

2. It is used for making different types of electro-optic devices

3. It can be used to switch ON and OFF the optical devices by applying the bias.

4. It is used to make voltage-tunable photo-detector.

5. It is also used as phase modulator device.

ELECTRO OPICS AND NON-LINEAR OPTICS

Optical properties of the materials are unaffected when an ordinary light is propagated
through it. But it has to be noted that the optical properties of the materials (such as refractive
index) may be affected when light of high intensity (laser beam) is allowed to pass through it.

The change in optical properties due to electric und magnetic field associated with light
is called non-linear effects and those materials which possess these effects are called non-linear
materials. This phenomenon is termed as non-linear optics.
Examples: (i) Ammonium-di-hydro-phosphate (ADP).(ii) Potassium-di-hydro-phosphate
(KDP)(iii) Barium titanate (BaTiO3 ) and(iv) Lithium iodate (LiIO3 )
In ordinary light the electric and magnetic field associated with it is so weak and hence
we could not identify non-linear effects in it. But in LASER beam we can easily identify non-
linear effects, because of the strong electric and magnetic field associated with it.

SECOND HARMONIC GENERATION

Definition
Second harmonic generation represents the generation of new frequencies with the help
of the crystals such as quartz, Potassium-di-hydro-phosphate (KDP), etc.

Explanation
Let us consider a material media in which the light is passed through it. We know that
light consists of both electric and magnetic field associated with it. These electric field
associated with the light will distort the atoms and molecules in the material to form oscillating
dipoles.

The induced electric dipole is due to the displacement of electron cloud with respect to
the centre of thepositive nucleus of an atom. This phenomenon is called electric polarisation
(𝑃𝑃).

Dr. GB 77
Relation between 𝑷𝑷 and 𝑬𝑬 for ordinary light (linear motion)

When light of low intensity (i.e., ordinary light) is passed through dielectric medium (i.e.,
glass), the electric field has smaller amplitude and the oscillation of dipoles can follow the field
exactly.

𝑃𝑃 = 𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝜒𝜒𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸

where, 𝜒𝜒0 - Electric field susceptibility

𝜀𝜀0 − Permittivity of the medium

Relation between 𝑷𝑷 and 𝑬𝑬 for Laser beam (Non-linear medium)

1 3 1 1
𝜀𝜀 0 𝜒𝜒 1 𝐸𝐸02 𝜀𝜀 0 𝐸𝐸0 cos ⁡𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 �𝜒𝜒 0 + 𝜒𝜒 2 𝐸𝐸02 � 𝜀𝜀 0 𝜒𝜒 1 𝐸𝐸02 cos ⁡𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜀𝜀 0 𝜒𝜒 2 𝐸𝐸03 cos ⁡3𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
4
𝑃𝑃 = 2 + +2 +4
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

Referring equation, the first term represents the dc field across the medium which has
less importance (since it doesn't have cos⁡𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 term). The second term represents the external
polarisation which is called as first (or) fundamental harmonic susceptibility (since it has
cos⁡𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ), the third term represents the oscillating dipoles, which oscillates at a frequency 2𝜔𝜔
and hence called second harmonic of polarisation. The fourth term which as cos⁡3𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 is called
the third harmonic of polarisation etc.

When the first term and the third term is added we can get the term called optical
rectification.
Experimental evidence

The observation of second harmonic generation by quartz slab is illustrated. Ahigh-

power Ruby laser (of wavelength 6943Å) is passed through a filter, which filters the red light
and allows the ultraviolet light to the quartz slab. The emerging light from the quartz slab is
made to pass through a 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 transmission filter, which filters unwanted light and allows the
ultraviolet light alone to pass through the photocell. In this experiment, due to second harmonic
generation, thewavelength of the incident beam is made half and hence the wave length of
emerging beam is recorded as 3471Å.

NON-LINEAR OPTICAL MATERIALS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS

Non-linear optical materials

Important non-linear optical materials are,

1 Lithium niobate
2 Lithium tantalate
3 Barium sodium niobate
These materials will also act as high frequency single crystal piezoelectrictransducers,
so that they are used in electro optic modulators and second harmonic generators (Optical
frequency doublers).
Properties of Lithium Niobate (𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝟑𝟑 )
1. It is a synthetic ferroelectric material.
2. It has higher curie temperature i.e., 1210∘ C.

Dr. GB 78
 3. It has high electric polarizability and low loss optical transmission.
4. It exhibits linear electro-optic effect due to the lack of an inversion centre in the
structure.
Properties of Lithium Tantalate (𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝐋𝟑𝟑 )
1. It is a synthetic ferroelectric material.
2. Its curie temperature is 660∘ C and melting point is 1650∘ C.
3. It has low temperature coefficient of resistance.
4. The domain size is much smaller than Lithium niobate domains. Also, the domains
are antiparallel polar domains.
Properties of Barium Sodium Niobate (𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁𝟐𝟐 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝟓𝟓 𝐎𝐎𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 )
1. It is a synthetic ferroelectric material.
2. Its curie temperature is 560∘ C and melting point is 1500∘ C.
3. Phase transition takes place between the room temperature and curie temperature.
Applications of non-linear optical materials
1. Optical grating: LiNbO3 acts as an optical grating and second harmonic generator.
Optical grating imposes a periodic variation in the amplitude so that the refractive
index varies periodically and hence acts as grating. The second harmonic generation
is achieved in uniaxial crystal (like calcite and quartz).
2. Optical amplifier: Fiber losses can be completely eliminated by erbium doped silica
fiber. Erbium doped silica fiber acts as laser amplifier or optical amplifier.
3. Optical modulation and switching: Electro-optic wave guide switches fabricated by
LiNbO3 is used for directs switching of the optical signals. The electro-optic
coefficient of LiNbO3 is very high and hence the crystals can be grown with good
optical quality. Therefore, wave guides can be fabricated by titanium diffusion into
the LiNbO3 substrate. The refractive index of LiNbO3 is increased by the addition of
titanium. Hence light is guided in the diffused region.
4. Optical frequency doublers: Due to high electric polarizability and low loss optical
transmission, Lithium niobate, Lithium tantalate and Barium sodium niobate are
used in electro-optic modulators are optical frequency doublers.
MODULATORS

