CHAPTER 4

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES
absolute monarchy: \¦ab-sə-¦lüt ˈmänə(r)kē\: a form of government in which the ruling entity (king,
emperor, mayor, et al) has total control of all aspects of running the state with no hindrancefrom other
sources.

anarcho-syndicalist: a type of anarchy (see definition) in which the workers, oftentimes via unions
or collectives, seize control of the government and rule autonomously.

anarchy: \ˈa-nər-kē\ from Medieval Latin anarchia: a state or condition in which disorder occurs and no
centralized form of government exists.

aristocratic: \ə-¦ri-stə-¦kra-tik from Greek aristokratikos: a form of government in which the

power is held by the wealthy or by the nobility.

authoritarian: \ȯ-ˌthär-ə-ˈter-ē-ən\: a form of government where power is held by a single person, or

sometimes a small group of people, that were never elected by the populace and are not beholden to the
wants of the people.

autocracy: \ȯ-ˈtä-krə-sē\: a form of government wherein power is concentrated in one individual. The
power may be seized, inherited, assumed or granted by divine right.

commonwealth: \¦kä-mən-¦welth\ from Middle English: a form of government wherein a people are
united by common consent and ideals, and come together to form a politically organized state.

communism: \ˈkäm-yə-ˌni-zəm\ from French communisme: See Economic Systems.

confederacy: \kən-ˈfe-d(ə-)rə-sē\ from Late Latin confederation: a loosely formed group of sovereign
governments that join together, oftentimes for critical issues. Usually each separate independent
government sends delegates to a centralized location for important matters.

constitutional: \¦kän(t)-stə-¦t(y)ü-shnəl\: a form of government wherein the ruling body takes their
guidance from an authoritative writ or document (constitution) that details principles and laws to which
the political body must adhere.

constitutional democracy: \¦kän(t)-stə-¦t(y)ü-shnəl di-ˈmä-krə-sē\: a government for, by and of the

people based upon an agreed upon document that regulates laws, principles and, oftentimes, beliefs.

constitutional monarchy: \¦kän(t)-stə-¦t(y)ü-shnəl \ˈmänə(r)kē\: a form of monarchy in which the

duties and limitations of the ruling monarch are detailed in a constitution.

corporatocracy: a form of government wherein the power of the state is held by corporations.

demarchy: a portmanteau of ‘democracy’ and ‘anarchy’, a form of government where elected

officials are chosen not by elections but via some form of randomization.

democracy: \di-ˈmä-krə-sē\ from Greek demokratia: a form of government wherein supreme

executive power is held by the people and exercised by them directly.

democratic republic: a form of government where power is held by the people via elected officials.
These officials, however, must abide by certain rules and restrictions that ensure the majority cannot
impose their will upon the minority.

despotism: \ˈdespəˌtizəm\ from French despotism: a form of authoritarian government where the ruling
entity rules with little regard to the populace to the extent that many live in oppressive conditions.

dictatorship: a form of government where all decisions are made by a single entity, normally one that
has taken the seat of government by force and not by divine or familial inheritance.
dyarchy: \ˈdīˌärkē\: a government where two separate authorities share power over the state.

ecclesiastical: \ə̇ ˌklēzēˈastik, eˌ-, -ˈaas-, -tēk\from Greek ekklesiastikos: a form of autocratic
government wherein power is held by the Church or by one religious group.

emirate: \ə̇ ˈmirət\: a form of government wherein power rests in the hands of a single entity (emir),
usually one of divine inheritance.

epistemocracy: A form of government in which the brightest intellectuals are appointed to seats of
power to bring about a Utopian society.

ethnocracy: a form of government wherein the power is held by the dominant racial group.

exilarchy: \ˈegzəˌlärkē ˈeksəˌ-, -ˌzīˌ-, -ˌsīˌ-\a form of government wherein an exiled group, of- tentimes
religious in nature, seizes power. While not the sole reason for their existence, this government’s main
goal is usually to reclaim their homeland.

fascism: \ˈfa-ˌshi-zəm\ from Italian fascism: an authoritarian form of government where power is
centralized in a person or group of persons. It is often bound up with national and racial tenants. It is
autocratic in form with severe economic, cultural and social regimentation.

federal: \ˈfe-d(ə-)rəl\: a form of government wherein the rule is two-tiered, one centralized government
and various smaller, localized governments. Some common powers, such as taxation and defense, are
granted to both entities, but others are exclusive to one or the other.

federal republic: \ˈfe-d(ə-)rəl ri-ˈpə-blik\: a group of states, or colonies, where government is

centralized yet the individual colonies retain sovereignty. This sovereignty is ultimately held by the
citizens as they elect representatives to the federal and state governments.

feudalism: \ˈfyü-də-ˌli-zəm\: a form of government wherein power in the guise of land ownership is held by one
authority, usually a king, count, baron etc and the land and its wealth rented out to lesser powers, counts,
barons, knights, etc. It is based on the relation between lord and vassal,wherein the vassal holds the land in
fee to the lord. It includes hereditary and non-hereditary ownership, rituals of service, payments made in
goods and services, wardships and forfeitures.

gerontocracy: \ˌjerən-täkrəsē\ from French gerontocratie: a form of government where a small group of
elders control the source of power.

hydraulic despotism: a form of government that maintains its control of the state and economy
through access to water. The state is often an hierarchical system based upon caste or class.

inclusive democracy: a system of governance that includes direct democracy to override the needs
of a centralized state. The body politic uses direct democracy to decide all important decisions to include
macro-economic issues. Inclusive democracy is only feasible if the body politic is limited in size to small
communities or organizations.

kakistocracy: \ˌkakə̇ ˈstäkrəsē\ from Greek kakistos: a form of government wherein the leastqualified
people are elected to rule. Naturally, this form of government is rarely if ever experienced. Normally used
as a pejorative for an established government.

kleptocracy: \klepˈtäkrəsē\: semantically, a government where the seat of power rests with thieves.
Not an official government in and of itself but a by-product of corrupt or immoral rulers.

kratocracy: a government where power rests with the strongest, oftentimes a concurrent government
with despotism or other authoritarian form.

kritarchy: a form of government wherein the seat of power rests with a small group of judges, either
elected or appointed. The state is normally quite rigid as law is absolute.

maoism: \ˈmau̇ ˌizəm\: a form of Marxism (see definition) incident to China under the rule of Mao Tse-tung
where the peasant class replaces the workers of Marxism.
marxism: from English Marx: a form of socialism based on the principles of Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels that posits that many problems within a society are based upon conflicts of social interaction and
hierarchal ranks and thus seeks to eliminate these class ranks. It includes such tenants as the labor theory
of value, dialectical materialism, and economic conditions determine human actions and institutions.

matriarchy: a form of government wherein the seat of power rests in the hands of women, either
elected or appointed. Usually, the ruling class is not a single entity but a small group.

meritocracy: \ˌmerə-ˈtäkrəsē\: a form of government where the citizens elect those they feel are most
qualified to run certain aspects of the government based solely upon their skill. Normally, the government
has many sub-rulers (i.e. head of the military, head of the merchants, head of the church, et al).

minarchy: a form of government where the free market dictates most aspects of life and the
government reacts only for essential functions.

mobocracy: \mä-ˈbä-krə-sē\: the rule of a criminal organization, the mob. See ochlocracy for
alternatives.

monarchy: \ˈmänə(r)kē\ from Latin monarchia: a form of government wherein the ruling entity is a single
individual, normally a king or queen, usually, but not always, granted by familial inheritance.

noocracy: a theoretical form of government wherein the collective consciences of the populace rules as a
single entity.

ochlocracy: \äkˈläkrəsē\ from Greek ochlokratia: a form of government wherein groups or mobs of
citizens rule, sometimes via intimidation or fear. Oftentimes a precursor to a change in government.

oligarchy: \ˈä-lə-ˌgär-kē, ˈō-\ from Greek oligarchia: a form of government wherein a small group of
powerful people control the state, normally associated via family or an organization. Oftentimes, these
people are self-appointed and give little thought to the populace.

