D.

4 Lesson Plan 178

III.D.4

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A LESSON

III.D.4.a

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A LESSON

(Taken from OFDA Course)

The authors Robert F. Mager and Kenneth M. Beach describe the lesson
plan as “The pattern of instruction, the model that describes the activities on which
the student must concentrate in order to achieve the objectives of the course.”

Mager and Beach wrote the book “Developing Vocational Instruction” for
professional teachers. They wrote it more than 40 years ago, but their description
is still valid and is as important to those working in the training field as it is to
school teachers.

In the training context, the instructor/facilitator follows the lesson plan as a

pattern or model to guide students in meeting the training objectives.

David R. Torrence (“Building a Lesson Plan”, Training & Development

Journal, May 1987), describes the lesson plan as a strategy and immediate
reference.

- As a strategy, the lesson plan is “a sequential series of events that lead

one to the goal.”
- For immediate reference, the lesson plan is “a list of information
necessary to carry out the series of events. A lesson plan, therefore,
summarizes who will conduct the instruction, to whom the instruction is
intended, and what, where, when, why, and how the instruction will take
place.”

The design and development of the lesson is the last step in the design
and development of the course, this is described in the Development of
Instructional Systems (DSI), with five basic phases that are:

- Analysis
- Design
- Development
- Execution
- Assessment

None of these phases is static, however, they are all related.

The lesson plans are developed based on the conventional DSI model, in
179 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

which the instructor/facilitator plays an important role. The learning plans are
prepared according to the DSI model of specialization, which is more individual
and focuses on the student.

In this study we will mainly refer to the structure of the conventional DSI
model, which is based on:

- courses, to
- units, to
- lesson plans,
- activities.

PLANNER AND FACILITATOR: WHO DOES WHAT?

The training planner and the instructor/facilitator often play different roles
in the design and development of a lesson, even though it is not unusual for the
same person to develop and present the training program.

It is important, however, to know which person is responsible for certain

decisions in the DSI process. In designing and developing a lesson, the lesson
planner suggests access to topics, determines instructional and rest periods, and
selects and prepares important instructional materials such as tests and guides.

The chart below, adapted from “Principals of Instruc tional Design”

(Principles of Instructional Design), shows how responsibility should be divided
between the planner and the facilitator when designing and developing a lesson.

LESSON DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT: THE PROCESS

The lesson design, like any other element of the DSI, is not static. There is no way
to do it. Good lesson planning generally contains the following phases:

1. Specify the title of the lesson and write a brief description of it.

2. Based on the objectives of the course, state the objectives of the lesson
specifying:
 D.4 Lesson Plan 180

GENERAL DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITIES BETWEEN THE PLANNER

AND THE FACILITATOR OF A LESSON

- the conditions under which the objectives can be achieved (equipment

or material to be used),
- expected performance (visible behavior), and
- criteria used to judge satisfactory performance.

3. For each objective, design a post-test, establishing how the student

should be tested or evaluated in achieving the objectives. Each
subsequent test must match the conditions of each objective, and must
contain:

- instructions, and
- specific topics to be examined.

4. Describe how performance objectives should be achieved:

- content,
- instructional methods, media and techniques, and
- student activities.

5. Include assessment to determine student progress during the course:

181 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

- Subsequent tests will show whether or not the student can carry out
the objective after learning (summative evaluation),
- Feedback during learning will verify the student's progress in this
period (formative evaluation).

6. Create the lesson plan (strategy), specifying learning activities, time

allocated and materials to be used.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON: THE STRUCTURE

Again, not all lesson plans look alike; This is because they depend on the
type of learning, which can be:

- cognitive (knowledge),
- psychomotor (skill),
- affective (attitudes or values).

Once the planner draws up the design steps, you will have a lesson plan
that basically includes the following components:

1. Course and lesson title.

2. Time and date.

3. Goals . They are the most important elements in the lesson plan. As
noted above, objectives should specify: what a student should know or do
as a result of the lesson; conditions under which performance will be
carried out; and criteria for judging performance or understanding of the
ability/skill or knowledge.

4. Subsequent Tests . List subsequent tests that students will be

required to take as a result of the training. Link each test to an objective.
Examples of posttest types include: true-false tests, essay, multiple
choice, performance test, demonstration.