If the frequency of light is of the order of tera (1012 ) hertz, we can use it as a carrier
wave for very high-speed data and TV communications. Using light as a carrier of information in
communication, it is called optical communication.

Optical Modulators

Optical modulators are the devices which can modulate the amplitude, phase or state of
polarisation of a light beam according to a message signal (usually a voltage signal). We
ultimately modulate the intensity of the light beam in accordance with the message signal.

Optical modulators are classified as

1. Internal modulators and

2. External modulators

Dr. GB 79
INTERNAL MODULATORS

The intensity of the signal is modulated by applying the message signal along with the
bias to the optical source (LASER or LED) or in other words depending upon the applied voltage
signal. The intensity of the message signal is modulated internally within the source itself as
shown in Fig.

Advantages
Simple, economical and compact in size, etc.
Disadvantages
(i) Frequency chirping(ii) Mode partition and(iii) Line width broadening

EXTERNAL MODULATORS

To overcome the disadvantage of internal modulators we use externalmodulators. Here

The light produced from a separate source is modulated by passing through an external
modulating cell.

Electro optic modulators, magnetologic modulators and acousto optic modulators fall
under this category.The transmittance of the external modulator is varied in accordance with
the applied control (message) signal Fig.

Disadvantages

1 Bulky
2 More complex and
3 Expensive

ELECTRO OPTIC MODULATORS

When an electric field is applied to some medium, the distribution of electrons and
orientation of atomic dipoles within the material get distorted. As a result of this, an optic
anisotropy is involved in the material, the refractive index of the material also gets changed.
When an electric field (𝜀𝜀) is applied to the medium, the refractive index (𝑛𝑛) changes by Δ𝑛𝑛, it is
given by

Dr. GB 80
 2
1 1
� − � = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑃𝑃𝜀𝜀 2
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + Δ𝑛𝑛

where 𝑟𝑟 → linear electro-optic co-efficient, 𝑃𝑃 → quadratic electro-optic co-efficient

Variation in refractive index associated within the linear term (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) is called Pockels
effect. And the variation of refractive index due to (𝑃𝑃𝜀𝜀 2 ) is called Kerr effect.

QUANTUM WELL ELECTRO ABSORPTION MODULATORS

When an electric field is applied perpendicular to the surface of a quantum well, the
optical absorption of the quantum well can be changed. This change in absorption is relatively
large in quantum well materials. Such quantum wells are used in optical modulators.

We can make modulators that work for light coming in and out of the surface of a
semiconductor chip, called surface normal modulators. As a result, it is possible to make two
dimensional arrays of quantum well optical modulators.A change in optical absorption with
applied electric field or voltage is called "electro-absorption". The particular electro absorption
mechanism seen only in quantum wells, called "quantum-confined stark effect". This
mechanism, like other electro absorption mechanisms in semiconductors, is also very fast.

There are no intrinsic speed limitations on the mechanism itself until timescales will
below a picosecond. Actually, speed is limited only by the time taken to apply voltage to the
quantum wells, which is typically limited by resistor-capacitance limits of the external circuit.
The quantum well electro absorption modulator is illustrated in Fig. One of the most effective
ways to apply the necessary voltage to the quantum wells is to make a diode with quantum
wells in the middle.

As the diode is reverse biased, electric field is applied perpendicular to the quantum
well layers. In a reverse biased diode, the necessary field can be applied without having any
current flowing, which makes this a particularly efficient device. The given device is made using
gallium arsenide and aluminium gallium arsenide semiconductor materials. This modulator
works best typically at wavelengths of about 850nm, in the near infra red region of the
spectrum.

At 850nm, the given material (Al Ga As) is transparent, so there is no optical loss. GaAs is
also opaque at this wavelength, so the substrate has to be removed to make transmission
modulator. So, depending on wavelengths, we can construct modulators with various
semiconductors. There are about 50 to 100 quantum wells in a typical surface modulator. The
operating voltage of these typical modulators is 5 − 10v, and the optical transmission of the
modulator might change from 50% to 20%.

Dr. GB 81
 Electro absorption modulators (EAMs) are used for implementing many functions in an
optical communication system. For example, pulse shaping, data generation, optical
demultiplexing and detection were implemented in a 120 Gbit/sec optical time division
multiplexed (OTDM) system at a 30GHz base rate.

SWITCHING DEVICES

By using high modulating systems, we can deflect or switch the direction of light beams,
this technique is called beam switching and those devices are termed as switching devices. This
is used in many instruments, machines and in optical memories.

