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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

According to The International Association of Impact Assessment (IAIA), EIA is the process of
identifying, predicting, evaluating, and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made. Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) studies require a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental
data. Primary data are collected from the field to define the status of the environment (such as air quality
data, water quality data, etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to
understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The main steps in the EIA process are:

❖ Screening
This step categorizes projects and determines whether a full-scale environmental impact assessment is
required or not. The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial
Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE). The main conclusion will be a classification of the
project according to its likely environmental sensitivity.

Screening Stage
Different types of tools used during the screening method are:

1. Inclusive project list (projects must undergo EIA) and exclusive project list (projects exempted from
EIA)

2. Case-by-case examinations to determine whether projects may have significant environmental effects.
if so, the project should undergo EIA

3. Combination of the aforementioned tools

❖ Scoping
Scoping is the process of determining the most critical issues to be considered and this step will involve
community participation to some degree. It establishes the content and scope of an EIA report. It is at
this early stage that EIA can most strongly influence the outline proposal. Two major types of scoping
method are closed scoping and open or public scoping.
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1. Closed scoping
In this method, the content and scope of an EIA Report is pre-determined by law and modified through
closed consultations between a developer and the competent authority.

2. Open or Public scoping

It is a transparent process based on public consultations.

The scoping process begins with the preparation of a scope outline through informal consultation with
environmental and health authorities. The outline is then made available for the public and is compiled
with an extensive list of concerns, which is followed by the evaluation of relevant concerns to establish
key issues. The key issues are further organized into impact categories and the outline is amended
accordingly. A ‘Terms of reference’ (ToR) is then developed for impact analysis and the progress is
monitored. If necessary, revising is carried out. Another major activity of scoping is to identify key interest
groups (both governmental and non-governmental) and to establish good lines of communication.

❖ Impact Analysis
In this phase, the likely impacts are analyzed in greater detail in accordance with the terms of reference
specifically established for this purpose. Impact analysis is conducted using various tools, such as
checklists, matrices, networks, overlays and geographical information systems (GIS), expert systems, and
professional judgment.
Type Biophysical, social, health or economic
Nature Direct or indirect, cumulative, etc.
Magnitude High, moderate, low
Extent Local, regional, trans-boundary or global
Timing Immediate/long term
Duration Temporary/permanent
Uncertainty Low likelihood/high probability
Reversibility Reversible/irreversible
Significance Unimportant/important

• Checklists
Checklists are comprehensive lists of environmental effects and impact indicators designed to stimulate
the analyst to think broadly about possible consequences of contemplated actions. There are four types
of checklist:
1. Simple checklist
A list of environmental parameters with no guidelines on how they are to be measured and interpreted.
2. Descriptive checklist
This method involves the identification of environmental parameters and guidelines on how to measure
data on particular parameters.
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3. Questionnaire
This is based on a set of questions to be answered. Some of the questions may concern indirect impacts
and possible mitigation measures. They may also provide a scale for classifying estimated impacts from
highly adverse to highly beneficial.

4. The threshold of Concern (TOC) checklists

It consists of a list of environmental components, and for each component a threshold at which those
assessing a proposal should become concerned with an impact. The implication of alternative proposals
can be seen by examining the number of times that an alternative exceeds the threshold of concern.

An Example for Threshold of Concern (TOC) Checklist

5. Scaling Checklist
This is similar to a descriptive checklist, but with additional information on subjective scaling of the
parameters. Scaling and weighting checklist techniques quantify impacts reasonably well although they
use subjective estimates. However, they make no provision for assessing dynamic probabilistic trends or
mitigation, enhancement, and monitoring programs.

• Matrices
Matrices are two-dimensional tables that facilitate the identification of impacts arising from the interaction
between project activities and specific environmental components. The entries in the cell of the matrix
can be either qualitative or quantitative estimates of impact. The three important types of matrices used
in EIA are:
1. Magnitude Matrices
Go beyond the mere identification of impacts according to their magnitude, importance, and time frame
(e.g., short, medium or long term)

2. Quantified Matrix
Leopold Matrix is one of the best-known types of quantified matrix. It was developed by Leopold et al.
for the US geological survey. This matrix is based on a horizontal list of 100 project actions and a vertical
list of 88 environmental components.
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3. Weighted Matrix
In this method, Importance weightings are assigned to environmental components, and sometimes to
project components. The impact of the project (component) on the environmental component then
assessed and multiplied by the appropriate weightings.

