Hardware

3.1 Computers and their

Components
3D Printer
3D Printer
• The object is designed using computer aided design(CAD) software,
which splits the object into slices
3D Printer
• The object is designed using computer aided design(CAD) software,
which splits the object into slices
• The data about the slices is sent to printer
3D Printer
• The object is designed using computer aided design(CAD) software,
which splits the object into slices
• The data about the slices is sent to printer
• The solid plastic is melted and transferred to the nozzle, which is
controlled by a stepper motor
3D Printer
• The object is designed using computer aided design(CAD) software,
which splits the object into slices
• The data about the slices is sent to printer
• The solid plastic is melted and transferred to the nozzle, which is
controlled by a stepper motor
• The nozzle extrudes the molten plastic
3D Printer
• The object is designed using computer aided design(CAD) software,
which splits the object into slices
• The data about the slices is sent to printer
• The solid plastic is melted and transferred to the nozzle, which is
controlled by a stepper motor
• The nozzle extrudes the molten plastic
• The previous steps are repeated until the layer is complete while a fan
cools the layer
Laser Printer
Laser Printer
• Initial Charge: The revolving drum is electrostatically charged.
Laser Printer
• Initial Charge: The revolving drum is electrostatically charged.
• Laser Scanning: A laser beam scans the drum, discharging certain
points to create an image pattern.
Laser Printer
• Initial Charge: The revolving drum is electrostatically charged.
• Laser Scanning: A laser beam scans the drum, discharging certain
points to create an image pattern.
• Toner Application: Oppositely charged toner adheres to the pattern
on the drum.
Laser Printer
• Initial Charge: The revolving drum is electrostatically charged.
• Laser Scanning: A laser beam scans the drum, discharging certain
points to create an image pattern.
• Toner Application: Oppositely charged toner adheres to the pattern
on the drum.
• Paper Feeding: Electro-statically charged paper is drawn towards
the drum.
• Image Transfer: The toner pattern is transferred onto the paper.
• Image Transfer: The toner pattern is transferred onto the paper.
• Fusing: The paper passes through a fuser, bonding the toner to the
paper.
• Image Transfer: The toner pattern is transferred onto the paper.
• Fusing: The paper passes through a fuser, bonding the toner to the
paper.
• Cleaning: The drum is cleared of electrical charge and excess toner
is collected for the next print.
Microphone
Microphone
• Diaphragm/Ribbon: The microphone has a diaphragm or ribbon that
responds to sound.
Microphone
• Diaphragm/Ribbon: The microphone has a diaphragm or ribbon that
responds to sound.
• Sound Wave Interaction: Incoming sound waves cause the diaphragm to
vibrate.
Microphone
• Diaphragm/Ribbon: The microphone has a diaphragm or ribbon that
responds to sound.
• Sound Wave Interaction: Incoming sound waves cause the diaphragm to
vibrate.
• Motion to Signal Conversion:
Microphone
• Diaphragm/Ribbon: The microphone has a diaphragm or ribbon that
responds to sound.
• Sound Wave Interaction: Incoming sound waves cause the diaphragm to
vibrate.
• Motion to Signal Conversion:
• Dynamic: A coil attached to the diaphragm moves past a magnet,
generating an electrical signal.
• Condenser: Vibrations change the capacitance between the diaphragm
and a backplate, producing an electrical signal.
• Condenser: Vibrations change the capacitance between the diaphragm
and a backplate, producing an electrical signal.
• Crystal: The deformation of a crystal by the vibrations generates an
electrical signal.
• Condenser: Vibrations change the capacitance between the diaphragm
and a backplate, producing an electrical signal.
• Crystal: The deformation of a crystal by the vibrations generates an
electrical signal.
• Electrical Signal: This movement or change in state is then converted
into an electrical signal that can be amplified and recorded.
Speaker
Speaker