Beam switching using pockels cell

A vertically polarised light beam is incident on a pockels electro-optic modulator. The

emergent beam is passed through a birefringent material [a double refracting crystal].
When no voltage is applied to the pockels cell modulator, the incident vertically
polarised light is transmitted without any change in the state of polarisation Fig (a).
When a plane polarised light is incident on the double refracting crystal, the emergent beam of
light is circular polarised and the direction of propagation is unaltered.

When a voltage equal to half wave voltage (VK) of the electro optic modulator is applied
to it, the emergent light is circular polarised. When a circular polarised light is incident on the
double refracting crystal, the emergent beam is plane polarised and its direction gets deflected
to position (2) as shown is Fig. (b).
Thus by applying a voltage of 0 (or) Vn, the emerged beam is switched between (1) (or)
(2).
Beam switching using complimentary KDP prisms arrangement 2 prisms of KDP
(potassium dihydrogen phosphate) of opposite orientation” are placed one above the other as
shown in the Fig below.

Dr. GB 82
 As the prisms are of opposite orientation, the induced principle axes of the 2 prisms are
also of opposite orientation, so when an electric field £ is applied across 2 prisms, the refractive
indices of the 2 prisms are changed by pockels effect.

Refractive index for upper prism

Similarly, Refractivity index for lower prism,

when n0 —> actual refractive index without applying ε, r —> pockels effect coefficient. Hence
the refractive index varies along the height (x direction) of the set up. When a vertically
polarised light propogating along z. axis is incident on the face of the upper prism as shown, its
velocity varies with x. Thus the emergent wave gets deflected by an angle 0. When no voltage is
applied to the prism, the beam is undeviated.
It can be shown that

where θ —» angle of deflection, L -length of the prisms, w —> width of the prisms . ∆n-»
difference in refractive indices of the 2 prisms ( = no3rε)

SELF ELECTRO OPTIC EFFECT (SEED) DEVICE

Principle
The photocurrent flowing through the current including series resistor, changes the
voltage across the modulator, which in turn influences its absorption and transmission. As a
consequence, the photocurrent is changed.

Circuit and operation

The SEED circuit with a series resistor is illustrated in Fig. and the switching action is
demonstrated in Fig.

Dr. GB 83
 This device exhibits photonic switching, bistable, and optically induced oscillations due
to the negative differential resistance in the photocurrent. Suppose the light intensity changes
from level-2 to level-1 the voltage across the device shifts from V1 to V2 , causing a transmittance
change from T1 to T2 .It is to be noted that, this large voltage change, with respect to the power
change, cannot be achieved without using MQW (Multi Quantum Well) excitonic transitions.
Similarly, the transmission through the device is also changed by almost a factor of two at the
same time. Therefore, the device provides an integrating and thresholding capability.

For low-input power, most of the light is transmitted and the output power increases in
proportion to the input power.

As the light energy increases, the photocurrent increases and the voltage drop across
the series resistor will increase. Since the bias voltage remains constant, the reverse bias across
the diode decreases, shifts the heavy hole absorption peak to higher energies and the
transmission drops.

As the input power increases further, the output power will increase again, so the state
of the device is altered solely by light intensity. Such photonic switching can also be illustrated
with two beams, one for transmission and one for control.

PLASMONICS

Plasmonics
Plasmonics (or) nano plasmonics is a very dynamic field, which refers to the generation,
detection and manipulation of signals at the range of optical frequencies along a metal-dielectric
interfaces in a nano-metre scale.

Principle
The principle used in plasmonics is "surface plasmon polaritons". The study of plasmons
is called plasmonics. Here plasmons refer to the quantum of collective oscillations of metal's

Dr. GB 84
free electrons (or plasma) in response to the electric field component of electro-magnetic wave
excitation.

Plasmonic materials

1. Metals (or) metal-like materials that exhibit negative real permittivity are used as
plasmonic materials.
2. Plasmonic gold and silver nano-particles which have unique optical, electrical and
thermal properties are termal as plasmonic materials.
Applications

1. Plasmonic materials are used in antimicrobial coatings.

2. They are also used in molecular diagnostics.
3. Plasmonic techniques are widely used in colour Engineering.
4. Plasmonics are used in research areas such as food sciences, environmental sciences,
biological sciences, physical sciences etc.

Dr. GB 85
 QUESTION BANK- OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

PART A

1. Give the salient features of optical materials.

2. Define carrier generation and recombination.
3. What are the types of carrier generation?
4. What is the principle used in PIN photodiode?
5. Give any four applications of photodiode.
6. Write the principle of operation in a solar cell.
7. List out any four applications of solar cell.
8. What is meant by photo detector?
9. Mention the properties of photo detectors used in fibre-optic communication.
10. What are the main requirements for a suitable LED material?
11. Why group III and group V elements alone should be chosen for manufacturing LED’s?
12. Why the shape of the LED is made as hemispherical
13. Mention any four advantages of LED in electronic display
14. What are the properties of LED?
15. List out the recent applications of OLED.
16. What is the principle of laser diode?
17. What are excitons? Give its types.
18. What do you understand by quantum confined stark effect?
19. What are optical modulators?
20. What is the principle of SEED (self electro optic effect device)?
PART B