panarchy: a form of government that envisions a universal system of governance in which all may
participate meaningfully. Philosophical in nature, a panarchy usually exists alongside a more established
form of government. It is often used to describe global government.

parliamentary democracy: a \¦pär-lə-¦men-t(ə-)rē di-ˈmä-krə-sē\: form of democracy (see definition)

wherein the ruler is the head of the ruling party of the parliament (see parliamentary government).

parliamentary government: a form of government where multiple political parties repre- sent the
populace. The electorate votes for individual parties and the party with the majority of members
effectively rules where the minority parties present opposition as they see fit. The headof the parliament,
and thus the government, is usually referred to as the prime minister.

parliamentary monarchy: a form of monarchy (see definition) where the monarch is bound by
constitutional authority as prescribed by a parliamentary government (see definition). Normally, the prime
minister handles the day-to-day activities of running the state while the monarch has “Royal Prerogative”
to change the ruling of the prime minister. Other times, the monarch is only a figurehead and has little
power.

patriarchy: \ˈpā-trē-ˌär-kē\ from Greek patriaches: a form of government wherein the seat of power rests in
the hands of men, either elected or appointed. Usually, the ruling class is not a single entity but a small
group.

plutocracy: \plü-ˈtä-krə-sē\ from Greek ploutokratia: a form of government wherein the seat of power
is held by the wealthiest of the populace.
presidential: \¦prezə¦denchəl\ from Medieval Latin praesidentialis: a form of government wherein an
elected body, oftentimes known as a legislature, controls the legislative and judicial aspects of government
(and, at times, other aspects) but the executive is held by a single entity. This entity, known as a president,
is both the head of state and the head of the government.

rational anarchist: A rational anarchist believes that concepts such as ‘state’ and ‘society’
and ‘government’ have no existence save as physically exemplified in the acts of self-responsible
individuals. In terms of morals there is no such thing as a ‘state.’ Just men. Individuals. Each
responsible for his own acts. The rational anarchist is free, no matter what rules surround them. If they
find them tolerable, they tolerate them; if they find them too obnoxious, they break them.

republic: \ri-ˈpə-blik\ from Latin respublica: a form of government wherein the populace elects
representatives to a collective body and invests that body with the power and authority of the state. The
representatives conduct the affairs of the state as they deem are in the best interests of the people.

socialism: \ˈsō-shə-ˌli-zəm\: see Economic Systems.

squirearchy: \ˈskwī(ə)ˌrärkē\: a system of government wherein the power of the state is vested in the
landed gentry.

stratocracy: \strəˈtäkrəsē\ from Greek stratos: a form of government wherein the military holds the seat
of power.

sultanate: \ˈsəltənət\ from French: a form of government wherein power rests in the hands of a single
entity (sultane), usually one of divine inheritance.

theocracy: \thē-ˈä-krə-sē\ from Greek theokratia: a form of government wherein the seat of power is held by a
deity via a church-appointed entity, be that a single individual or group. Different from an ecclesiastical
form of government in the sense that a theocracy is thought to be run by thedeity while an ecclesiastical
government is run by the deities’ representatives.

timocracy: \tīˈmäkrəsē\ from Greek timokratia: a form of government wherein a hierarchical form of
power exists based upon the amount of property owned by the populace with the owners of expansive
property holding the seat of power.

totalitarian: \(ˌ)tō-¦ta-lə-¦ter-ē-ən\: a form of government where all government and economic power is
centralized and dominated by a single entity, or small group, that demands subserviencefrom the populace
while caring little for their welfare.

tyranny: \ˈtir-ə-nē\ from Latin tyrannus: a form of government where all power rests in the hands of a single
individual, usually one that has taken the power by force. A tyrannical government is often characterized
by oppressive and horrendous living conditions of the citizens and a callous and malevolent ruler.

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
anarcho-capitalism: a theory that argues that individual sovereignty, private property and a free
market economy can completely replace the state. The theory posits that society would improve through
the rigorous demands and discipline of the free market.

anarcho-communism: a theory that advocates the total elimination of the state as well as wage
labor, private property and all forms of capitalism in favor of common ownership of all means of
production, the by-products of it and the means of distribution. The common ownership would be
managed by various worker associations, unions and committees.

anarcho-syndicalism: a theory that the state uses the wage system as a form of wage slavery and
that regardless of the original intent in a state’s design or composition it always exists to preserve power
in itself. Anarch-syndicalists believe that all means of distribution and production should be replaced by a
form of direct action and worker-self activity centered on meeting human needs.
anarcho-socialism: a belief that private property (separate from personal property) should be
converted into community property. It attempts to wed the concept of individuality and community while
avoiding the totalitarian nature of collective conformity. The term is often used as an umbrella term that can
include anarcho-communism and mutualism.

capitalism: \ˈka-pə-tə-ˌli-zəm\: a theory of economics whereby the means of production and

distribution is held privately and operated for a profit. The hallmarks of capitalism are private property,
wage labor, a voluntary system of exchange of goods and services, pricing systems in competitive
markets, and capital accumulation. All direction is supplied by the owners of the means of production and
capital.

command: see planned economy.

communism: \ˈkäm-yə-ˌni-zəm\ from French: an economic system whereby the means of production and
distribution is owned collectively and where labor is organized for the common good of all members of
the community. Communism calls for the dissolution of wage labor, private property and all forms of
capitalism.

georgism: a theory of land management where the value of the land, its resources and the opportunities
it presents are shared equally by the community, however people only own the value that they create
themselves. Taxes are levied on land and its relative value (the land value tax). The theory posits that taxes
on land and its value can replace taxes on labor and investment and therefore does not impact efficiency or
growth.

libertarian communism: see anarcho-communism.

libertarian socialism: a form of socialism that rejects the concept of a centralized state. The
emphasis lies upon workers’ self-management of the workplace and a management of political and
economic organizations to citizen’s assemblies, and/or trade unions, and worker’s councils. By
maintaining control of the means of production and distribution through the worker’ council the libertarian
socialist believes that they can attain greater freedom and equality for all.

manorialism: \-ēəˌlizəm\: a system where economic power is vested in a property holder, calledthe Lord of a
Manor, who is supported by people who live on the property and fall under the Lord’s governance.

market economy: an economy where the means of production and distribution as well as invest-
ment, wages, ownership and other economic decisions are determined by supply and demand and the
prices of goods and services. The market economy stands in contrast to the planned economy. Market
economies include economic models such as capitalism and social market economies.

market, free: an economic system where the amount of goods, the price of goods and the availability
of the goods themselves is determined by the vendors and consumers, where the law of supply and
demand regulates trade without interference from the government.

mercantilism: an economic model that promotes government regulation of a nation’s economy so

that it benefits the state itself, usually at the expense of other nation states. Trade stands as a cornerstone of
mercantilism as the state attempts to negotiate trade deals that are advantageous to itself to the detriment
of others. This allows positive balance of trade and the ability to create monetary reserves. It includes such
facets as controlling markets with staple ports, subsidies to increase exports, banning export of gold and
silver, and forbidding foreign ships from carrying certain commodities.

mixed: an economic system that has qualities of a free market system but with varying degrees of
oversight from the government, to include vendors and consumers made up of the government itself. It
includes a wide variety of economic theories: the American School, Dirigisme, Nordic Model, Progressive
Utilization Theory, State Capitalism, etc
mutualism: \ˈmyüch(ə)wəˌlizəm\: a theory that allows private property and land ownership, butonly so long as
the land is being used productively. At any point that that land’s productivity drops off, ownership
would pass to another and the land homesteaded. It is also referred to as an occupancy-and-use ownership
economic model.

network economy: an economic model created online through the advent of social networks. These
involve products and services created for and value added to them by the social networks that they serve.
It is based on digital and information infrastructure and intellectual property rights. The rapid transit of
information, services, allows for a decentralized economic model.

non-property system: a fictional economic model that holds that there are no property rights for
any individual, group, state or structure of any kind. The community shares both the means of production
and distribution as well as resource management. All decisions concerning the economy are arrived at by
common agreement. This theory first appeared in several books referred to as the Culture Series by Iain
M. Banks.