• Signal Conversion: An electrical signal is translated into physical

vibrations to create sound waves.
Speaker

• Signal Conversion: An electrical signal is translated into physical

vibrations to create sound waves.
• Magnetic Interaction: An electric current in the coil generates an
electromagnetic field, with changes in the audio signal altering the
current's direction.
Speaker

• Signal Conversion: An electrical signal is translated into physical

vibrations to create sound waves.
• Magnetic Interaction: An electric current in the coil generates an
electromagnetic field, with changes in the audio signal altering the
current's direction.
• Current and Polarity: The current's direction determines the polarity of
the electromagnet; changing the current reverses the polarity.
• Movement and Sound Production:
• Movement and Sound Production:
⚬ The electromagnet is repelled or attracted by the permanent magnet.
• Movement and Sound Production:
⚬ The electromagnet is repelled or attracted by the permanent magnet.
⚬ This causes the coil, and thus the cone or diaphragm, to vibrate.
⚬ The cone's vibrations transmit through the air, producing sound
waves.
• Movement and Sound Production:
⚬ The electromagnet is repelled or attracted by the permanent magnet.
⚬ This causes the coil, and thus the cone or diaphragm, to vibrate.
⚬ The cone's vibrations transmit through the air, producing sound
waves.
• Frequency and Amplitude: The extent of the coil's movement dictates the
frequency and amplitude of the sound waves generated.
• Movement and Sound Production:
⚬ The electromagnet is repelled or attracted by the permanent magnet.
⚬ This causes the coil, and thus the cone or diaphragm, to vibrate.
• Movement and Sound Production:
⚬ The electromagnet is repelled or attracted by the permanent magnet.
⚬ This causes the coil, and thus the cone or diaphragm, to vibrate.
⚬ The cone's vibrations transmit through the air, producing sound
waves.
• Frequency and Amplitude: The extent of the coil's movement dictates the
frequency and amplitude of the sound waves generated.
• Speaker Components: Key components include the cone, coil of wire,
permanent magnet, and dust cap.
Resistive
Resistive
• Structure: Comprises two conductive layers separated by a small gap.
Resistive
• Structure: Comprises two conductive layers separated by a small gap.
• Operation: Applying pressure causes these layers to connect, acting like
a continuous electrical circuit.
Resistive
• Structure: Comprises two conductive layers separated by a small gap.
• Operation: Applying pressure causes these layers to connect, acting like
a continuous electrical circuit.
• Sensing Method: The exact point of contact is detected when the circuit is
completed.
Resistive
• Structure: Comprises two conductive layers separated by a small gap.
• Operation: Applying pressure causes these layers to connect, acting like
a continuous electrical circuit.
• Sensing Method: The exact point of contact is detected when the circuit is
completed.
• Coordinate Calculation: The system measures the voltage at the point of
contact to determine the coordinates.
Resistive
• Structure: Comprises two conductive layers separated by a small gap.
• Operation: Applying pressure causes these layers to connect, acting like
a continuous electrical circuit.
• Sensing Method: The exact point of contact is detected when the circuit is
completed.
• Coordinate Calculation: The system measures the voltage at the point of
contact to determine the coordinates.
• Interactivity: Often requires a stylus or firm touch for activation due to the
physical pressure mechanism.
Capacitive
Capacitive

• Material Composition: Constructed using a layer of glass coated with a

transparent conductor like indium tin oxide.
Capacitive

• Material Composition: Constructed using a layer of glass coated with a

transparent conductor like indium tin oxide.
• Touch Detection: The conductive properties of human skin alter the
screen's electrostatic field, transferring some charge to the touch point.
Capacitive

• Material Composition: Constructed using a layer of glass coated with a

transparent conductor like indium tin oxide.
• Touch Detection: The conductive properties of human skin alter the
screen's electrostatic field, transferring some charge to the touch point.
• Sensing Mechanics: Electrodes around the screen's perimeter measure
the disturbance in the electrical field to determine touch location.
Capacitive