1. (i) Explain the salient features of optical materials. (3) (ii) Explain the different phenomenon
that take place as an electromagnetic radiation is incident on a given optical material. (10)
2. Describe the optical absorption in metals, dielectrics (insulators) and semiconductors. (13)
3. Describe the principle, construction and working of a photodiode. (13)
4. (i) Describe the construction and working of a solar cell. (10) (ii) Give the advantages,
disadvantages of a solar cell. (3)
5. Describe the construction and working of a photodetector. (13)
6. Explain the theory and working of LED. (13)
7. Explain how p-n junction diode acts as light emitting diode. (13)
8. (i) What are the differences between LED and OLED? (7) (ii) Compare photodiode and laser
diode. (6)
9. (i) What is meant OLED? (3) (ii) Describe in detail, the construction and working of OLED.
(10)
10. (i) Describe the principle, construction and working of a GaAlAs diode laser. (10) (ii)
Explain the construction and working of a semiconductor diode laser (laser diode) with
diagram. (13)
Dr. GB 86
11. Write short notes on (i) Excitons (6) (ii) Quantum confined Stark effect. (7)
12. Explain in detail about switching devices based on Non linear optics.(12)
13. Describe and explain electro optic modulator and its characteristics.(16)

PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the wavelength of emission from GaAs semiconductor laser whose band gap
energy is 1.44 eV. (Planck’s Constant = 6.625 x 10-34 Js) and charge of an electron is 1.6
x 10-19 C).

Dr. GB 87
 UNIT 5 – NANO DEVICES

DENSITY OF STATES FOR SOLIDS

Density of states is defined as number of available electron energy states per unit volume, per unit
energy.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧(𝐸𝐸 ) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Number of energy states per unit volume is given by

3�
𝑁𝑁 𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚 2 3�
𝑛𝑛 = = � 2 � 𝐸𝐸 2
𝑉𝑉 3 ℎ
3�
𝑑𝑑 𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚 2 3�
𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸 ) = ( � � 𝐸𝐸 2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 ℎ2
3�
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚 2 1�
𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸 ) = � 2 � 𝐸𝐸 2
2 ℎ

From the above equation,𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸 ) ∝ √𝐸𝐸

The Fermi function gives us the probability of occupation by a free electron in a given energy state.
1
i.e F(E) = (𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹)/𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇
1+𝑒𝑒 𝐵𝐵

Number of electrons per unit volume,

𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 3� 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹 1�
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚 2 𝐸𝐸 2
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑍𝑍(𝐸𝐸 )𝐹𝐹 (𝐸𝐸 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 � �
0 2 ℎ 0 1 + 𝑒𝑒 (𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹)/𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
3�
𝜋𝜋 8𝑚𝑚 2 3�
At T=0K, F(E) =1 or electron density is given by number of free electrons 𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑒 = � 2� 𝐸𝐸𝐹𝐹0 2
3 ℎ

SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN FERMI ENERGY AND VOLUME OF THE MATERIAL

• The electron density in a conductor at T=0 K is,

……(1)

• Fermi energy of a conductor at T= 0k

………..(2)

• In the above equation n is the only variable. Fermi energy depends on the number of free
electrons N per unit volume V.

Dr. GB 88
where ,n = N/ V …………(3)

• Since electron density is the property of the material, the fermi energy does not vary with
material size.But for small volume of atoms we get larger spacing between states.

• The average spacing between energy states is given by,

……….(4)

From equation 3 and 4 we get

….….. (5)

Thus the spacing between energy states is inversely proportional to the volume of the solid.

The energy sublevel and the spacing between energy states within it will depend on the number of
atoms as shown in fig

• The spacing between energy states get larger

as the volume gets smaller.

• At the bottom a single atom has just one

energy state.

• As the volume increases to the size of a solid

the spacing between splits gets so tight that
the sublevel is best characterized as a band.

QUANTUM CONFINEMENT

• The effect achieved by reducing the volume of a solid so that the energy levels within it
become discrete is called quantum confinement.

Explanation

• The word confinement means to confine the motion of randomly moving electron to restrict
its motion in specific energy levels .

• quantum reflects the atomic dimension of particles.

• If we decrease the size of the particle to the nano size, the decrease in confining size creates
the energy levels discrete.

• The formation of discrete energy levels increases or widens up the band gap.

Dr. GB 89
 • Finally the band gap energy also increases as shown in Fig.

QUANTUM STRUCTURES

Quantum well

• When we constrain electrons inside a region of minimal width, we create a quantum

well.

• In other words ,if one dimension is reduced to the nano range while the other two
dimensions remain large, then we get a structure known as quantum well.

Quantum wire

• if we constrain width and depth of electron's domain, we creat a quantum wire.

• In other words, if two dimensions are so reduced and one remains large, the resulting
structure is quantum wire.

Quantum dot

• When all three dimensions are minimized the resulting structure is quantum dot.

DENSITY OF STATES IN QUANTUM WELL (OR) DENSITY OF STATES INTWO DIMENSIONS

• The two-dimensional density of states is the number of states per unit area and unit energy.

• Consider the electron in a two-dimensional bounded region of space. We want to find how
many quantum states lie within a particular energy, say, between E and E + dE as shown in
Fig.

The number of available states within a circle of radius ‘n' is given by =

Dr. GB 90
 ¼ πn2

The number o f states within a circle of radius n + dn is given by =

The number of available energy states lying in an energy internal E and E+dE

As dn2 is very small, we can neglect dn2, we get

Put L2 = A = Area of the circle

• According to Pauli's exclusion principle each energy level can occupy 2 electrons of
oppositespin.

• Number of quantum states per unit area and unit energy is

• Where Eo = Ground state of quantum well system

• Where En are the energies of quantized states and σ (E - En) is the step function.