Calculation: 21x10x8+21x0+21x50x7+21x40x8 = 15750

• Network

The network is an alternative for illustrating the secondary and subsequent effects of actions on
environmental elements. This method involves the construction of a network tracing such effects. The
advantage of a network approach is that it permits clear tracing of high-order effects of initial actions;
indeed, mitigation and control measures can also be illustrated.

Sorenson network is probably the best-known approach used to illustrate and understand primary,
secondary and tertiary impacts of developmental activity. It also identifies feasible mitigation measures
and assesses multiple impacts at the same time. However, the applications of the Sorenson network are
limited by inadequate data availability and reference networks relevant to the local environment.

Battelle Environmental Evaluation System is designed to assess the impacts of water resource
development projects, water quality management plans, highways, nuclear power plants, and other
projects. In an Environmental Evaluation System, the major concerns are separated into four categories:
Ecology, Physical/chemical, Aesthetics and Human Interest, and Social. Each category is further broken
down into a number of environmental components and for each component, an index of environmental
quality normalized to a scale ranging from 1 to 10 is developed. Environmental Indicator is defined as
the difference in environmental quality between before and after the impact states. Each environmental
component has a weighting factor (relative importance). From this, the overall impact of the project is
calculated by summing the weighted impacts indicators.

• Overlay and GIS

These are effective visual aids for documenting environmental conditions existing before the
implementation of a particular project. It also describes both the biophysical and social aspects of an area
under study. Overlay method is used when sensitive lands, renewable resource areas, and heritage sites
require protection from human activities. In addition to identifying and analyzing potential impacts, GIS
is also a powerful spatial planning tool.
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❖ Impact Mitigation
Mitigation measures are considered after environmental impact evaluation. An important outcome of
this stage will be recommendations for mitigating measures. This would be contained in the
Environmental Impact Statement. Clearly, the aim of this stage will be to introduce measures that
minimize any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive impacts. Even measures that are not
economically viable should not be dropped out, because, in the long run, they make the project both
economically and environmentally viable.

Framework for Impact Mitigation

❖ Assessment of Alternative Measures
In this stage, the assessment of environmental degradation and improvement is carried out in terms of
economic losses and gains. Cost-benefit analysis, sometimes called benefit-cost analysis, is a systematic
approach for evaluating development projects.

• Hedonic Pricing Method

This method is used to determine the value of environmental features from the prices of traded goods
using both primary data (characteristics of surrounding) and secondary data (market transaction).

• Contingent Valuation
This approach involves asking people to directly report their willingness to pay (WTP) for the use or
conservation of natural goods. In other words, it is a method of estimating the value that a person places
on a good.

• Travel Cost Method (TCM)

Unlike the contingent valuation method, TCM can only estimate the use-value of an environmental good
or service. It is mainly applied for determining the economic values of sites that are used for recreation
(e.g. national parks).
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❖ Preparation of the Final Document

Two types of documents are prepared in this stage, the first one contains a detailed account of the EIA,
and the second one is a brief summarized account for a decision-maker, who may not be a technical
person. The detailed document is usually considered as a reference document, which can be used for
preparing future EIAs in the same geographical area, or for the same type of project in a different area.
The referred part usually contains the technical calculations, graphs, and the results of field and
laboratory measurements. The summarized non-technical account is usually called a working document,
which is written clearly without using technical language to communicate the findings of the EIA team to
the decision-maker.

❖ Decision-making
The decision is taken by a manager or a committee, or personnel from the concerned ministry who had
not been associated with the EIA during its preparation. In general, the decision-maker has three choices:

1. Accepting one of the project alternatives.

2. Returning the EIA with a request for further study in certain specific areas.
3. Totally rejecting the proposed project along with alternative versions.
❖ Monitoring of Project Implementation and its Environmental Impacts
This step is usually carried out while the selected project is under actual implementation. The monitoring
is basically the process of inspection to make sure that the proper guidelines and recommendations stated
in the EIA are faithfully followed.