5. List of Materials and Media. Make a detailed list of the materials and
equipment needed to conduct the lesson, such as: projector, screen,
tools, paper, pens, lights, plugs, extension cords, adapters, spotlights,
flipcharts, films, computers, etc. Include instructor and student guides,
texts, pins, participant logs, and support materials.

6. Duration . Somewhere in the lesson plan, usually in the left margin,

indicate the duration of each activity within the lesson plan. Each activity
must finish in a time of no less than 5 minutes and no more than one
hour. The duration of the breaks must be indicated.

7. Introduction. The introduction guides the student by informing them

 D.4 Lesson Plan 182

of the following:

- lesson objectives,
- content of subsequent tests,
- how the lesson relates to your job, and
- How it relates to your prior knowledge and current skill.

The introduction also motivates the student by awakening their interest

and attention through:

- a brief demonstration,
- a funny story or an interesting anecdote,
- stimulating, provocative questions, or
- background information.

8. Content. Based on the objectives, prepare a list of topics and

subtopics. Topics will be arranged in sequence
- known to unknown,
- simple to complex,
- concrete to abstract, or
- general description to details.

The teaching/learning points to be covered during the lesson will be developed

from the sequential list of topics/subtopics.

9. Instructor Activities . This component lists the techniques used by

the instructor/facilitator in order to guide the student towards achieving the
objectives. Examples include reading, demonstration, film, discussion,
playing records or recordings.

10. Student Activities . This component indicates what students must

do to achieve the learning objectives. Examples include: practice, role-
play, filling out a form or worksheet, participating in a discussion, reading
aloud, demonstration, brainstorming, debate, research, writing.

11. Summary . The summary serves several purposes:

- states main concepts,
- relates themes,
- gives conclusions or generalities, and

- clarifies or expands main concepts.

12. Evaluation and feedback . Summative evaluation is carried out

with some types of post-tests, while formative evaluation verifies the
progress of teaching through periodic question and answer sessions,
discussions, self-assessments, etc.

“The Quick Instructional Planner” by Peter Renner is a helpful guide to

183 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

course and lesson planning. Renner shows how to make a plan using “
stickers ,” allowing for maximum creativity and flexibility.

LESSON PLAN VARIATIONS

The module “Developing a Lesson Plan” from the “Professional Teacher

Education Module” Series (James B. Hamilton, program director) shows a lesson
plan model based on teaching objectives that can be informational (knowledge),
manipulatives (skill), or solution-oriented (attitudes).

The information format (knowledge) has the following components:

- Unit title,
- Lesson topic,
- Goals,
- Introduction,
- method (technique),
- Learning activity,
- Resources,
- Assessment,
- Summary.

The skill/manageable ability format has the following components:

- Unit,
- Lesson,
- Job,
- Purpose (objective or purpose),
- Tools and equipment,
- Materials,
- teaching aids,
- References,
- Method
1. Preparation (of students)

2. Presentation (of skills/skills)

Steps
References (things to remember, do or say)
3. Application (student practice under supervision)
4. Test (performance of skill/ability to acceptable standards)
- Suggested reading for students

The problem-solving or administrative (attitude) format has the following

components:
- Unit
- Lesson topic
 D.4 Lesson Plan 184

- Aim
- Introduction,
Problem identification (informal)
Statement of the objective (formal)
- Method
Key questions to identify factors
Identification of factors
- Resources (list of resources that students will use to obtain
information necessary to solve the problem)
- Summary (give conclusions to the problem)
- Assessment

SELECT INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

TRAINING

Before selecting instructional techniques and training materials, the

planner will need to consider many factors:

- Instructional Objectives . Instructional techniques and activities must

match the objectives - whether these involve cognitive (knowledge),
psychomotor (skill/skill), or affective (attitude) learning:

- Cognitive learning involves mental processes and the acquisition of

knowledge.
- Psychomotor skill involves handling objects or machinery based on
mental decisions. Training techniques include demonstration - practice,
simulation, and imitations.
- Attitude involves motivation and perception. Training activities include
role-playing, discussion, and brainstorming.

- Cost/budget . Cost will need to be constantly taken into account when

determining training media and activities – does the expense justify the
effectiveness of the activity in helping students achieve the teaching objectives?

- Lesson Content . The techniques and means must be uniform with the
content of the lesson.

- Experience, knowledge and expectations of students . The students are of

different ages and backgrounds, with different levels of experience and
knowledge. Training activities should meet your needs while avoiding the
extremes of being too simple or too complicated. The level of comfort in
different activities should also be considered.