• Material Composition: Constructed using a layer of glass coated with a

transparent conductor like indium tin oxide.
• Touch Detection: The conductive properties of human skin alter the
screen's electrostatic field, transferring some charge to the touch point.
• Sensing Mechanics: Electrodes around the screen's perimeter measure
the disturbance in the electrical field to determine touch location.
• Coordinate Mapping: Algorithms process these measurements to
pinpoint the precise location of the touch.
Capacitive

• Material Composition: Constructed using a layer of glass coated with a

transparent conductor like indium tin oxide.
• Touch Detection: The conductive properties of human skin alter the
screen's electrostatic field, transferring some charge to the touch point.
• Sensing Mechanics: Electrodes around the screen's perimeter measure
the disturbance in the electrical field to determine touch location.
• Coordinate Mapping: Algorithms process these measurements to
pinpoint the precise location of the touch.
• Sensitivity: Generally responds to lighter touches and can support multi-
touch functionality due to the sensitivity of the capacitive method.
VR Headset
VR Headset
• Video is sent from a computer to the headset using a high-bandwidth
cable to maintain immersion and reduce latency.
VR Headset
• Video is sent from a computer to the headset using a high-bandwidth
cable to maintain immersion and reduce latency.
• Utilizes either single or dual LCD panels to deliver separate feeds for each
eye, crucial for a three-dimensional experience.
VR Headset
• Video is sent from a computer to the headset using a high-bandwidth
cable to maintain immersion and reduce latency.
• Utilizes either single or dual LCD panels to deliver separate feeds for each
eye, crucial for a three-dimensional experience.
• Precision lenses are employed for focusing and reshaping the image,
tailored for close-up viewing without eye strain.
VR Headset
• Video is sent from a computer to the headset using a high-bandwidth
cable to maintain immersion and reduce latency.
• Utilizes either single or dual LCD panels to deliver separate feeds for each
eye, crucial for a three-dimensional experience.
• Precision lenses are employed for focusing and reshaping the image,
tailored for close-up viewing without eye strain.
• Supports 60 to 120 frames per second and a 110° field of view, closely
replicating the human visual field to prevent disorientation and VR
sickness.
• Gyroscopic and accelerometer sensors are integrated to detect head
movement, ensuring real-time synchronization with visual changes,
which is vital for reducing motion sickness.
• Gyroscopic and accelerometer sensors are integrated to detect head
movement, ensuring real-time synchronization with visual changes,
which is vital for reducing motion sickness.
• Employs binaural sound to create a three-dimensional auditory
environment, enhancing realism and helping to ground users, thereby
combating potential VR sickness.
• Gyroscopic and accelerometer sensors are integrated to detect head
movement, ensuring real-time synchronization with visual changes,
which is vital for reducing motion sickness.
• Employs binaural sound to create a three-dimensional auditory
environment, enhancing realism and helping to ground users, thereby
combating potential VR sickness.
• To mitigate VR sickness, developers implement techniques such as
limiting acceleration, using teleportation for movement, and providing a
stable horizon line within the virtual environment. Comfort settings are
often adjustable to match users' individual motion tolerance levels.
Random Access Memory
Random Access Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary

Storage)
Random Access Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary

Storage)
• Data can be read and written
Random Access Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary

Storage)
• Data can be read and written
• Stores data currently being used
Random Access Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary

Storage)
• Data can be read and written
• Stores data currently being used
• Allows modifications while in
operation
Random Access Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary

Storage)
• Data can be read and written
• Stores data currently being used
• Allows modifications while in
operation
• Eg: Holds the current document
being printed, the progress of
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary

Storage)
• Data can be read and written
• Stores data currently being used
• Allows modifications while in
operation
• Eg: Holds the current document
being printed, the progress of
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary • Non-Volatile Memory

Storage) (Permanent Storage)
• Data can be read and written
• Stores data currently being used
• Allows modifications while in
operation
• Eg: Holds the current document
being printed, the progress of
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary • Non-Volatile Memory