fascist socialization: a model promoted by the Italian Republican Fascist Party in 1943 that called
for handing over uncultivated land to poor farmers, shift key industries over to state control, and institute
profit sharing in private industry. They were meant to find common ground between capitalism and
socialism.

palace economy: whereby the majority of a region or states’ wealth is funneled through a
central governing body, the palace. The wealth is then redistributed to the populace where it is dealt with
individually, however, it relies heavily on the redistribution model, for the good or ill of the populace.

participatory economy: Aform of decentralized economic decision making where those affected by
the manufacturing or distribution of a resource are involved in decisions that concern its production and
maintenance. It relies on workers’ self-management. Also called parecon.

pastoralism: \ˈpast(ə)rəˌlizəm\: an economic and social arrangement based upon herding as the
primary activity.

planned economy: an economic system where means of manufacture and distribution is determined
by a central body.

potlatch: a form of gift-giving to establish dominance. A tribal system that involves chieftains who are
required to give away or destroy more gifts than other chieftains. The one is often challenged and if they
unable to do give away more they lose face. The gift giving was a large part of the tribal culture and often
involved religious dances, ceremonies, sacred societies and more.

progressive utilization theory: a theory that envisions an economic model based on self-
sufficiency for the poor, limits on the accumulation of wealth and an economic democracy that supports
small business. It is characterized by the “small but beautiful” approach to economic decision
making.

proprietism: this economic model theorizes that there are an ever-growing number of sole-
proprietorships (specifically in the United States of America) and that these are forcing a decentralized
economic model. In the proprietatis approach people are working with and for themselves and thereby
rearranging the traditional capitalist approach to the manufacture of and distribution of goods and services.

social credit: a model that espouses that the needs and desires of consumers should drive the
production in an economy. Individuals in a society should have the benefits of the communal wealth
through price controls and management, not through redistribution. In other words, wealth is not
distributed by payments, but by price management. This increases the purchasing power of the earnings
that individuals do bring home. This in turn establishes the production of any good or service. Industry is
controlled not by a central state or work-management, but rather through control of credit.
socialism: \ˈsō-shə-ˌli-zəm\: a philosophical belief that states that ownership of goods, as wellas the means
of production and distributions of all goods, are shared by all individuals of the state. While a diverse and
broad belief with various individual sects, the belief of social ownership is held through all forms of
socialism.

social market economy: an economic model where the market is left to determine the nature of
the supply and demand the prices of goods and services, however, it is regulated by a centralized body in
order to dampen the negative effects of competition, concentration of power, etc.

syndicalism: a form of socialism where the various industries are formed into syndicates. The
industries themselves are turned over to those who work in them. Specialists from each syndicate work
with each other in managing the economy.

traditional: an economic system wherein goods are produced according to traditional beliefs and
customs and monetary concerns mean little. Characterized by trading and bartering among the people.
Used by less civilized, mainly agrarian or tribal cultures.

worker self-management: an economic model that requires workers to organize the man-
agement and direction of a particular industry.

RELIGION
agnosticism: \ag-ˈnä-stə-ˌsi-zəm, əg-\ to believe that the existence of god(s) cannot be determined.

ancestor worship: to honor or make sacred those deceased members of a community in a religious
sense. Oftentimes, to believe that these honored dead bestowed powers or blessings upon those that held
them in honored positions.

animism: \ˈa-nə-ˌmi-zəm\ from Latin anima soul + Germanismus: to believe that inanimate items, as well
as plants and animals, possess spirits that concern themselves with human affairs,be it for malevolence or
benevolence

atheism: \ˈā-thē-ˌi-zəm\ from Greek atheos: a broad-based theory of religion that basically states that
gods do not exist

deism: \ˈdēˌizəm\ from Latin deus god + French -isme: a belief that states that a god or gods cre- ated
the world and its inhabitants, but that they rarely interact with their creations, allowing them to live
without interference from a supreme deity.

dualism: \ˈd(y)üəˌlizəm, -u̇ ə-\ from Latin dualis + French -isme: a belief that states all knownexistence is
under the dominion of two opposing forces, normally good and evil, and that the in- habitants are pawns in
this larger struggle.

henotheism: German henotheismus: to believe that many gods possibly exist but focusing upon a
single god for worship.

gnosticism: \ˈnä-stə-ˌsi-zəm\: the belief that states the universe was made from a lesser god, either good or
evil, (sometimes referred to as the demiurge) and that the supreme god is too far removed from the
inhabitants to interact, or even care.

monotheism: the belief that states there is only one god

nature religion: a type of religion that believes that a single, human-like god does not exist but that the
natural world is the tangible presence of a supreme creator.

non-theism: to believe that god, in some form, does indeed exist but that either this god no longer
cares for the creation or that the individual is apathetic to this god’s existence.
panentheism: \paˈnen(t)thēˌizəm\ from pan- + Greek en in + German theismus: the belief thatgod can
exist in all things at all times and is not a single entity. Panentheism and pantheism differ in that
panentheism differs between those things that are divine and those things that are not while pantheism
labels all things with some level of divinity.

pantheism: \ˈpan(t)-thē-ˌi-zəm\ from English pantheist + French -isme: the belief that god and the universe
are identical and that this god exists in all things simultaneously and that a humanlikegod does not exist.
Panentheism and pantheism are contrasted by the belief that panentheism differs between those things that
are divine and those things that are not while pantheism labels all things with some level of divinity.

pantheon: \ˈpan(t)-thē-ˌän, -ən\ Middle English Panteon: the collection of all known gods in a
polytheistic (see definition) culture.

polytheism: \ˈpä-lē-(ˌ)thē-ˌizəm\ from Late Greek polytheos: the belief that multiple gods exist and
that these gods hold sway over different aspects of human life.

reincarnation: a belief of many religions that states that the souls of the dead do not rest in an afterlife
but instead are brought back into existence in another material form.

revealed religion: a type of religion in which god reveals his presence and reason for worshiping him by
ways that would otherwise be impossible to ascertain by his worshipers.

salvation religion: a religious belief that states humans (or the human soul) exists in a state
unpleasing to god and only by admitting belief and asking to be saved from this unpleasing state can a
worshiper find acceptance by god.

syncretism: \ˈsiŋ-krə-ˌti-zəm, ˈsin-\ from Greek synkrētismos: a religious practice where multiple
faiths are blended into a single faith with aspects of all contributing faiths being repre- sented to a certain
degree.

theism: \ˈthē-ˌi-zəm\: a religious belief wherein god created the universe and actively interacts with his
followers (and non-followers).

tribal religion: a religion held by a small group of people, inherent to the group. Normally animism or
nature religion with various notions added.

MILITARY ORGANIZATION
UNIT ORGANIZATION
airborne: \ˈer-ˌbȯrn\: light infantry who are specially trained to deploy via a parachute. They are
frequently dropped behind enemy lines as airborne troops are generally used to disrupt and
enemy’s communications, lines of supply and retard their ability to send reinforcements forward.

air mobile: Compound: light infantry who are specially trained to deploy via helicopters. Like airborne
troops they are used to deploy behind enemy lines or in regions where the battle lines are very
fluid, or in difficult terrain for direct contact with the enemy, as an interdiction force or to disrupt
enemy communications, lines of supply and retard their ability to send reinforcements forward. Air mobile
troops often have ready access to direct air support from attack helicopters.

armor: \ˈär-mər\ from Old French: the branch of a military that consists of mechanized artillery and
tanks. Armor units are very mobile and carry a great deal of fire power. Armor often operates as
independent units as shock or break through troops. Armor can serve in a support role to the infantry.
artillery: \är-ˈti-lər-ē\ from Old French artillier: the branch of a military that consists of artillery forces that
is involved in discharging missiles, whether slings, bows, catapults or more modern cannon and howitzers.
Their assigned missions include close combat support, counter battery fire, interdiction, fire placed on
the enemy’s rear areas to disrupt communications, supply and reinforcements.

artillery, field: artillery designed to fire directly into visible enemy forces.

artillery, horse: artillery whose crew and ordinance were carried onto the battlefield by horses.

artillery, mobile: artillery whose gun is mounted on a truck or tank chassis.