Z(E)2D α EO= constant

DENSITY OF STATES IN QUANTUM WIRE (OR) DENSITY OF STATES IN ONE DIMENSION

Dr. GB 91
 • Density of states is defined as the number of available states per unit length per unit energy
E.

• potential well with zero potential inside the wire and infinite potential outside the wire

• At x = 0; V(x) = 0 for an electron inside the wire.

• At x= L; V(x) = α for an electron outside the wire.

• The number of available energy states lying in an interval of length is

Z'(E)dE = n + dn -n = dn

Substitute the value of dn in the above equation,

• According to Pauli's exclusion principle each energy level can occupy 2 electrons of opposite
spin.

• Number of quantum states per unit length and unit energy is

• If the electron has potential energy Eo, we have

• the density of states in one dimensional system has a functional dependence on energy.

Z(E)lD α E-1I2

• For more than one quantized state, the one dimensional density of states is given by

Dr. GB 92
 • Where En are the energies of the quantized states of the wire and σ(E - En )is the step
function.

DENSITY OF STATES IN QUANTUM DOT (or) DENSITY OF STATES IN ZERO DIMENSIONS

• In zero dimensional system [quantum dot], the electron is confined in all three spatial
dimensions and hence no motion of electron is possible.

• So, the density of states for a quantum dot is merely a delta function.

Z(E)OD=2(E –E0 ) ½

BAND GAP OF NANO MATERIALS

Very few atoms in a material not only causes the energy states to spread out but also widens
the band gap for semiconductors and insulators.

The band gap gets bigger as the material gets smaller. At the bottom, a single atom
has just one energy state per sublevel.

• In case of quantum dots the smaller the particle, the bigger the band gap.

• The band gap gets bigger as the material gets smaller.

TUNNELING

The phenomenon in which a particle, like an electron encounters an energy barrier in an electronic
structure and suddenly penetrates is known as tunneling.

SINGLE ELECTRON PHENOMENA

• We can use single-electron transistors to make sensitive amplifiers, electrometers, switches,

oscillators and other digital electron circuits.

• All these instruments will be operated by using single electrons or quantum dots

• Two conditions are to be satisfied for isolating a single electron,

They are

1. Coulomb blockade energy, Ec>>KBT

h
2. Tunneling resistance, Rt 〉〉
e2
SINGLE ELECTRON PHENOMENA

• We can use single-electron transistors to make sensitive amplifiers, electrometers, switches,

oscillators and other digital electron circuits.

• All these instruments will be operated by using single electrons or quantum dots

Dr. GB 93
 • Two conditions are to be satisfied for isolating a single electron,

They are

3. Coulomb blockade energy, Ec>>KBT

h
4. Tunneling resistance, Rt 〉〉
e2
SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTOR

• A transistor made from a quantum dot that controls the current from source to drain one
electron at a time.The single electron transistor(SET) is built like a conventional FET.
• The difference is that instead of a semiconductor channel between the source and drain
electrodes, there is a quantum dot.

EXPLANATION

The purpose of SET is to individually control the tunneling of electrons into and out of the quantum
dot. To control tunneling, a voltage bias is applied to the gate voltage.

This is similar to the working of an FET, where the gate voltage creates an electric field that alters
the conductivity of the semiconducting channel below it, enabling current to flow in from source to
drain.

Applying a voltage to the gate in an SET creates an electric field and change the potential energy of
the dot with respect to the source and drain. This gate voltage-controlled potential difference can
make electrons in the source attracted to the dot and, simultaneously electrons in the dot attracted
to the drain.

For current to flow, this potential difference must be at least large enough to overcome the energy
of the coulomb blockade.

Dr. GB 94
 WORKING OF SET

• The SET is in OFF mode. Fig shows that it is not energetically favorable for electrons in the
source to tunnel to the dot. (Figure a)

• The SET in ON mode. At the lowest setting, electrons tunnel one at a time, via the dot, from
source to drain. (Figure b)

• This is made possible by first applying the proper gate voltage, Vgate= e/2Cdot, so that the
potential energy of the dot is made low enough to encourage an electron to tunnel through
the Coulomb blockade energy barrier to the quantum dot.

• Once the electron is on it, the dot’s potential energy rises(Figure c)

• The electron then tunnels through the Coulomb blockade on the other side to reach the
lower potential energy at the drain.(Figure d)

• With the dot empty and the potential lower again, the process repeats. (Figure e)

EXPLANATION OF ELECTRICAL BEHAVIOUR OF AN IDEAL SET

• The number of electrons on the quantum dot is zero until

the Coulomb blockade is overcome at Vcoulomb, at which
point electrons tunnel one at a time from the source to the
drain via the quantum dot.

• Because the energy on the dot quantized, only discrete gate

voltages enable the tunneling of electrons and consequent
increases in the number of electrons in the dot. The
seperation between these gate voltage is e/2C. This is the
voltage necessary to increase the number of electrons on
the dot by one.

• The I-V chart shows the corresponding spikes in the source

to drain current through the transistor at discrete gate voltages. Between the spikes, the
number of electrons on the dot remains fixed.

Applications

As charge sensor * In detection of IR radiation* In ultra sensitive microwave detector

* In supersensitive electrometer*In single electron spectroscopy

Dr. GB 95
Advantages

Low energy consumption *High sensitivity *Compact size*High operating speed

• Simplified circuit *Simple principle of operation

Disadvantages

• Integration of SETs in a large scale is difficult*Difficult to link SETs with the outside
environment

*Difficult to fabricate

CONDUCTIVITY OF METALLIC NANO WIRES

• Consider a circular cross-section wire of radius ‘r’ and length L. Let us assume that L is very
large compared to mean free path and Fermi wavelength.