The EIA Process in India

In India, first of all, the developer prepares an EIA report with the help of an environmental consultant.
On the basis of this report, the EIA may be either comprehensive or rapid.

The comprehensive EIA report incorporates the data of all four seasons of a year. Whereas, Rapid EIA
(i.e. completed within 3 months) has only one season data. It should be noted that the Environmental
Ministry has recently diluted the comprehensive EIA policies, therefore, in most cases only Rapid EIA
is required. The completed report is then submitted to the regulatory agency to decide if the project may
go for formal EIA or not.
Screening is the primary stage of EIA to decide if the project requires EIA or not. Based on the
government rules, the existing projects are generally categorized into two.

1. Category A projects require environment clearance from the Centre

• All new National Highways are classified as Category A. In addition, expansion of National
Highways greater than 30 KM, involving additional Right of Way (ROW) greater than 20m,
involving the land acquisition and passing through more than one State are categorized as
Category A.
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• Crude oil refineries and installations for the gasification and liquefaction of 500 tonnes or more
of coal or bituminous shale per day.
• Thermal power stations and other combustion installations (including cogeneration) with a heat
output of not less than 300 megawatts (equivalent to the gross electrical output of 140 MWe for
steam and single-cycle gas turbines power stations) and nuclear power stations and other nuclear
reactors.
• Construction of airports with a basic runway length of 2,100 meters or more.
• Waste-processing and disposal installations for the incineration, chemical treatment or landfill
of hazardous, toxic or dangerous wastes.
• Large dams and other impoundments designed for the holding back or permanent storage of
water.
• Industrial plants for the production of pulp, paper, and board from timber or similar fibrous
materials.
• Municipal wastewater treatment plants with a capacity exceeding 150,000 population

2. Category B projects (with potentially less significant impacts) are evaluated and given clearance by
state-level authorities, the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Expert
Appraisal Committee (SEAC). Under Category B projects, there was only one distinction—coal and non-
coal mines—with all non-coal mine leases below 50 ha clubbed under Category B. Environmental
clearance (EC) is compulsory for mining of minor minerals in areas less than or equal to five hectares

Category B projects are further categorized as ‘B1’ and ‘B2’ (except for township and area development
projects). The MoEF is assigned the task of issuing appropriate guidelines from time to time for such
projects.

The projects categorized as B1 require an EIA report for appraisal and also have to undergo a public
hearing process. But those falling under B2 are exempted from requirements of both EIA and public
consultation. If the project clears the screening stage, the developer will have to conduct a Preliminary
Assessment, which will predict the extent of the impacts and would briefly evaluate the importance for
decision-makers. After reviewing the preliminary report, the competent authority will decide if there is a
need for comprehensive EIA or Rapid EIA.

Scoping is an important stage prior to the main EIA process. During scoping, the study team interacts
and engage in discussions with various stakeholders, such as developers, investors, regulatory agencies,
scientific institutions, local people, etc. The numerous concerns and issues raised by different
stakeholders will be investigated and addressed by the study team. Then the team would select primary
impacts for the main EIA to focus and determine detailed and comprehensive Terms of Reference
(ToR).

It is during Main EIA stage that the key impacts on the environment, such as changes in air quality, noise
levels; impacts on wildlife, impact on biodiversity, impact on local communities’ settlement patterns,
changes in employment statistics, changes in water consumption and availability, etc., are formally
identified. It is followed by “prediction” in which the impacts are characterized quantitatively as well as
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qualitatively. The predicted adverse impacts are then evaluated to determine if they can be significantly
mitigated. This stage also involves estimating mitigation costs and benefit-cost analysis.
Once the above-mentioned procedures are over, the next part is documentation, which is called the EIA
report. The report contains an executive summary of the project. The project developer would now
submit 20 copies of the executive summary to SPCB (State Pollution Control Board). It is now the
responsibility of the SPCB to conduct public hearing.