artillery, siege: heavy artillery that is used to attack entrenched enemy forces, castles, forts and the
like.

cavalry: \ˈka-vəl-rē\ from Italian cavalleria: \ˈka-vəl-rē\ from Italian cavalleria: the branch of a military
that consists of mounted troopers, either on horseback or in vehicles.

guerrilla troops: \gə-ˈri-lə\ from Spanish guerrilla: irregular combatants composed of trained and
untrained units who generally engage in irregular warfare during a regular war. The guerrilla troop ranges
wildly from direct attacks on the enemy regular units to predacious attacks on civilian populations.

infantry: \ˈinfən-trē, -ri\ (from Latin infant-: the branch of a military that consists of ground troops that
primarily fight and engage on foot, as opposed to vehicles or horseback.

infantry, light: Compound: the branch of the military that consists of infantry not trained to fight in
line combat formation. In modern terms, it refers to infantry who can operate with front line units, but are
trained to operate on their own, without close in support of artillery, other infantry units and armor units.

mechanized infantry: Compound: infantry that deploys to their area of operation mounted on
vehicles. Mechanized infantry often has light tanks and armored fighting vehicles attached or assigned to
them.

militia: \mə-ˈli-shə\ from Latin milit-: a non-professional army composed of citizens of a state, regionor area.
The militia can be called upon to serve alongside regular troops or to fight on its own.

paramilitary: \¦parə+ˈmi-lə-ˌter-ē\: units who are organized along military lines but are poorly trained and
often poorly equipped. They are often civilian forces.

paratroop: \ˈparə+ˈtrüp\ from Old English throp: light infantry that deploys to the area of operations
by parachute. See Air Mobile.

ranger: \ˈrān-jər\ from Middle English: highly trained infantry whose primary task is to disrupt the enemy
behind enemy lines through direct action.

reconnaissance: \ri-ˈkä-nə-zən(t)s\ from Middle French: light infantry, often trained to operate in
small units without support from other branches whose purpose is to scout and gathering intelligence
about placement of enemy forces.

skirmisher: \-shə(r)\: light infantry that generally advance before attacking formations in order to
probe or draw out the enemy.

special forces: Compound: light infantry trained to operate behind enemy lines in small groups for the
purpose of gathering intelligence, organizing indigenous forces, interdiction, disrupting supply and enemy
communications.
ANCIENT GREEk UNITS
Table 4.1 Greek Phalanx Legion
Unit Composition
First Rank 1000 Psiloi (Skirmishers)
Second Rank 4000 Hoplites (Infantry)
Third Rank 2000 Light Infantry
Cavalry Varied
cataphract: \ˈkatəˌfrakt\ from Greek kataphraktēs a heavily armored horse and rider.

enomotia: a standard unit formation, roughly equivalent to a modern-day company. The enomotia
consisted of 2-4 Files or Stichos.

lochos: the lochos was made up of several enomotia, creating a hoplite formation of up to 500 men,
depending on the size of the city-state in question. This was the backbone of the Greek Phalanx.

phalanx: \ˈfā-ˌlaŋks, Britain usually ˈfa-\ from Greek: a battle formation consisting of group of soldiers, usually
heavily armored and bearing shields, with pikes as their main weapon, that advance in close, tight ranks
making it difficult to attack. The phalanx was the standard formation in ancient Greek warfare.

stichos: the smallest unit of the ancient Greek army. The stichos, or file, consisted of 8-16 hoplites.

taxis: the largest of the Greek combat formations was the taxis, consisting of several lochos creating a unit
up to 1500 men. The lochos was commanded by a strategos. The Spartans referred to the Taxis as the
Mora.

ROMAN UNITS
Table 4.2 The Roman Legion
Unit Composition
Legion 10 Cohorts
Prima Cohort 5 Double Centries
2nd-10th Cohort 6 Centuries
Century 10 Contubernia
Contubernia 8 Men

ala: \ˈā-lə\ from Latin: a conscripted, oftentimes foreign, military unit consisting of approximately 5000
men.

auxilia: these were auxiliary troops used to support the legion. They generally consisted of allied troops.
The auxilia served the Legion and Roman army in a variety of ways, either as engineers, craftsmen,
pioneers, scouts, archers, etc.

centuria: \ˈsen-ch(ə-)rē, -ri\ Latin centuria: the backbone of the cohort. Each centuria consisted of 60 soldiers in
the pre-Marian reform era, and 80 soldiers afterwards. At that time, there were 10 contubernium in each
Legion. The centuria was commanded by a Centurian.

cohort: \ˈkō-ˌhȯrt\ from Latin cohort: a military unit from ancient Rome, post Marius reforms,
consisting of approximately 480 men (six groups, centurias, of 80 each).
contubernia: the smallest unit in the Roman infantry, the contubernia consisted of 8 solders. The men
in the contubernia were called the contubernales.

equites: the Roman cavalry. This unit consisted of wealthy Romans who could afford horses and the
accompanying gear. The cavalry were generally armed with armor, shield, helm, sword and lances. There
were roughly 300 cavalrymen with any one Legion. The equites were broken up into 30, 10 men turmae.

hastati: raw or new recruits to the pre-Marian Legion. The hastati consisted of the first lines of the
Legion. They were put in front in order to hold them in place, as more experience soldiers behind them,
would keep them from running and to preserve the combat strength of the experience troops behind them,
the principes and triarii. A century of hastati consisted of 60 soldiers.

legion: \ˈlē-jən\ from Latin legion: a group of soldiers of varying size (although normally between 1000 and
5000) that are often heavily armed and armored. Oftentimes used as the front or facing line of a battle.
The Legion changed over time, however it’s basic components were the equites (cavalry), velites
(light infantry), and the heavy infantry which consisted of the hastati, principes, and triarii. The heavy
infantry was divided into maniples. The composition of the Legion changedunder the Consul Marius
(represented in the Table above) consisting of 10 cohorts with supportingcavalry and light infantry.

maniples: the primary formation of soldiers prior to the Marian reforms. A maniple consisted of two
centuries, 60 men each, of 120 men. The maniple was commanded by a centurian, always the senior of the
two on hand. There were generally 10 maniples in each of the three lines of the legion: hastati, principes,
and trairii.

principes: the second line of soldiers in the pre-Marian Legion. The principes were the primary
fighting force, consisting of experienced soldiers, far less likely to break under pressure. They were placed
behind the hastati to help bolster their morale and keep them from fleeing the battlefield. They were
generally better armed than the hastati. A century of principes consisted of 60 soldiers.

speculators: lightly mounted and armed mounted infantry that service as scouts.

triarii: the third line of soldiers in the pre-Marian Legion. The triarii were armed with long spears and
were used to bolster the first and second ranks, stop them from fleeing in the case of a retreat and to
discourage any pursuit in a retreat. A century of triarii consisted of 30 soldiers.

turmae: the basic unit of the equites. A turmae consisted of 30 cavalrymen.

MEDIEVAL UNITS
archers: a unit of lightly armored troops that bore bows or crossbows into battle.

armati: lightly armed and poorly equipped cavalry. They were not knights and squires.

battle: \ˈba-təl\ from Old French bataille: a distinctive unit or division of a medieval army. It also refers
to the main body of the army, as opposed to scouts, vanguard or rear guard.

bill-men: Compound: troops armed with pole arms. These men fought in loosely organized battles
(the formation).

gynours: those troops who operated siege equipment.

hobilers: cavalry who rode smaller horse than the knights. They were lightly or poorly armed and
armored.

knight, bachelor: Compound: a knight who bore his pennon on the field. The bachelor knight was
the lesser of the two knights deployed in a feudal formation. These were well equipped and fought with the
best weaponry and armor. The bachelor, like the knight in general, was highly trained.
knight, banneret: a knight who had both his banner and a pennon in the field. These were well
equipped and fought with the best weaponry and armor. The banneret, like the knight in general, was
highly trained.

paviser: either a troop were lightly armed troops that fought on foot or mounted. They also consisted of
men with large shields who stood in front of crossbowmen to protect them.