- Experience and capacity of the Instructor . The instructor must feel

confident and expert with the training technique. If he or she has not tried
a particular technique before, sharing this information with students will
help you gain their support.
185 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

- Time . The duration of training activities must be realistically adjusted to

the time limit.

- Available means, equipment and material . Limitations can seriously affect

the choice of training/learning activities and the availability of equipment
obviously affects the choice of training means.

The table below links some training techniques and instructional media
with the three categories of learning (knowledge, skill/ability and attitude-CDA).
The table is subjective and serves as a guide only.

INCLUDE EVALUATION

When including assessment in a lesson plan, it is helpful for the planner to

become familiar with the four classic steps of assessment described by Donald L.
Kirkpatrick (“More Evaluating Training Programs”)

- reaction,
- learning,
- behavior, and - results.

The Reaction evaluation tests the participants' acceptance of the training

program. This is the simplest - and most common - form of evaluation, usually
carried out through questionnaires. This type of evaluation focuses on the
facilitator in terms of the topic, techniques used and

SELECT INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS

Reading x x x
"Brainstorming" x
Guided discussion x x
Dramatization/acting x x
camping trip x
Field project x x
Demonstration/practice x
Panel x
Assigned Reading and Research x x
Computer instruction x x x
Simulacrum x
Flipchart x x
Distribution Material x x x
Aids x
Video x x x
Manuals x x x
Games x x x

performance. An example of the questions would be:

Technique/activity Knowledge Skill Attitude
- Did the course/lesson/session meet your needs?
 D.4 Lesson Plan 186

- How well did the facilitator convey the objectives?

- Was the facilitator well prepared?
- Did the facilitator manage to maintain your interest?
- Did he/she adequately address the topic?
- How well did the facilitator summarize the topic?
- What was your most valuable experience during the session? Which was
the least valuable?

The evaluation format should be developed in a way that allows for short
answers, for example: asking for a rating from 1 (poor) to 10 (excellent). The
format should include space for additional comments.

Learning is difficult to evaluate. The evaluation of learning should be

based, naturally, on the learning objectives. The table below lists some
assessment techniques used to measure learning.

Kirkpatrick emphasizes the importance of including pre- and post-tests

when measuring learning, as well as using control groups and statistical analyzes
to analyze and interpret the results.

Behavior is even more difficult to measure. One way to measure

behavior in the course of work (on-site) is through an attitude study. Obtain
feedback on students' behavior, from themselves.

Results measure what happens as a consequence of the training. Results

such as cost reduction, increased production, and decreased turnover can often
be measured by comparing records. On the other hand, more transitory effects,
such as quality, can be determined through interviews, questionnaires, and other
techniques.

SOME GUIDELINES TO BE INCLUDED IN THE EVALUATION

Give participants enough time to complete the evaluations. Do not let

participants take the evaluation forms home; They hardly return them.

Include “processing time” – time for participants to reflect and discuss their
experiences during the session.

Try to include the same number of questions about the strengths and
weaknesses of the event.

It allows for quick on-site assessment throughout the course - even if it's just
asking participants: “How are we doing?”

Include constant written feedback. The instructor can prepare a written

summary of the evaluations and discuss it at the beginning of the next
session.
187 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

For written evaluations, give participants the option to remain anonymous.

Design written formats so that responses can be tabulated and quantified.

SELECT EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

Try with pencil and paper x

Demo/performance test x
Dramatization/acting XX
Rehearsal x
Oral presentation x
On-site observation x
Interview x
Questionnaire x
Survey x
Technique/activity. Knowledge Skill Attitude
Instead of having participants fill out the entire evaluation form at the end of
each session, give them a break after each topic to take note of reactions.

The evaluations will be saved for future reference.

GUIDELINES FOR LESSON DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

LEARNING PROCESS

A basic understanding of the learning process will lead the planner to

narrow down the lesson content and activities in the lesson plan. The learning
process, as explained by Lawrence Munson in his work “How to Conduct a
Training Seminar”, can be described in six general phases:

1. Motivation . Students need to see “what's in it for them” – how they can
personally benefit from the learning experience.

2. Explanation. Learning objectives and activities should be presented

clearly and in a logical sequence.

3. Demo . The facilitator or expert demonstrates the skill/skill

what is to be learned, or, particularly in the area of knowledge or attitude, provides
examples or illustrations.