• When radius ‘r’ is macroscopic, the conductivity for a bulk material is given by

ne 2τ
σ=
m ρL L
• In the above case, the resistance is given by R= =
A σA
• Where ρ is the resistivity of the material and A is the area of cross section.

• Let us compute the value of ‘L’ for various ‘r’ values

1
R∝
• ∴L = σR.A = σR.πr 2
r2

• For resistance, 1Ω, we get L = 18536 m

• One would need approx. 18536 m of wire to amount to a resistance of one ohm, which is why
we can often ignore wire resistance in electrical circuits.

• In the 1-20nm radius range, the conductivity of the wire certainly will differ from the bulk
value and normally the conductivity significantly decreases as r is reduced.

• This decrease is due to the scattering from the wire’s surface, grain boundaries, defects etc.,

• A relatively simple approximate formula for the resistivity (ρ) is

 
 1 + AR Lm 
+ C (1 − P )
 1 3
ρ = ρ0
 1 α  1  8 AR w 
 3 3 − 2 + α − α ln1 + α 
2 3

   
L Rc
where α = m
d 1 − Rc
• Where ρ0 is bulk resistivity, w is wire width, AR is aspect ratio (wire height divided by wire
width), d is the average grain size, Lm is mean free path, P is secularity parameter, Rc is grain
boundary reflection coefficient and C is constant.

Dr. GB 96
 FACTORS AFFECTING CONDUCTIVITY OF NANOWIRE

• Apart from surface and grain boundary scattering, other factors also determine the
conductivity of a nanowire.

• In copper nanowire, the increasing oxidation resulting in Cu2O creates a schottky contact
with each electrode, and so the I-V curve has double-diode behavior.

BALLISTIC TRANSPORT

• When the mean free path of the electron is longer than the dimension of the medium through
which the electron travels is called Ballistic transport.

• When the length ‘L’ of the conductor becomes much smaller than the mean free path ‘Lm’, the
transport is termed ‘ballistic’ meaning that the electron do not scatter during the time it takes
to travel through the conductor. Ballistic transport can be observed in a metal nanowire.

Condition of Ballistic transport

i. L<<Lm and ii. L<<Lφ

• Where L Is the length of the conductor, Lm is the mean free path (length that the electron can
travel before having an elastic collision),
• Lφ is the length over which an electron can travel before having an inelastic collision. This is
also called the phase-coherence length.
• In ballistic material, the electron’s wave function can be obtained from Schroedinger’s
equation.
• Application of ballistic transport is to ultra-short channel semiconducting FETS or carbon
nano tube transistor.

QUANTUM RESISITANCE AND QUANTUM CONDUCTANCE

• It is the quantized unit of electrical conductance, denoted by ‘G0’.

2e 2
G0 = = 7.748 × 10−5 mho
h
• The reciprocal of quantum conductance is Quantum Resistance.
h
R0 = = 12.9kΩ
2e 2
Where e is the electron’s charge and h is Planck’s constant.

Derivation

• A one dimensional (1D) quantum wire connects adiabatically two

reservoirs with chemical potential µ1 and µ2. The current density is given
by
J = − nevd
Where n is the density of electrons, e is the charge of electron and vd is its drift velocity.
µ1 µ1 µ
n = ∫ dn = ∫
dn
dE =
dn 1
∫ dE =
dn
[µ1 − µ2 ]
µ2 µ2
dE dE µ2 dE

Now J = −
dn
[µ1 − µ2 ]evd
dE
dn
where is the density of states.
dE
Dr. GB 97
We know , E = Nhυ
where N is the number of electrons.
We know
N No.of electrons No.of electrons N
n= = = =
V Volume Area × length A×l
∴ N = nAl
Now E = nhνAl
Differentiating we get, dE = dn.hυAl
dn 1
∴ =
dE hυAl
SInce each level can have two electrons,
dn 2
=
dE hυAl
If V is the voltage between two reservoirs, then we can write
µ1 - µ 2 = - eV
2
Now, J = eV .ev d
hυAl
JυAl 2 2  I
= e V Since J = 
vd h  A 
IυAl 2 2
= eV
Av d h
Iυl 2 2  l 1
= e V Since vd = and frequency, υ = 
vd h  t t
Il 2 2e 2V
= e 2V ⇒ I =
l h h
t 
 
t
2
If there are N electronic channels, thenQuantum
the above equation I 2e
is called
Conductance, G = = as Landauer
0 = 7.748 × 10formula.
−5
mho
Vh
i.e Conductance, G = G0and
N Quantum resistance, R0 = 1
=
h
= 12.9kΩ
G0 2e 2
h R
Similarly Resistance R= 2
= 0
2e N N
As the number of channels increases, conductance increases and resistance decreases. As N gets very
large, the electron channels essentially form a continuum.

CARBON NANOTUBES

• CNT’s also known as bucky tubes, are allotropes of carbon with a

cylindrical nanostructure.A single layer of graphite atoms arranged in a
hexagonal lattice pattern is called graphene.

• CNT consists of a graphene layer which is rolled up into a cylindrical

shape as shpwn in figure. Each single molecule nanotubes is made up
of hexagonal network structure of covalently bonded carbon atoms.