MODERN UNITS
Table 4.3 US Civil War Cavalry Corps
Unit Composition
Corps 2+ Divisions
Division 2+ Brigades
Brigade 2+ Regiments
Regiment 2+ Battalions
Battalion 2 Squadrons
Squadron 2 Troops
Troop 2 Platoons
Table 4.4 US Army Field Army
Unit Composition
Field Army 2 Corps
Corps 2-5 Divisions
Division 3 Brigades
Battalion 3-5 Companies
Company 3-4 Squads
Squad 2 Rifle Teams
Table 4.5 US Army Aviation Group Vietnam
Unit Composition
Group 3+ Battalions
Battalion 3 Companies
Company 3 Platoons (1 gun/2 lift)
Platoon 10 Aircraft
Aircraft 4 Crewmembers
Table 4.6 US Army Air Cav Regiment Vietnam*
Unit Composition
Regiment 2-5 Battalions
Battalion 2-5 Companies
Company 3 Troops
Troop 10 Aircraft
Aircraft 4 Crewmembers
*In Vietnam Aviation Units were organized into regiments and attached to an Infantry Division.

army: \ˈär-mē\ Middle English armee: a broad definition that normally encapsulates a kingdom’s
ground-based military.
battalion: \bə-ˈtal-yən\ from Middle French batalion a group of soldiers numbering 250-750men.
Smaller than a brigade, larger than a company. A tactical unit that consists of a headquartersand two or
more companies.

brigade: \bri-ˈgād\ from Old Italian brigata: a group of soldiers numbering 2000-4000 men. Smaller
than a division, larger than a battalion.

cavalry: \ˈka-vəl-rē, ÷ˈkal-və-rē\ from Late Latin caballarius: a group of soldiers of any size thatfight on
horseback or, in modern settings, from armored vehicles.

cavalry squadron: \ˈka-vəl-rē, ÷ˈkal-və-rē\ \ˈskwädrən also -wȯd-\ from Italian squadrone: a cavalry
unit that is larger than a troop but smaller than a regiment.

company: \ˈkəmp-nē, ˈkəm-pə-\ from Late Latin companio: a group of soldiers numbering 80-150 men.
Smaller than a battalion, larger than a platoon.

corps: \ˈkȯr\ from Latin corpus: a group of soldiers numbering 20,000-40,000 men. Smaller than a field
army, larger than a division.

division: \də -̇ ˈvizhən\ from Latin division: a group of soldiers numbering 10,000-15,000 men. Smaller than a
corps, larger than a brigade.

platoon: \pləˈtün, plaˈ-\ French peloton: a group of soldiers numbering 15-30 men. Smaller than a
company, larger than a squad.

regiment: \ˈre-jə-mənt, ˈrej-mənt\ from Late Latin regimentum: a brigade (see definition): a body
of soldiers associated with Cavalry units (to include Aviation Units) often commanded by a Colonel.

squad: \ˈskwäd also -wȯd\ Middle French esquade: a group of soldiers numbering 8-12 men. Smaller
than a platoon. While some militaries have smaller organizations, a squad is oftentimes the smallest group
found.

squadron: \ˈskwädrən also -wȯd-\ Italian squadrone: a cavalry unit larger than a troop but smaller than a
regiment.

NAVAL ORGANIZATION
Table 4.7 Naval Fleet
Unit Composition
Navy 2+ Fleets
Battle Fleet/Task Force 2+ Task Groups
Squadron A small number of vessels
Task Element One Ship

battle fleet: a naval unit smaller than a Fleet but larger than a Task Group. It is also referred to as a
Task Force consists of 2 or more Task Groups made up a wide variety of vessels. The Battle Fleet is
generally commanded by a Vice Admiral.

fleet: \ˈflēt\ from Old English flēotan: the largest formation of a group of naval vessels. Also, all vessels in an
ocean or a region. A fleet generally consists of 2 or more Battle Fleets or Task Forcesand is generally
commanded by an Admiral or Vice Admiral.

flotilla: a naval unit smaller than a Squadron or Task Unit but larger than a Task Element. The Flotilla
consists of a small number of vessels generally of the same type. It is commanded by a Rear Admiral,
Commodore or Fleet Admiral.
navy: \ˈnāvē, -vi\ from Latin navigia: a broad definition that normally encapsulates a sea-based military of a
state, kingdom, or other organized group. A Fleet is commanded by a Fleet Admiral or Grand Admiral.

squadron: \ˈskwädrən also -wȯd-\ Italian squadrone: a naval unit smaller than a Task Groupbut larger
than a Flotilla. It is also referred to as a Task Unit. The Squadron consists of a small number of vessels
generally of different types. It is commanded by a Rear Admiral, Commodore or Fleet Admiral.

task element: the smallest of naval units. The Task Element consists of a single vessel. It is
commanded by a Captain or Commander.

task force: a naval unit smaller than a Fleet but larger than a Task Group. It is also referred to as a
Battle Fleet. The Task Force consists of a 2 or more Task Groups. It is generally commanded by a Vice
Admiral.

task group: a naval unit smaller than a Battle Fleet or Task Force but larger than a Squadron. The Task
Group consists of a 2 or more Task Units or Squadrons. It is commanded by a Rear Admiral.

task unit: a naval unit smaller than a Task Group but larger than a Flotilla. It is also referred to as a
Squadron. The Task Unit consists of a small number of vessels generally of different types. It is
commanded by a Rear Admiral, Commodore or Fleet Admiral.

AIR FORCE ORGANIZATION

Table 4.8 Air Force
Unit Composition
Air Force All Major Commands
Tactical Air Force By Region or Mission
Numbered Air Force 2+ Wings
Wing 2+ Groups
Group 3-4 Squadrons with 17-48 Aircraft
Squadron 3-4 Flights with 7-16 Aircraft
Flight 2 Sections with 4-6 Aircraft
Element/Section None-2 Aircraft
Detail None

air force: a military force whose primary mission is to achieve command of the air through aerial
warfare, which includes air to air, air to sea and air to ground combat. As a command unit, the air force
includes all the air commands of an organization’s aircraft and the support units, ground and otherwise,
needed to conduct military aerial operations.

detail: \də̇ -ˈtāl\ from French: an aviation unit, or sub-unit of 2-4 ground personnel who generallyhave a
specific appointed mission.

element: \ˈeləmənt\ from Middle English: an aviation unit with 6-20 ground personnel, usually in support
of a particular missions such as refueling or maintenance, or in direct support of 2 aircraft.

flight: from Old English fleogan: an aviation unit that consists of 4-6 aircraft, the flight crew and the
ground staff needed to support them. A flight has on average 20-100 personnel. The Flight is larger than
an Element or Section but smaller than a Squadron.

fighter group: refers to a Group of fighter aircraft.

group: \ˈgrüp\ from French groupe: an aviation unit that consists of 17-48 aircraft, the flight crew
and the ground staff needed to support them. A flight has on average 300-1000 personnel. The Group is
larger than a Squadron but smaller than a Wing, usually composed of 3-4 Squadrons.

numbered air force: an aviation unit that consists of the aircraft, the flight crew and the ground
staff needed to support them. A Numbered Air Force’s composition depends entirely on its mission,
some are very small, while others are very large. The Numbered Air Foce is larger than a Wing but smaller
than a Tactical Air Force, and usually composed of 2 or more Groups.

section: \ˈsekshən\ from Latin section-: an aviation unit with 6-20 ground personnel, usually in support of
a particular missions such as refueling or maintenance, or in direct support of 2 aircraft.

squadron: \ˈskwädrən\ from Italian squadron: an aviation unit that consists of 7-16 aircraft, the flight
crew and the ground staff needed to support them. A flight has on average 100-300 personnel. The
Squadron is larger than a Flight but smaller than a Group, and usually composed of 3-4 Flights.

tactical air force: an aviation command unit that commands a region or has a particular duty tasked
to it. The Tactical Air Force is general larger than a Numbered Air Force but smaller than the
organizations Air Force.

wing: \ˈwiŋ\ from Middle English winge: an aviation unit that consists of 48-100 aircraft, the flight crew and
the ground staff needed to support them. A flight has on average 1000-5000 personnel.The Wing is larger
than a Group but smaller than a Numbered Air Force, and usually composed of 2 or more Groups.