4. Self appraisal . Students must evaluate their own learning, either during
the course (formative evaluation) or after it (summative evaluation).

5. Application . Students will be able to apply what they learn when they
return to their jobs.
 D.4 Lesson Plan 188

6. Feedback . Students need to know their progress. The lesson design will
provide feedback during the course and at the end of the course.

TIME AND FLEXIBILITY

Time control should be established in the lesson plan, allowing flexibility

for unforeseen circumstances, and to vary progress/development according to the
learning styles and speed of the participants.

Guidelines for time and flexibility:

1. Training time should not exceed six to seven hours per day, excluding
breaks.
Generally two 10-minute breaks are given before lunch and two after lunch. Each
learning period should not exceed one hour.

2. Be clear about your learning objectives and plan your time accordingly.

3. Prioritize activities according to their importance: “A” critical, “B” must be

done, “C” easy to do . In this way, the facilitator can add or subtract activities
according to the student's receptivity or progress, or to an unexpected event such
as a lack of electricity or an emergency in class.

4. Give students enough time to learn each objective well before moving on
to the next.

5. Take into account the attention span/span of students; For example, the
attention span for a video will be longer than for a recording. Reading periods
should not exceed 10 minutes.

either. Focus on techniques that allow more time for student participation;
Excessive intervention by the instructor exhausts the student's time.

7. Combine group activities with individual events to obtain variation and

greater effectiveness.

8. Periodically allow time to summarize previous material and prepare the

next.

9. Consider individualizing instruction and/or inviting the student to

participate in the design of some segments within the lesson.
 189 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

STAKE

Most participants are engaged/focused on their own learning; that is, how
quickly and best they can learn. Listed below are some guidelines to increase your
participation:

- Nuance reading periods with question-and-answer sessions, quick quizzes,

and other forms of feedback.

- Consider providing short assignments to the participant, such as self-

assessments, prior to the learning process. This will allow for immediate feedback
from the start.

- Assign more advanced and longer readings before the course, so there will be
more time for class discussions and group activities.

- Ask participants what their expectations are – either orally or in writing. This
increases the level of interest while indicating to the instructor whether or not
the course meets expectations.

- Allow sufficient time for questions and include opportunities to turn

participants' questions into activities.

- Depending on the skill level of the facilitator and participants, responsibility for
lesson design will be shared. Working with the basic course or lesson design,
participants can themselves enter activities that they believe can help them
achieve their learning objectives. The text by Philip G. Hanson, “Learning
Through Groups: A Trainer's Basic Guide,” covers a number of processes
involved in group learning.

CREATIVE LESSON DESIGN

Student participation in lesson design leads to certain creative learning

experiences. The facilitator and participants can negotiate all or part of the design
as it relates to:

- goals,
- goals,
- tasks,
- time,
- norms and values, and
- assessment.

Some creative teaching/learning activities to consider include:

- vision
- directed imagination,
 D.4 Lesson Plan 190

- drawing,
- keep a diary,
- listen to music and
- training

MCH CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING METHODS

The MCH classification, developed by what is now the Further Education

Unit in the UK, is a useful and practical system that helps students consciously
identify the way they learn.

The three classifications are:

- Memorize: a form of learning that includes association, repetition and self-

evaluation.

- Understand: question, compare, agree and solve problems.

- Do: practice, demonstrate.

These easy-to-remember acronyms help the participant clarify the

learning process, encouraging them to identify exactly how they are learning.

RETENTION AND TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE

If participants cannot remember what they have learned or relate their

new knowledge and skills to their work, the training has failed. Strategies to
ensure retention and transfer of knowledge to work include adding to the lesson
plan ways to:

- Review the material periodically. Periodically using the skills and knowledge
acquired and relating them to something current promotes retention.

- Generalize knowledge. Change the context in which the new knowledge or

skill is applied; for example, using the acquired computing skill in a different
way.

- Include feedback. Regular feedback through games, role-playing,

demonstration, and other techniques test understanding and retention.
Periodically asking participants to self-criticize or self-evaluate also ensures
retention and tests understanding.

- Ask questions. Include question and answer sessions to get immediate

feedback.
191 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

AUTOMATED TRAINING DESIGN

The increasing advancement of computerized technology for designing

and developing training materials should not be overlooked.

Diane M. Gayeski in his work Performance and Instruction, Nov./Dec. 1988, (“Can
– and Should – Training Design Be Automated?”), discusses numerous ways in
which automated instructional design systems can assist in the design and
development of programs (and lessons).