Storage) (Permanent Storage)
• Data can be read and written • Data cannot be altered
• Stores data currently being used
• Allows modifications while in
operation
• Eg: Holds the current document
being printed, the progress of
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary • Non-Volatile Memory

Storage) (Permanent Storage)
• Data can be read and written • Data cannot be altered
• Stores data currently being used • Stores start-up instructions
• Allows modifications while in
operation
• Eg: Holds the current document
being printed, the progress of
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary • Non-Volatile Memory

Storage) (Permanent Storage)
• Data can be read and written • Data cannot be altered
• Stores data currently being used • Stores start-up instructions
• Allows modifications while in • Fixed data storage, read-only
operation
• Eg: Holds the current document
being printed, the progress of
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

• Volatile Memory (Temporary • Non-Volatile Memory

Storage) (Permanent Storage)
• Data can be read and written • Data cannot be altered
• Stores data currently being used • Stores start-up instructions
• Allows modifications while in • Fixed data storage, read-only
operation • Eg: Stores the printer's
• Eg: Holds the current document operating system, start-up
being printed, the progress of routines, and standard fonts.
printing, and temporary printer
settings like toner levels
Dynamic RAM
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
• Stores each bit as a charge in the capacitor, which leaks over time and
must be refreshed.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
• Stores each bit as a charge in the capacitor, which leaks over time and
must be refreshed.
• Consumes more power due to continuous refreshing.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
• Stores each bit as a charge in the capacitor, which leaks over time and
must be refreshed.
• Consumes more power due to continuous refreshing.
• Less expensive per bit due to a simpler cell structure.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
• Stores each bit as a charge in the capacitor, which leaks over time and
must be refreshed.
• Consumes more power due to continuous refreshing.
• Less expensive per bit due to a simpler cell structure.
• Slower access times because of the time spent refreshing.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
• Stores each bit as a charge in the capacitor, which leaks over time and
must be refreshed.
• Consumes more power due to continuous refreshing.
• Less expensive per bit due to a simpler cell structure.
• Slower access times because of the time spent refreshing.
• Greater storage capacity per chip, which makes it ideal for main system
memory.
Dynamic RAM
• Must be refreshed periodically to retain data.
• Each memory cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor.
• Stores each bit as a charge in the capacitor, which leaks over time and
must be refreshed.
• Consumes more power due to continuous refreshing.
• Less expensive per bit due to a simpler cell structure.
• Slower access times because of the time spent refreshing.
• Greater storage capacity per chip, which makes it ideal for main system
memory.
• Typically used as the main memory in systems due to cost-
effectiveness and higher storage density.
Static RAM
Static RAM
• Does not require a refresh to maintain data, which is retained as long as
power is supplied.
Static RAM
• Does not require a refresh to maintain data, which is retained as long as
power is supplied.
• Each memory cell uses several transistors, usually six, to form a more
complex circuit.
Static RAM
• Does not require a refresh to maintain data, which is retained as long as
power is supplied.
• Each memory cell uses several transistors, usually six, to form a more
complex circuit.
• Utilizes flip-flops for each bit, allowing for faster read and write access
compared to DRAM.
Static RAM
• Does not require a refresh to maintain data, which is retained as long as
power is supplied.
• Each memory cell uses several transistors, usually six, to form a more
complex circuit.
• Utilizes flip-flops for each bit, allowing for faster read and write access
compared to DRAM.
• Lower power consumption since it does not need to refresh, making it
ideal for battery-powered devices.
• More costly per bit because of the complexity and higher number of
transistors.
• More costly per bit because of the complexity and higher number of
transistors.
• Faster access times due to the absence of a refresh cycle.
• More costly per bit because of the complexity and higher number of
transistors.
• Faster access times due to the absence of a refresh cycle.
• Lower storage capacity per chip, commonly used for CPU cache where
speed is paramount.
• More costly per bit because of the complexity and higher number of
transistors.
• Faster access times due to the absence of a refresh cycle.
• Lower storage capacity per chip, commonly used for CPU cache where
speed is paramount.
• Employed in cache memory for CPUs due to its fast access speed and
power efficiency.
Programmable ROM
Programmable ROM
• Initially empty and
programmable only once.
Programmable ROM
• Initially empty and
programmable only once.
• Any writing errors render the
chip unusable; data is
permanent once written.
Programmable ROM
• Initially empty and
programmable only once.
• Any writing errors render the
chip unusable; data is
permanent once written.
• Used for tasks where the
programming is known to be
correct and will not need
updates.
Programmable ROM Electrically PROM
• Initially empty and
programmable only once.
• Any writing errors render the
chip unusable; data is
permanent once written.
• Used for tasks where the
programming is known to be
correct and will not need
updates.
Programmable ROM Electrically PROM
• Initially empty and • Initially empty and allows
programmable only once. multiple rewrites through
• Any writing errors render the electrical erasure.
chip unusable; data is
permanent once written.
• Used for tasks where the
programming is known to be
correct and will not need
updates.
Programmable ROM Electrically PROM
• Initially empty and • Initially empty and allows
programmable only once. multiple rewrites through
• Any writing errors render the electrical erasure.
chip unusable; data is • Can be erased and
permanent once written. reprogrammed in-circuit
• Used for tasks where the without removal from the
programming is known to be device.
correct and will not need
updates.
Programmable ROM Electrically PROM
• Initially empty and • Initially empty and allows
programmable only once. multiple rewrites through
• Any writing errors render the electrical erasure.
chip unusable; data is • Can be erased and
permanent once written. reprogrammed in-circuit
• Used for tasks where the without removal from the
programming is known to be device.
correct and will not need • Enables selective erasure and
updates. rewriting of data without
having to clear the entire chip.
Erasable PROM
 Erasable PROM