WARFARE
The following terms are used for large and small scale battlefields. They are divided into general, air,
naval and ground combat.

AIR MILITARY TERMINOLOGY

air interdiction: Compound: the practice of striking enemy ground units that are far removed from
friendly units. It does not directly support ground operations but is designed to disrupt supply lines,
communications, reinforcements, retard industrial targets, and transportation lines.

carpet bombing: Compound: the practice of dropping large numbers of bombs in a small area,
saturating it with the intention of concentrating the fire power of the bomb run. Its purpose to cover the
ground like a carpet.

combat box: Compound: a bomber formation that called for 12 aircraft to fly in four vic formations, one
forward, one rearward and two echeloned off the lead and rear elements. The box allowed for massing
machine gun fire to drive off attacking aircraft and more coordinated bombing.

echelon formation: Compound: whereby attack aircraft are arranged diagonally from the lead. There
is both a left echelon where the attack aircraft are arranged to the left of the lead and a right echelon where
the attack aircraft are arranged to the right.

finger-four: Compound: an attack formation consisting for four aircraft that fly in a pattern similar to
the right human hand (minus the thumb). The flight leader, or lead aircraft is supported by the flight
wingman (stationed in echelon to his left). Both are supported by the element leader (stationed in echelon
to the flight leader’s immediate right and equal to the flight wingman) and the element wingman
stationed in echelon to the element leader. The flight leader and element leader have offensive roles and
the wingman and element wingman defensive roles.

vic formation: Compound: a formation that calls for the lead aircraft to take point and other craft to be
stationed in echelon to the right or left. The vic formation allows close communication and rapid, whole
unit reaction to enemy attacks. It generally consists of three aircraft, but can consist of more. It was first
developed in World War I.
NAVAL MILITARY TERMINOLOGY
boarding: \ˈbȯr-diŋ\: the practice of coming alongside an enemy vessel and entering it through lowered
planks, ropes or by ramming the ship and crossing over. The idea is to disable the crew of the ship and
capture or sink it.

corva: a tactical device developed by the Romans where by a spiked plank was dropped upon an
enemy vessel’s prow to prevent it from ramming and to allow legionnaires to board the opposing ship.

echelon formation: Compound: whereby ships are arranged diagonally from the lead. There is both
a left echelon where the ships are arranged to the left of the lead and a right echelon where the shipsare
arranged to the right.

plunging fire: Compound: where shellfire is aimed high in order to fall upon an enemy ship from
above, generally to strike the lightly armored decks.

raking fire: Compound: where a sailing vessel delivers its fire to the long axis of an enemy ship,
whether astern or ahead. This fire allows the individual balls to crash through the ship long wise, doing
more damage.

ramming: where one ship rams the other with the intent of holding it place so that it can be boarded or
more commonly to sink it. Ships were often equipped with special rams on the prow of the ship designed
to penetrate and enemy vessel and often break off, in order to breach its hull and sink it.

GROUND MANEUVERS, GENERAL

area of operations: Compound: the area of designated by a force commander within which combat
and non-combat activities take place. Also, known as AO.

avenue of approach: Compound: the area or path that an approaching enemy is most likely to use.

defensive fighting position: an area of a battlefield where a soldier, or a unit of any size, takes up
to defend. A defensive fighting position can be as small as a foxhole. Also, referred to as a DFP.

defilade: a unit that uses obstacles, natural or manmade, to protect itself against an attacking
force’s enfilade fire, plunging fire, or reverse fire. See enfilade.

enfilade: from French: the ability of an attacking force to use the fire from its longest line of axis,
generally, its front.

field of view: Compound: an area of the battlefield that is under direct observation.

field of fire: Compound: an area of the battlefield that can be protected by direct fire from a specific
location.

flank: \ˈflaŋk\: from Middle English: a military formation’s side. There are right and left flank.

flank, open: Compound: see flank, unsecured.

flank, unsecured: Compound: a flank that is not covered by a friendly unit or terrain.

hard cover: Compound: an area of the battlefield that provides a protected zone from enemy fire,
such as a building, tree, trench.

kill zone: Compound: an area of the battlefield that has been selected to strike the approaching enemy
with maximum force, often along an avenue of approach.
landing zone: Compound: an area of the battlefield that is either an open area or that has been cleared
by friendly forces to allow aircraft to land and take off, or airborne troops to parachute into, or air mobile
troops to repel or drop off into.

safe zone: Compound: an area that has been chose and often is reinforced to allow for maxi- mum
safety on or near a battlefield. It is often the rally point for troops, an area to collect wounded, give cover
to civilians, etc.

salvo: \ˈsal-(ˌ)vō\ from Italian salva: a simultaneous discharge of two or more guns, particularly in
reference to artillery.

single file: Compound: a marching formation whereby soldiers move in a line one behind the other.
Spacing of the line may be very tight or may be very wide.

soft cover: Compound: an area of the battlefield that offers only concealment, such as foliage, ground
smoke, etc.

TACTICAL UNIT FORMATION

armored spearhead: Compound: a formation of armored vehicles, generally tanks, that make up the
front line, offensive thrust of an attacking force. The object being to dislodge or shatter an enemy force
before it can counter-attack. The armored spearhead requires a concentration of armored force. The
flanking units that follow are usually infantry or mechanized infantry who fill in the gaps left in the
enemy formation as the spearhead continues forward. The flanks are necessarily weaker than the
spearhead.

column: \ˈkä-ləm\ from Middle French colomne: a formation in which a unit or army marches together
wherein the length is significantly longer than the width. A column generally consists of a vanguard,
main body and rearguard. Other units such as skirmishers or flanking units are often considered part of the
column.

echelon: \ˈeshəˌlän\ from Old French eschelon: the arrangement of troops where units are sta- tioned to the
left or right of the rearmost unit. Echeloned units may overlap.

file: \ˈfī(-ə)l\ from Old English: where soldiers are drawn up in a line, one after another. A column consists of
two or more files. See also rank.

flying wedge: Compound: a force deploys itself in a wedge, or a V formation. It is used to penetrate
an enemy, allowing for rapid reinforcements to units at the front of the wedge itself. Furthermore, it
allows a heavy concentration of missile weapons against a limited portion of the defending force. This
concentration helps to weaken an enemy where the wedge strikes, allowing them to break the enemy force
up quicker. It has been used in ancient as well as modern times.

herringbone: a small unit formation where the squad leader faces forward but the following troops
face to the left and right. The final member of the squad faces rearward.

line: \ˈlīn\ from Old English lin: a formation where soldiers are placed in horizontal lines, one after the other.
The line was key to Greek phalanxes, shield walls, medieval battles (see definition) and in 17th and 18th
century armies. The line allowed for maximum pressure on the enemy formations.

main: \ˈmān\ from Old English maegen: the central body of a marching column as opposed to skirmishers,
flanking units, scouts, the rearguard and vanguard. See battle in Medieval Formations.

rank: \ˈraŋk\ from Middle or Old German ranc: a line of solders drawn up abreast of each other.A column
consists of two or more ranks. See also file.

rearguard: the most rearward units of a column or formation whose purpose is to hold up any attacking or
pursuing enemy.
square: the square is a formation whereby infantry units group in a square, all units facing outward. It is
specifically designed to counteract cavalry charges. The square is difficult to maneuver on the battlefield and
is therefore vulnerable to artillery fire, whether modern or ancient.

vanguard: \ˈvan-ˌgärd also ˈvaŋ-\ Middle English avaunt garde: those troops that march at the head of a
column or army. The vanguard is often spaced a little distance ahead of the main bodyof the column. The
vanguard’s purpose is often to trigger an ambush to discover the enemy so themain body can prepare
itself. It is sometimes considered a place of honor.

wedge: \ˈwej\ from Old High German weggi: where the unit is formed in a triangular formation with
the lead units in the tip. Its primary objective to disrupt a line formation and split it into two.