Examples of the use of automated systems include media selection,

evaluation, materials design and development, flowchart, writing, content
development, simulation, test/exam, and input analysis.

Gayeski also addresses such topics as:

-Do automated instruction design (DI) systems hinder/disadvantage DI?” (Not if
properly designed and executed).

- “Do these systems eliminate creativity?” (It is a risk; the challenge is to develop
systems that increase productivity and creativity).

- “Can they be used by everyone?” (Many promising technologies have been

abandoned or scaled down due to resistance to change, lack of
understanding, or fear of being displaced from work.)

Automated DI is a field worth exploring, Gayeski maintains, and lists

companies that offer software to aid instructional design.

“Many of the projects and products described... can be easily found at

very reasonable prices, and it is not beyond the reach of most organizations to
create their own tools.”

INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION

Individual instruction may comprise an entire course or a portion of a

course, depending on several factors. The program/lesson planner may use
individual instruction to complement group instruction, designing portions of the
course/lesson for self-instruction.

Individual training is a fundamental part of specialized instruction.

When should the planner consider individual training?:

- Differences in the needs or abilities of the participant. The work experience or

skill levels of the participants differ considerably. They may have extremely
different learning styles or levels.
 D.4 Lesson Plan 192

Budget Considerations. Once the material is prepared, the implementation

costs of individual training are generally lower than facilitator-centered
instruction.

Programs. Sometimes workers come in on different shifts, making it difficult to

schedule group training.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUAL TRAINING

Features include:

- The course is divided into modules or learning units; Each module contains
reading, study guides, and possibly a programmed text. Learning plans are
included in each module, and are often carried out with the mutual
cooperation of the student and the instructor.

- Pretests are used for the initial diagnosis of the student's knowledge and skills
to determine the efficient use of time and resources.

- Readings and demonstrations are used occasionally.

- Students control how quickly they learn/master the program or module.

- Frequent self-assessment helps students determine what they already know

and what they need to know.

- Summative and formative assessments can be included in the program.

- The role of the facilitator is that of a guide rather than a teacher.

- Participant progress should be recorded on the computer for tracking and

future reference.

ADVANTAGES

Individual instruction has additional advantages to those mentioned above:

- People take responsibility for their learning.

Individual training focuses on mastery of a task rather than training. Students

can test their skill when they feel really ready.

Students advance at their own speed without interrupting the progress of the
class.
 193 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

DISADVANTAGES

Individual training also has certain disadvantages:

- Students are unable or not motivated to work independently during the

program.

- The free study will be alone; It doesn't work with people who need
encouragement from others to learn.

- Assessment is more difficult because periodic oral feedback and other

techniques are limited.

- Logistical problems arise, such as what to do with students who finished the
program before others, or with those who cannot handle the material.

COMPONENTS OF THE LEARNING PACKAGE

The planner, often in conjunction with the participant, prepares learning

packages for individual instruction. Learning packages or modules generally
consist of the following:
- cover,
- introduction,
- directions, performance objectives,
- activities and learning materials, and
- evaluation or rating of performance.

The learning plan usually consists of a description of the following:

- learning goal/objective,
- skill to develop,
- proposed start date,
- proposed completion date, and
- date(s) to be determined.

The instructor and the participant sign the learning plan.

 D.4 Lesson Plan 194

HELP: SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

Course Title: ______________________________________________________

Lesson Title: ______________________________________________________

Time and Date: ____________________________________________________

Goals):

Posttest(s):

Materials:

Notes: time Content/Activities points Activities

Transitions of of the of the
Key points Introduction teaching Instructor Student
Evaluation plan:

Comments:
HELP: LESSON PLAN CHECKLIST

The following list will help the planner check for missing elements, applicability
and clarity.

* The lesson plan clearly states one or more learning objectives.

* The lesson objectives are based on the unit/course objectives.

* Objectives establish conditions under which the objectives are to be

achieved and criteria against which the achievement of the objectives is
measured.

* Subsequent tests are established in terms of objectives.

195 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

* The introduction contains information that motivates participants and

guides them toward the lesson objectives.

* The number of teaching points is appropriate to meet the objectives within

the allotted time.

* Teaching/learning activities and techniques are based on learning

objectives.

* The lesson plan employs a variety of teaching/learning activities.

* Teaching and learning techniques relate to the needs of the student and
the area of learning (whether knowledge, skills, or attitudes).