Dr. GB 98
 • Figure show the structure of a carbon nanotube formed by rolling the graphene sheet. Their
hexagonal structure gives the sheet tensile strength and elastic properties.

Types

• Single walled CNTs Multiwalled CNTs

Structure of Carbon Nanotubes

• The bonding in CNTs is sp2 hybridization with each

atom joined to three neighbours as in graphite.A
nanotube can be formed by folding the graphene
sheet. Based on folding of graphite sheet the
structure of CNTs(SWCNTs) are classified as

Armchair structure, Zigzag structure, Helical or chiral structure

• Arm Chair CNT -These are formed by folding the graphene sheet such that it is parallel to C-C
bonds of carbon hexagons.It is always metallic

• Zigzag structure-These are formed by folding the graphene sheet such that it is
perpendicular to C-C bonds of carbon hexagons.It can be metallic or semiconducting based
on their folding condition.

• Chiral structure-These are formed by folding the graphene sheet with some angle to C-C
bonds of carbon hexagons. Their mirror images appear to differ from their original structure.

Properties of Carbon Nanotubes

Electrical Properties

1. They are metallic or semiconducting depending on their diameter and chirality.

2. The energy gap of semiconducting CNT is inversely proportional to the diameter.

3. The energy gap also varies along the tube axis and reaches a minimum value at the tube
end.

• Mechanical Properties

1. Have very high tensile strength 2. Density is low and more durable

3. Can be bend without damage. 4. Young’s modulus is 10 times larger than that of
steel

Thermal properties

1. Have high thermal conductivity. 2. Have low thermal expansion coefficient.

Applications

 Used as field effect transistor Used as field emission device

Dr. GB 99
  As nanotube sensor In energy storage

 Used as lighting element Used as conductive plastics

 Used to prepare air and water filters Used to fabricate nanoscale electronic
devices.

Used in the development of flat panel displays for computer monitors and television

SPINTRONICS

• Spintronics is a Nanotechnology which deals with spin dependent properties of an electron

instead of charge dependent properties.It uses electron spins in addition to or in place of the
electron charge.The rotational moment creates a small magnetic field.Key concept is
controlling the spin of electrons.

Principle

• Spintronics is based on the spin of electrons rather than its charge.Every electron exists in
one of the two states- spin up or spin down, with spins either positive half or negative half.
i.e electron can rotate either clockwise or anticlockwise around its own axis with constant
frequency which represent “0” and “1” in logical operations.

Explanation

• Spin is a characteristic that makes an electron a tiny magnet with north and south poles.

• In ordinary materials, the up magnetic moments cancel the down magnetic moment so no
surplus moment piles up. Ferro magnetic materials like iron, cobalt and nickel is needed for
designing of spin electronic devices.The frequency and direction of rotation depends on the
strength of magnetic field and characteristics of the material.

Working

• The information is stored (written) into spins as a particular spin orientation(up or down).The
spins being attached to the mobile electrons, carry information along a wire and the
information is read at a terminal.

• Spin orientation of conduction electrons survives for relatively long time, which makes
spintronic device useful for memory storage and magnetic sensor applications.These are used
for quantum computing where electron spin will represent a bit(called ‘qubit’) of information.
When electron spins are aligned, this creates a large scale of net magnetic moment.

APPLICATIONS

Giant magneto resistance(GMR)

• GMR is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which electrons travelling ultra thin magnetic
film multilayer structures experience large scattering according to their spin states which
give rise to correspondingly large changes in electrical resistance.

Dr. GB 100
 • The most common practical application of spin polarization involves GMR effect, whose
discovery is accepted as birth of spintronics.

• A giant magnetoresistance device is made of atleast two ferromagnetic layers, such as Co,
separated by a very thin (on order of nm) nonmagnetic conducting spacing layer, such as Cu
as shown in figure.

WORKING

• Each ferromagnetic(FM) layer has a magnetization

vector M, and when these vectors are parallel, an
electric current can pass through the device. This is
due to several reasons.First, since the spacer layer
is thin, spin can be diffuse across the spacer to
read, the other ferromagnetic material.

• Since that material’s magentization is parallel to

the magnetization of the first layer, the density of
states for those spin electrons is relatively high, and so there is low scattering.Thus, the flow
of electrons can occur, resulting in a low electrical resistance. However, if the magnetization
vector of the second ferromagnetic material is antiparallel with that of the first material, the
majority spin electrons and spin scattering is high.This is reflected by a much larger
resistance to current flow.

• The resistance to current flow is called magneto resistance, and the percentage ratio of the
large and small resistance values is called GMR ratio.

SPIN VALVE

• A spin valve is a device, consisting of two or more conducting magnetic materials, whose
electrical resistance can change between two values depending on the relative alignment of
the magnetisation in the layers. The resistance change is a result of the giant magnetoresistive
effect.

• The magnetic layers of the device align "up" or "down" depending on an external magnetic
field. In the simplest case, a spin valve consists of a non-magnetic material sandwiched
between two ferromagnets, one of which is fixed (pinned) by an antiferromagnet which acts
to raise its magnetic coercivity and behaves as a "hard" layer, while the other is free
(unpinned) and behaves as a "soft" layer.

• Due to the difference in coercivity, the soft layer changes polarity at lower applied magnetic
field strength than the hard one. Upon application of a magnetic field of appropriate strength,
the soft layer switches polarity, producing two distinct states: a parallel, low-resistance state,
and an antiparallel, high-resistance state.