GROUND MANEUVERS, OFFENSIVE

ambush: \ˈam-ˌbu̇ sh\ from Middle English: a planned attack wherein forces are hidden awaitingenemy units
with the plan of springing a surprise attack upon unsuspecting combatants. Normally planned in an area
that gives the attacking forces a decided advantage while placing the defend-ers at a disadvantage.

barrage: \ˈbär-ij\ from French barrer: a heavy bombardment of ranged attack to protect an advancing or
fleeing army, or to prevent an enemy army from approaching. The barrage is conducted by artillery, self-
propelled guns or tanks.

base of fire: Compound: a base where artillery provides some type of fire support to advancing,
entrenched or retreating units. The base may be far behind friendly lines or in a fortified area within enemy
controlled territory.

blitzkrieg: \ˈblits-ˌkrēg\ from German, means lightening war: a form of warfare perfected bythe
Germans in World War II whereby the attacking formations consist of armored spearheads, backed by
mechanized infantry and close air support. The object of the blitzkrieg is to break up enemy formations
and enter their rear areas reducing their ability to regroup, communicate with or keep forward units
properly supplied.

bull horn: Compound: a formation that requires a three-pronged attack on an enemy. A forward until
holds the enemy in place while two, heavy wings attack the enemy on either flank simultaneously. The bull
horn inhibits an enemies’ ability to retreat.

charge: \ˈchärj\ Old French chargier: an attack from an advancing army, normally done at the start of
battle, wherein the advancing army advances quickly either by running, riding animals at a quickened pace
or driving vehicles at a high speed.

control MSR: Compound: where by a force controls the Main Supply Roots (MSR) to a base of
operations.

covering fire: Compound: fire, from small or heavy arms, air, artillery or armor, that reduces an
enemy force’s effective ability to operate on the battlefield. The fire need not be direct, and can
simply be directed toward and enemy in order to break up an attacking formation or keep a defensive
formation suppressed. Also, see suppressive fire.

direct fire: Compound: whereby artillery fires upon advancing units over their open sites, usually
within site of the enemy. The artillerist has eyes on the target and is able to gauge range and necessary
ordinance in order to strike the enemy more effectively.

encirclement: \ə̇ nˈsər-kəl mənt\: where an attacking force has completely surrounded a de- fending
force. On battlefields, before the introduction of air power, an encircled force was cut off from any other
friendly units, supplies, communications and their own line of retreat. Encircled units were often
destroyed. Air power has changed the nature of encirclement as the defending force may be able to receive
supplies, reinforcements, maintain communication and even be ex- tracted through the use of air power.
echeloning: where a unit attacks the enemy and when exhausted through use of supplies or manpower
another unit moves through it, or echelons through it, to continue the attack. Echeloning keeps maximum
pressure on the enemy while maintaining the edge to the attacking force.

fire support: Compound: artillery fire that is directed to support a defending or attacking unit. Fire
support includes direct and indirect fire as well as interdiction fire.

flanking maneuver: Compound: the movement of a force to an enemy’s flank, or side. A

formation’s force is locating in its front. The object of a flanking maneuver is to put frontal force pressure on
an enemy’s flank, where the enemy force is weaker. This allows the attacker to achieve local
superiority in order to destroy that flank. This in turn allows the attacker to fold or roll up the enemy
formation.

frontal assault: Compound: an attack on the front of an enemy force. The frontal attack allows the
enemy force to apply the full weight of its frontal force against the attacker. The frontal assault is often used
when a flank or rear attack is impossible. The frontal assault is often risky and produces a disproportionate
number of casualties to the attacking force. However, a breakthrough can utterly disrupt an enemy force.

hammer & anvil: a simple tactic that requires an attacking force, usually infantry or mechanized
infantry, to attack and hold an enemy’s front, while another until, often cavalry, or armor, attacks the
enemy around the flank and into its rear. It also involved a hopping maneuver whereby the attacking, or
flanking unit, would strike an enemy’s rear, withdraw and strike the enemy further down in the rear.

harass: \hə-ˈras\ from French harasser: to attack repeatedly and randomly, oftentimes as diversions
or annoyance or to force an enemy to use up his resources before attacking in force.

holding attack: Compound: a limited offensive maneuver that attempts to keep an enemy force
engaged, or held, while a secondary movement, either defensive or offensive is made by the attacking force.
Holding attacks frequently involve a small body of troops in order to free up as many units for the
secondary movement as possible.

indirect fire: Compound: fire, usually delivered by some type of artillery or mobile artillery that
strikes an enemy covered the terrain. The artillerist cannot visually see the enemy but fires through
predesignated coordinates or randomly on the far side of the obstacle. By its very nature indirect fire does
not cause as much damage as direct fire.

infiltration: \ˌin(ˌ)fil-ˈtrāshən\: an attack that calls for small units, often specially trained for such tactics, to
infiltrate or penetrate an enemy front, entering the rear areas in order to disrupt communications or to
isolate forward units, making them vulnerable to a frontal or flank attack. Also, referred to as penetration.

interdiction, tactical: Compound: \ˌintə(r)ˈdikshən\ from Middle English: an attack either withair
power or artillery whose purpose is to disrupt an enemy’s supply or their ability to reinforce an
area. Tactical interdiction refers to interdiction taken on or near the area of operations, such as a road or
supply compound. Strategic interdiction refers to larger strikes on an enemy’s industrial
infrastructure, population centers and other similar targets.

inverted wedge: Compound: the reverse of the flying wage, the inverted wage calls for two units to
fight alongside each other while a third unit follows behind and between them. The position of the third unit
allows it to move quickly in support of either of the forward units should the need arise.

investment: \in-ˈves(t)-mənt\: whereby an attacking army or unit surrounds an enemy cuttingoff their
means of supply and reinforcement. There are four outcomes of an investment: breakout, relief, surrender,
and reduction.

overwatch: where by a unit or units provides supporting fire for other advancing units. The overwatch unit
secures a position that allows it to see an enemy force and attempt to pin it in place or suppress it while the
overwatching unit’s sister unit advances.
preemptive strike: Compound: an attack, either on a tactical or strategic level, that calls for a
strike against an enemy force before that force is able or actually attacking. The objective is to gain an
advantage in the area of operations by denying your enemy the advantages of the attack, to disrupt a
planned attack or to catch them in a state of unpreparedness.

pincer: this maneuver calls for units to attack an enemy force from either side and envelop their flanks
causing the enemy force to collapse, cut off their supplies and communications and surround them. It often
calls for a weaker center in order to strengthen the attacking units on either flank. Also, called a double
envelopment.

refuse: a unit can “refuse to the right” or “refuse to the left”. The refuse maneuver calls for a unit to
strengthen its left or right flank in order to counter act, or in anticipation of, a flank attack from that
direction, to refuse the enemy the left flank. This usually calls for extending the line in the direction
desired. It is a common formation for armor and cavalry units and they enter combat using a refuse left or
refuse right, strengthening the respective flank.

retreat: \ri-ˈtrēt\ from Middle English: to withdraw from an area of operations. Retreating in theface of
the enemy is a difficult maneuver as withdrawing units rarely have support of their full artillery and their
front facing units are weakened. A retreat may take several forms:

tactical withdrawal: Organized retreats are carefully planned and executed, generally with holding
units that keep the enemy in place as the bulk of the army or unit withdraws from the area. Also, called a
tactical retreat.

rout: Disorganized retreats, or routes, occur when an organized retreat breaks down or the units in the
area begin withdrawing without direction as in during a defeat.

feigned retreat: whereby a unit feigns to retreat by pulling back forward units in order to draw an
enemy out from a covered position or to cause them to break up their attacking formations through
advance too quickly. As soon as a unit is pulled from its position, a counter march is or- dered, the
“retreating” units turn and counter attack.

salvo: \ˈsal-(ˌ)vō\ from the Italian salva: a discharge of ranged attacks upon an enemy, either grouped or
successive.

shock tactics: Compound: a tactic that attempts to dislodge an enemy from their position in line
or in fixed fortification through a rapid and aggressive attack. The shock attack is often augmented by
overwhelming force in numbers, material or both. However, the shock attack need not be with
overwhelming forces, outnumbered units often engage in shock tactics in the hope of disrupting a larger
force by the sheer aggressive nature of the attack.