* Students have ample opportunity to participate and apply what they learn.

* Instructional media are appropriate for the student's learning area, budget,
and needs.

* The summary affirms/reinforces the learning points.

* Time and transitions are considered.

* Formative and summative assessments are planned for each learning

objective.

* Participants have enough time to process their own

experiences.

* The segments within the lesson plan are too large to meet the objective
and too small to stay within the student's attention span.

* The content must provide flexibility.

* The lesson plan is applied to individual learning (if necessary).

SUMMARY: Steps for Developing a Lesson Plan

1. Establish and/or review the training objective.

2. Make a rough outline or sketch.

3. Identify the level of performance you want to obtain from the participant.

4. Incorporate the tasks to be performed in a logical sequence.

 D.4 Lesson Plan 196

5. Identify lesson content based on the tasks to be taught.

6. Identify the teaching methods and techniques to use. Make a list of the
materials and equipment available and needed.

7. Review (and modify if necessary) the plan sequence.

8. Make final adjustments to complete the lesson plan.

- Make sure that participants work, as much as possible, on activities

directly related to the objectives.

- Ensure procedures can be performed with available facilities and

within the specified time.
197 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

III.D.5

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

III.D.5.a

QUESTION: WHAT ARE THE QUESTIONS YOU HAVE? DOES?

(Taken from: TESTED TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHERS OF ADULTS. 1972.

National Association for Public Continuing and Adult Education.)

The questions you ask can cut off or open up the creativity in your students'
minds. Many surveys have been done regarding the types of questions instructors
ask, and how they affect learning. Studies show that most (in some cases 90%) of
questions require students to recall data. Few require consideration, creative
thinking, critical thinking, convergent and analytical thinking. It seems that many
instructors consider that having a good memory is the most important equipment a
student can have.

So analyze the questions you ask your class. Start by asking yourself:

* Do you frequently ask questions that begin with “How” or “Why” instead
of “What is” or “Who is”?

* Do your questions sometimes instigate controversy and force students

to disagree with you and each other?

* Do some of your questions allow more than one answer? For example,
have you ever asked questions using “In what ways” or “For what reasons” – to
indicate to students that there may be more than one correct answer?

* Do you allow students enough time to answer the questions? Allow

enough time for reflective thinking after each question. It requires patience on your
part, but it is worth the wait. By allowing more time, responses tend to become
longer and more considered.

* Do you generally say, “Did everyone understand?” It is rare for a student

to feel comfortable admitting to a group that he or she has not understood what
has been discussed. I would be ashamed if I were the only one who didn't
understand. A better response is received if you say: “I'm not sure I explained this
clearly. Let me know if there is anything else we should know about this topic.”
 D.5 Communication Skills 198

III.D.5.b

HOW TO GET FEEDBACK

(Taken from: TESTED TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING ADULTS. 1972. national

Association for Public Continuing and Adult Education.)
199 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

* Maintain eye contact . While teaching, he constantly rolls his eyes

around the room to detect how many students are looking at him and how many
seem interested. Observe the slightest look of disapproval, uncertainty, worry. Try
to detect subtle changes in expression...nuances that often reveal hidden
 D.5 Communication Skills 200

emotions. Some scientists have found that there are more than 40 positions of the
eyebrows alone, although most agree that less than half of those positions are
significant. There is no end to the number of signals we can transmit with our eyes
and the skin around them.

* Organize your own mini-course. One of the new teaching practices for
professors and teachers is the quick (five-minute) session in which the instructor
tries to explain a specific point and his students evaluate his teaching technique.
In an adult education class, you can explain a point for several minutes, and then
ask students to evaluate your teaching by telling you whether they found it weak
and what they need to know that you didn't tell them. You will receive much more
feedback using this innovative procedure than using the common question “Any
questions?”

* Take advantage of instant feedback. The sooner feedback is

received, the more effective the learning is. The programmed instruction is based
on this principle... and it works. Even without texts of this type, you can try the
instant feedback technique. After you have explained a point or demonstrated a
skill, allow each student the opportunity to show that they have understood your
instruction...either by describing it verbally, writing it down, or by demonstrating the
skill. This will instantly tell you which students are having learning difficulties, what
those difficulties are, and what type of help each student requires.

* Use a suggestion box. Many students may be shy about criticism from
their instructor...even though the instructor may be doing something that hinders
their learning. Place a suggestion box in class and let students know that you want
them to leave any suggestions or criticisms they may have regarding your
teaching style or the general situation in the class, without obligation to sign their
name. .