The Public hearing is organized within 30 days after the release of official notification at the site or in its
close proximity for ascertaining concerns of local stakeholders. SPCB fixes a date for Public Hearing
and informs the proponent to advertise in the local newspapers inviting the public for the hearing. Once
the hearing is completed, the SPCB forwards the minutes of the hearing along with the No objection
certificate to MoEF. In MoEF, the application is evaluated by an Impact Assessment Agency (IAA). The
IAA has the complete right of entry and inspection of the sites or factory premises prior to, during or
after the commencement of the project. The team carries out a technical assessment and gives its
recommendations within 90 days. On the basis of this, the MOEF grants the environmental clearance
which is valid for a period of seven years for the commencement of the project.

Steps to Secure Environmental Clearance in India

(Source: https://www.india-briefing.com/news/obtaining-environmental-approvals-india-17208.html)
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 of India, notification was issued in February 1991, for the
regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). As per
the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide Line (HTL) and a stage of 100m along
banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater, and rivers subject to tidal fluctuations is called the Coastal
Regulation Zone (CRZ). Under this regulation, coastal areas have been classified as CRZ-1, CRZ-2, CRZ-
3, CRZ-4.
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CRZ-1: These ecologically sensitive areas are essential in maintaining the ecosystem of the coast. They
lie between low and high tide lines. Exploration of natural gas and extraction of salt is permitted.
CRZ-2: These areas are urban coastal areas. As per CRZ, 2011 Notification, for CRZ-II (Urban) areas,
Floor Space Index (FSI) or the Floor Area Ratio (FAR) had been frozen as per the 1991 Development
Control Regulation (DCR) levels. In the CRZ, 2018 Notification, it has been decided to de-freeze the
same and permits FSI for construction projects, as prevailing on the date of the new notification. This
will enable the redevelopment of these areas to meet emerging needs.

CRZ-3: Rural and urban localities that fall outside the CRZ1 and CRZ2. Only certain activities related to
agriculture and some public facilities are allowed in this zone. Two separate categories have now been
stipulated as below:

(a) CRZ-III A – These are densely populated rural areas with a population density of 2161 per square
kilometer as per the 2011 Census. Such areas shall have a No Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters
from the HTL as against 200 meters from the High Tide Line stipulated in the CRZ Notification, 2011,
since such areas have similar characteristics as urban areas.

(b) CRZ-III B – Rural areas with a population density of below 2161 per square kilometer as per the
2011 Census. Such areas shall continue to have an NDZ of 200 meters from the HTL.

CRZ-4: This zone lies in the aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are permitted
in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in this zone. This zone has been changed from 1991
notification, which covered coastal stretches in islands of Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

Salient features of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification 2018

1. Tourism infrastructure for basic amenities to be promoted: temporary tourism facilities such as shacks,
toilet blocks, change rooms, drinking water facilities, etc., have now been permitted in Beaches.

2. Temporary tourism facilities are also now permissible in the "No Development Zone" (NDZ) of the
CRZ-III areas as per the Notification. However, a minimum distance of 10 m from HTL should be
maintained for setting up of such facilities.

3. CRZ Clearances streamlined: The procedure for CRZ clearances has been streamlined. Only such
projects/activities, which are located in the CRZ-I (Ecologically Sensitive Areas) and CRZ IV (area
covered between Low Tide Line and 12 Nautical Miles seaward) shall be dealt with for CRZ clearance
by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. The powers for clearances with respect to
CRZ-II and III have been delegated at the State level with necessary guidance.

4. A No Development Zone (NDZ) of 20 meters has been stipulated for all Islands: For islands close to
the mainland coast and for all Backwater Islands in the mainland, in wake of space limitations and unique
geography of such regions, bringing uniformity in treatment of such regions, NDZ of 20 m has been
stipulated.

5. Pollution abatement has been accorded special focus: In order to address pollution in Coastal areas,
treatment facilities have been made permissible activities in CRZ-I B area subject to necessary safeguards
and precautions.
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International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The ISO 14000 family of standards provides guidance for companies and organizations to manage their
environmental responsibilities. The other standards in the family focus on specific approaches such as
audits, communications, labeling and life cycle analysis, as well as environmental challenges such as
climate change.