siege: \ˈsēj\ from Middle English sege: a prolonged and persistent attack on a fortified enemy position
from multiple positions, denying him retreat while also denying allied units from assisting, in an attempt
to force the enemy to use his resources and lessening his resistance.

skirmish: \ˈskər-mish\ from Middle English skyrmissh: a minor battle between two forces, usually
involving light or small advance units. The purpose of the skirmish is to test an enemy’s resolve,
their fighting capabilities, and to probe for weaknesses. Skirmishing is also used to slow and advancing
unit.

suppressive fire: Compound: fire, from small or heavy arms, air, artillery or armor, that reduces an
enemy force’s effective ability to operate on the battlefield. The fire need not be direct, and can
simply be directed toward and enemy in order to break up an attacking formation or keep a defensive
formation suppressed. Also, see covering fire.

swarming: a tactic whereby the attacking force attempts to overwhelm a defender through satu- rating
the battlefield. It most occurs where there is a significant difference in size and composition of opposing
forces. The swarming units attempt to isolate or attack smaller enemy forces with repeated attacks,
swarming them. The objective to break up or annihilate the enemy unit.
swine array: Compound: a triangle-shaped formation with heavily armed melee fighters at the tip and
archers in the middle and rear. The commander was normally situated in the center along with his
standard-bearer. Troops were ordered to continue to advance even after breaking enemy lines, causing as
much terror and chaos as damage. Normally hundreds of men made up this formation.

withdraw: \with-ˈdrȯ\ Compound: to leave battle, normally by planned strategy, not unlike a retreat.
Withdraw can also mean to leave after a battle is done and the victor determined.

trench raiding: Compound: a tactic specifically used in World War I where small units launched
localized attacks on the enemy trench, usually during the night. The objectives of the trench raid ranged
from gathering intelligence, to capturing an enemy for questioning, destroy high valued target or
reconnaissance. It was also used as a harassing technique that kept the enemy on edge.

vertical envelopment: Compound: a maneuver in which units drop behind the enemy and envelop
them from the rear. The dropping units are either paratroopers or air mobile units carried in by helicopters,
planes or gliders. The objective is surround a unit and cut it off from its source of supplies and
reinforcements.

GROUND MANEUVERS, DEFENSIVE

all around defense: Compound: a unit, or units, situate themselves in a circular or triangular
formation in order to see attackers coming from any side. All around defense allows one section to quickly
reinforce another through internal lines of support. This type of defense often involves interlocking fields
of fire, strong points, a rally point for reserves and a centralized command post and supply depot.

ambush: \ˈam-bu̇ sh\ from Middle English: a tactic that calls for concealment and surprise. The ambushing
unit established concealed position on a known or suspected route and attacks enemy formations using the route.

breakout: \ˈbrāk-au̇ t\: a breakout is where a surrounded unit or army attempts to break throughthe
surrounding forces, either to escape or to reopen lines of communication and supply. It is oneof the four
possible outcomes of an investment (see investment).

break contact: Compound: a tactic whereby a unit breaks off an engagement and withdraws from an
enemy unit. This often involves laying down a heavy volume of fire on the enemy in order to surpass
them, then under cover of terrain, weather or weaponry such as smoke grenades or fire, to withdraw from
the field.

counter attack: Compound: a defensive measure where a unit launches a general or localized attack
against an attacking force in an attempt to break up the momentum of the enemy or to seize the initiative.

counter offensive: Compound: an offensive made in response to an attacking army or battle group
whose purpose is to break up the enemy offensive or redirect it. Generally, a large scale at- tack is made
against the attackers or against another point valuable to the attackers.

defense in depth: Compound: an attempt by a defending unit to delay or break up an attacking unit.
The defense in depth calls for multiple layers of lines of defense. The lines or mutually supporting lines,
allowing forward units to fall back into rearward lines. The forward line is often the weakest, knowing that
it will take the full force of the enemy attack. The secondary and tertiary lines are often more heavily
fortified. In this way, the terrain wastes the enemy as they move forward even before they strike the
second line of defense.

delaying defense: Compound: a tactic whereby a unit, usually a smaller, or rear guard unit fights a
holding action, attempting to keep an attacker focused on one area of the battlefield while other troops
withdraw, reorganize their defense or launch a counterattack in another area of the battlefield.
echelon formation: Compound: whereby units are arranged diagonally from the lead. There is both
a left echelon where the troops/units are arranged to the left of the lead and a right echelon where the
troops/units are arranged to the right. The echelon formation allows for a wide range of vision on the
battlefield as well as over-lapping fields of fire.

field works: Compound: battlefield fortifications that include revetting, sangars, shells scrapes,
foxholes, manholes, and spider holes. See each entry for definition.

fighting withdrawal: Compound: calls for a unit or troops to maintain contact with the enemy while
pulling back. It is an organized retreat. The fighting withdrawal might be achieved by smaller, holding
units, or might involve the entire force. The purpose is generally to achieve a more advantageous position
without surrendering the initiative to the enemy.

force dispersal: Compound: where a unit is spread out over an area of the battlefield in order to
reduce the impact of enemy fire, most commonly used when under air or artillery attack.

fortification: \ˌfȯ(r)təfə̇ ˈkāshən\ from Latin Forticatio: the act of building a safe area, protected from enemy
fire, generally behind walls, ramparts, ditches and bunkers.

foxholes: a hole dug into the ground and often reinforced with natural materials such as rocks and
limbs or with manmade materials such as sand bags. The foxhole is generally dug deep enough to stand in.
It is also called slit trench, fire trench, fighting hole, ranger grave, fighting position, and fighting pit.

hedgehog defense: Compound: where a defending army or unit creates mutually supporting strong
points, often with a defense in depth, that is particularly designed to break up attacking units and sap their
offensive strength.

interlocking fields of fire: Compound: where several fighting positions’ fields of fire overlap.
The interlocking nature of the fire reduces an attacking unit’s ability to flank or infiltrate a defensive
fighting position. Foxholes and trenches are generally constructed with interlocking fields of fire.

mutual support: Compound: where units can come to the aid of each other quickly and efficiently,
often through trenches or other secure areas.

pakfront: from German Panzerabwehrkanone: an anti-tank defense where up to ten anti-tank guns were
grouped together under one office who directed and controlled their fire. It is particularly affective in that
the office in command can designate individual guns to individual targets, knocking more of the enemy
force out far faster.

plunging fire: Compound: a form of indirect fire that involves the gunfire to fall upon an enemy
position from above.

rapid reaction force: Compound: small units that are able to travel to an area of the battlefield
quickly. They are generally highly trained and well equipped and used to counter attack a breech in a
defensive formation.

reverse slop defense: Compound: where a defending unit is position on a slope, or any elevated
terrain on the opposite side of a hill or ridge from the enemies attacking formations. The reverse slope
reduces the attacker’s ability to see the defensive position and forces long range fire to use indirect fire to
strike the position reducing its overall effectiveness.

revetting: a retaining wall designed to support the interior slope of a parapet.

sangars: \ˈsaŋgə(r)\: a small fire position built into a natural depression or rock formation that
includes temporary breastworks for protection. They are generally designed or chosen to hold only a few
soldiers.

scorched earth: Compound: a tactic used by retreating forces that involves destroying anything and
everything that an attacking force might find useful. This includes industrial centers, roads,
food stores as well as crops and even water supplies. The object is to slow down an attacking by forcing
them to carry more supplies into an area.

shell scrapes: Compound: a hole long and deep enough for a soldier to lie down in. It is generally not a
fixed position but a temporary accommodation to protect the soldier from artillery or small arms fire. They
are generally hastily constructed and quickly abandoned.

spider holes: a small one man fox hole that is camouflaged and is often used for observation purposes
only. Where a fox hole is designed for cover, the spider hole’s primary function is concealment.

strong point: Compound: a chosen area in a defensive line that has a specific tactical purpose, whether
command and control, heavy weapons, rally point, etc. The strong point often offers heightened defense in
natural terrain, location, or man-made fortifications.

trench warfare: Compound: a method of fighting that involves fixed fighting positions of long,
interconnected trenches, with mutually supporting fields of fire, strong points, interlocking fields of fire,
bunkers, etc.