• Because of the strong GMR effect, spin valve can be used as extremely sensitive magnetic read
heads, allowing the storage capacity of a hard disk to increase considerably.

Dr. GB 101
iii) Other applications in spintronics include
a) Solid state non volatile memories
b) Quantum information processing and quaratum computation
c) Spin based transistors.
OPTICS IN QUANTUM STRUCTURES
Quantum Structures
Here the electrons are confined to move in one, two and three dimensions which led to new physical
discoveries and technological applications.

Semiconductor quantum structures with their unique properties make it possible to observe many
optical effects in low dimensional electron system and to discover their novel features.
Optics in Quantum structures
Optical experiments are the powerful tools for the characterization of heterostructures. Further,
heterostructure will enhance a set of new effects which do not occur in be bulk materials.

The electronic properties, lattice parameters, surface quality, optical and electrical properties are
most important in the field of modern solid-state devices which shall be microscopically analyzed
with the help of modern optics as a tool in the study of quantum structures.

These, specific features of optical processes originate from two basic physical peculiarities, viz.,
(i) The behaviour of the electromagnetic waves in heterostructures is different from bulk materials.
The spatial non-uniformity affects the specific characterization of interaction of light with matter like
light propagation, absorption etc.,
(ii) Electron in the quantum structure have energy spectra- which are different from those of
electrons in bulk materials.
Applications

Dr. GB 102
(i) In quantum information processing and quantum communication.
(ii) to demonstrate quantum teleportation between atomic systems over longer distances.
(iii) Quantum optics is a key for all emerging technologies like sensing, imaging, simulation
computation

QUANTUM WELL LASER

Concept
A quantum well laser is a laser diode in which the active region of the device is very narrow so that
quantum confinement occurs. Laser diodes are
formed in compound semiconductor marerials
and it can emit light efficiently.
The wavelength of light emitted by quantum well
laser depends on the width of the active region
rather than the bandgap of the materials.
Types
There are two types of quantum well laser based
on number of active regions,
(i) Single quantum well laser, which consists of
one active region.
(ii) Multi quantum well laser, which consists of multiple active regions

Single and multi quantum well laser

Principle
The recombination of electrons from the conduction band to the holes in the valence band produces
laser.
Construction
The single quantum well laser consists of a single active layer with different energy levels say
E𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 , E𝑉𝑉2 etc in valence band and similarly E𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 , E𝐶𝐶2 etc in conduction band as shown in figure 1.
Many single quantum well laser were coupled together to form a multi quantum well laser, as a
result many active layers such as active layer 1,2,3 etc., are formed as shown in Fig 2. Further, in
multi quantum well laser, the active layers are separated by the barrier layer.

Dr. GB 103
Working
In both single layer quantum well laser and multi-layer
quantum well laser, the recombination shall take place
between any of the conduction band energy level to any of the
valence band energy level.

In multi-layer quantum well laser, the photons emitted from

one active layer (1) multiplies in the second active layer (2) and
further multiples in layer (3) as shown in Fig 2.

Hence, in multi-layer quantum well laser, the efficiency is more than the single layer quantum well
laser,
Advantages
(i) higher efficiency. (ii) It produces higher modulation bandwidth. (iii) These laser have dynamic
spectral width, lower threshold current etc.(iv) It produces much shorter wavelength and greater
Efficiency.
Applications
(i) Used for material processing, (ii) Employed in Laser printing.
(iii) in medical field such as Laser Scanning, Medical therapy etc
(iv) Single frequency source for telecommunications

Dr. GB 104
 QUESTION BANK - NANO DEVICES
PART A
1. What is meant by bulk materials?
2. Write the equation for an electron density in a conductor at T = 0K.
3. Whether Fermi energy varies on material’s size? If yes or no, justify your statement.
4. What will happen to the band gap when the volume is reduced from that of a solid to a nano
material?
5. What is meant by tunnelling?
6. What is meant by quantum confinement?
7. What we will observe when we decreases the size of the particle to nano size?
8. What is meant by quantum confined structure?
9. Define the term quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot
10. Write any two applications of quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot.
11. In quantum dot, how will be the nature of the material and band gap?
12. Define Coulomb blockade effect.
13. How Coulomb blockade prevent unwanted tunnelling?
14. What is spintronics?
15. What is CNT?
16. What are the criteria to be satisfied for Ballistic transport?
17. Define tunneling.
18. Give the significance of optics in quantum structures.
19. What are the advantages of Quantum well laser?
20. Define single electron phenomena.

PART B
1. Explain the electron density in bulk material and size dependence of Fermi energy. (13)
2. Explain quantum confinement and quantum structures in nano materials. (13
3. Discuss density of states in quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot.(16)
4. Describe Coulomb blockade effect and single electron phenomena. (13)
5. Explain the phenomena of single electron which is used in single electron transistor. (13)
6.(i) Describe the construction and working of single electron transistor. (7) (ii) Explain
Coulomb blockade effect. (6)
Dr. GB
7. Explain the working of spintronics and its applications. (13) 105
8. Write a short note on (i) GMR (7) (ii) Spin valve (6)
9. Describe the carbon nano tubes with their properties and applications. (13)
10. Explain the concept of optics in quantum structures and hence explain in detail Quantum well
laser.(4+12)
11. Derive the expression for quantum resistance and quantum conductance (10) (ii) Explain the
conductivity of metallic nanowires. (6)

Dr. GB 106
Dr. GB 107
Dr. GB 108
Dr. GB 109
Dr. GB 110
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