ISO 14001 Environmental management systems- Specifications with the guidance

of use
ISO 14004 Guidelines on environmental management principles, systems and
supporting techniques.
ISO 14006 Guidelines for incorporating eco-design
ISO 14010 General principles for environmental auditing.
ISO 14011 Audit procedures
ISO14012 Qualification criteria for environmental auditors
ISO 14020 to 14025 Environmental labels and declarations
ISO14022 Symbols
ISO14023 Testing and Verification
ISO14024 Principle and Procedure
ISO14030 Environmental Performance Evaluation
ISO 14040 to 14049 Life cycle assessment; discusses pre-production planning and
environment goal setting
ISO 14040 A standard on principles and framework
ISO 14041 A standard on goal and scope definition and inventory analysis
ISO 14042 A standard on life-cycle impact assessment
ISO 14043 A standard on life-cycle interpretation
ISO 14050 Terms of fundamental concepts related to environmental
management
ISO14060 Guide for the inclusion of environmental aspects in product standards
ISO 14064 Greenhouse gases- measuring, quantifying, and reducing greenhouse
gas emissions

Environmental Audit
Environmental auditing is a management tool intended to provide information on environmental
performance to the concerned people at the right time. This audit includes an analysis of the technical,
procedural and decision-making aspects of the EIA. It also encompasses all kinds of activities related to
the environmental measures of an organization.
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Auditing Action

Implementation audit Initial activities

Predictive techniques audit Validation of impacts
Performance audit Comprehensive operational
activities
Procedures audit External review

Parameter Importance Units

The principle of the Batelle Environmental Evaluation System lies in splitting the environmental impacts
into four major categories: ecology, pollution, aesthetics, and human interest. Initially, the environmental
indicators are transformed into environmental quality. For example, in the pulp and paper industry,
water pollution could be represented by indicators, such as BOD, dissolved oxygen, fecal coliforms,
inorganic carbon, pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, turbidity, etc. The notation table defines a
number from 0 to 1 (0 for poor quality and 1 for good quality). Thus, it is possible to quantify
environmental deterioration and improvement. A total of 1,000 points (or Parameter Importance Units)
are shared among the indicators by the authors of the EIA. They reflect the relative importance of each
parameter. EES assessment of the environmental impacts of water resources development projects is
based on commensurate "environmental impact units" (EIU). Two EIU scores are produced, one 'with'
and another 'without' the proposed project. The difference between the two scores is a measure of the
environmental impact. The scores are based on the magnitude and importance of specific impacts.

(Vi)1- Environmental quality for indicator “i” in the project conditions

(Vi)2- Environmental quality for indicator “i” without the project
wi - Relative weight of the indicator “i” (PIU)
m- Total number of indicators.
Ecolabel
Eco-labels are voluntary certifications practiced around the world. It is independently developed by
governments, manufacturers, and third-party organizations. Producers and service providers
demonstrate through eco-label that they comply with high standards of environmental protection during
the life-cycle of the product and the provided services. The government of India in 1991 launched its
first eco-label scheme, known as ‘Eco-mark’ through the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The
BIS is responsible for setting quality and safety norms and is closely involved with the implementation
of the Eco mark scheme. The program is run by the Ministry of Environment, forests and climate change
(MoEF&CC) with technical advice from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
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Eco-mark Logo
An earthen pot symbolizes the Eco-mark scheme that uses renewable resources like earth, which does
not produce hazardous wastes and consumes less energy in making. The Central Pollution Control
Board has set up guidelines for environmentally friendly products. These products can obtain
environmental labeling from the Government of India if they meet the criterion set by the acts in Indian
laws.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Strategic Environmental Assessment aims to incorporate environmental and sustainability considerations
into strategic decision-making processes, such as the formulation of policies, plans, and programs (PPP).
SEA is an evidence-based instrument, aiming to add scientific rigor to PPP making by using suitable
assessment methods and techniques.
The structure of SEA is based on the following phases:

▪ "Screening", investigation of whether the plan or programme falls under the SEA legislation,
▪ "Scoping", defining the boundaries of investigation, assessment and assumptions required,
▪ "Documentation of the state of the environment", effectively a baseline on which to base
judgments,
▪ "Determination of the likely (non-marginal) environmental impacts", usually in terms of
Direction of Change rather than firm figures,
▪ Informing and consulting the public,
▪ Influencing "Decision taking" based on the assessment and,
▪ Monitoring of the effects of plans and programmes after their implementation.