• Initially empty and can be

programmed and erased
multiple times.
 Erasable PROM

• Initially empty and can be

programmed and erased
multiple times.
• Data is erased using UV light,
which requires the chip to be
removed from the device.
 Erasable PROM

• Initially empty and can be

programmed and erased
multiple times.
• Data is erased using UV light,
which requires the chip to be
removed from the device.
• Entire chip must be erased
before reprogramming;
selective erasing is not
possible.
 Erasable PROM Electrically EPROM

• Initially empty and can be

programmed and erased
multiple times.
• Data is erased using UV light,
which requires the chip to be
removed from the device.
• Entire chip must be erased
before reprogramming;
selective erasing is not
possible.
 Erasable PROM Electrically EPROM

• Initially empty and can be • PROM is a write-once memory type,

programmed and erased while EPROM and EEPROM can be
multiple times. erased and reprogrammed.
• Data is erased using UV light,
which requires the chip to be
removed from the device.
• Entire chip must be erased
before reprogramming;
selective erasing is not
possible.
 Erasable PROM Electrically EPROM

• Initially empty and can be • PROM is a write-once memory type,

programmed and erased while EPROM and EEPROM can be
multiple times. erased and reprogrammed.
• Data is erased using UV light, • EPROM uses UV light for erasing,
which requires the chip to be while EEPROM uses an electrical
removed from the device. charge.
• Entire chip must be erased
before reprogramming;
selective erasing is not
possible.
 Erasable PROM Electrically EPROM

• Initially empty and can be • PROM is a write-once memory type,

programmed and erased while EPROM and EEPROM can be
multiple times. erased and reprogrammed.
• Data is erased using UV light, • EPROM uses UV light for erasing,
which requires the chip to be while EEPROM uses an electrical
removed from the device. charge.
• Entire chip must be erased • EEPROM allows for selective rewriting,
before reprogramming; providing more flexibility than
selective erasing is not EPROM, which must be entirely
possible. erased before reprogramming.
Magnetic Media
 Magnetic Media
• Surface is coated with a
magnetic material that can be
altered to represent binary
data (1s and 0s).
 Magnetic Media
• Surface is coated with a
magnetic material that can be
altered to represent binary
data (1s and 0s).
• Commonly used in hard drives,
magnetic tapes, and floppy
disks.
 Magnetic Media
• Surface is coated with a
magnetic material that can be
altered to represent binary
data (1s and 0s).
• Commonly used in hard drives,
magnetic tapes, and floppy
disks.
• Relies on the physical
properties of magnetism to
store and retrieve data
 Magnetic Media Optical Media

• Surface is coated with a

magnetic material that can be
altered to represent binary
data (1s and 0s).
• Commonly used in hard drives,
magnetic tapes, and floppy
disks.
• Relies on the physical
properties of magnetism to
store and retrieve data
 Magnetic Media Optical Media
• Features a surface coated with light-
• Surface is coated with a
sensitive material.
magnetic material that can be
altered to represent binary
data (1s and 0s).
• Commonly used in hard drives,
magnetic tapes, and floppy
disks.
• Relies on the physical
properties of magnetism to
store and retrieve data
 Magnetic Media Optical Media
• Features a surface coated with light-
• Surface is coated with a
sensitive material.
magnetic material that can be
• Data is read from and written to the
altered to represent binary
media using lasers.
data (1s and 0s).
• Commonly used in hard drives,
magnetic tapes, and floppy
disks.
• Relies on the physical
properties of magnetism to
store and retrieve data
 Magnetic Media Optical Media
• Features a surface coated with light-
• Surface is coated with a
sensitive material.
magnetic material that can be
• Data is read from and written to the
altered to represent binary
media using lasers.
data (1s and 0s).
• CDs follow a single spiral track format.
• Commonly used in hard drives,
magnetic tapes, and floppy
disks.
• Relies on the physical
properties of magnetism to
store and retrieve data
 Magnetic Media Optical Media
• Features a surface coated with light-
• Surface is coated with a
sensitive material.
magnetic material that can be
• Data is read from and written to the
altered to represent binary
media using lasers.
data (1s and 0s).
• CDs follow a single spiral track format.
• Commonly used in hard drives,
• Utilized in various formats including
magnetic tapes, and floppy
DVD-RAM, CD-R, CD-ROM, CD-RW, and
disks.
Blu-ray discs.
• Relies on the physical
properties of magnetism to
store and retrieve data
 Magnetic Media Optical Media
• Features a surface coated with light-
• Surface is coated with a
sensitive material.
magnetic material that can be
• Data is read from and written to the
altered to represent binary
media using lasers.
data (1s and 0s).
• CDs follow a single spiral track format.
• Commonly used in hard drives,
• Utilized in various formats including
magnetic tapes, and floppy
DVD-RAM, CD-R, CD-ROM, CD-RW, and
disks.
Blu-ray discs.
• Relies on the physical
• The technology is based on optical
properties of magnetism to
lasers reading variations in reflection
store and retrieve data
on the disc's surface.
Solid State Media
• Comprised of millions of tiny transistors for storing data.
Solid State Media
• Comprised of millions of tiny transistors for storing data.
• Electron movement within a microchip controls the storage
process.
Solid State Media
• Comprised of millions of tiny transistors for storing data.
• Electron movement within a microchip controls the storage
process.
• Characterized by having no moving parts, enhancing durability
and access speed.
Solid State Media
• Comprised of millions of tiny transistors for storing data.
• Electron movement within a microchip controls the storage
process.
• Characterized by having no moving parts, enhancing durability
and access speed.
• Found in devices like USB memory sticks, MP3 players, digital
cameras, and mobile phones.
Solid State Media
• Comprised of millions of tiny transistors for storing data.
• Electron movement within a microchip controls the storage
process.
• Characterized by having no moving parts, enhancing durability
and access speed.
• Found in devices like USB memory sticks, MP3 players, digital
cameras, and mobile phones.
• Offers a more compact, energy-efficient, and resistant form of
storage compared to magnetic and optical media.