III.D.5.c

COMMUNICATING WITH THE BODY

(“non-verbal” behavior)
(Taken from OFDA Course)

III.D.5.d

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

(Taken from OFDA course)

The following list lists 10 of the most common barriers that hinder communication:

1. Rhythm and speed when speaking

2. One-way communication
201 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

3. Lack of dialogue (feedback)

4. Not maintaining eye contact

5. Not having a common language

6. Frustration

7. Disorganization of ideas

8. Rhythm, not the speed or slowness of speaking, but the time taken to discuss
an idea.

9. Redundancy

10. Not having a common frame of reference

III.D.5.e

MAKING A PRESENTATION: SOME SUGGESTIONS

TO ACHIEVE THE SUCCESS

(Taken from OFDA Course)

Preparation
1. Review your materials.

Scheme
Equipment
Reference materials
Workbooks and Materials to be distributed to the audience

Visual aids

2. Dress for success.

Look good/feel good

Select the appropriate clothing for each situation

3. Time of Rest and Calm.

Focus on your breathing

Imagine the success
Imagine that you feel relaxed
Imagine that you appear confident
Imagine that you arouse and maintain the interest of the audience
 D.5 Communication Skills 202

Presentation
1. Know the material well.
2. Believe in what you teach.
3. Be careful with your gestures, gestures and behavior.
4. Change the tone of your voice to emphasize points.

Harmonic Relationship
1. Guide audience to message (promote self-discovery)
2. Use language that your audience understands (know the nature of
your audience).
3. Maintain eye contact with your audience.
4. Be yourself (make yourself known, use humor, etc.)

Answers
1. Express the same idea using different words (use paraphrases).
2. Get more information (e.g. tell me something else/give me more
information).
3. Respond in an interrogative manner.
4. Admit that you don't have the answer to a question (“What I'm going to
do about it/I'll look for the answer”).
5. Answer the question asked and no other.

Special Suggestions
1. Stay up to date with your audience (How are you?” or “How are you
feeling?”).

2. Keep an open mind, be receptive.

3. Don't take comments personally.
4. Focus...keep your attention on the point at hand (don't stray from the
topic).
5. Get others' reactions when someone makes a comment.
6. Encourage and stimulate audience participation.
7. Remember that learning aptitude levels vary.
8. It's okay to feel nervous... it means you want to do a good job.

III.D.5.f

THE CONQUEST OF TRUST

Taken from Chapter II of the book

“THE EASY AND FAST WAY TO SPEAK EFFECTIVELY”
by Dorothy & Dale Carnegie
 203 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

I. UNDERSTAND WELL THE CIRCUMSTANCES RELATED TO THE FEAR OF

SPEAKING IN PUBLIC

1.1. You are not the only one who is afraid of speaking in public .

Statistics from various schools show that eighty to ninety percent of students
enrolled in public speaking classes experience panic in front of the audience at the
beginning of the course. I am inclined to believe that the figure is even higher among adults
who begin a public speaking course, I would almost say it reaches one hundred percent.

1.2. A little fear of the audience is convenient .

This is the natural means of preparing ourselves for an unusual confrontation with
our environment. So when you notice your pulse and breathing speed up, don't be alarmed.
Your body, always alert to external stimuli, prepares to take action. If this psychological
preparation is controlled, you will be able to think more lucidly, speak more fluently, and
generally be able to speak with much more intensity than under normal circumstances.

1.3. Many professional speakers have told me that they never completely lost
their fear of the audience.

It is something almost always present before starting to speak and that can persist
during the first moments of the speech. This is the price that these men and women pay for
their triumph. Certain speakers, who claim to be as “fresh as a cucumber”! At all times, they
are usually as rigid as a cucumber and as inspired as a cucumber can be.

1.4. The main cause of your fear of public speaking is simply that you are not
used to public speaking.

“Fear is the child of ignorance and insecurity,” says Professor Robinson in “The
Mind in the Making.” For many people, speaking in public is like an unknown and,
consequently, something loaded with anxiety and fear. For those who are just starting out, it
constitutes a complex series of strange situations, more complex than learning to play
tennis, for example, or to drive a car. To make this difficult situation easy and simple, you
must practice and practice constantly. You will discover, as thousands upon thousands
have, that public speaking can become a pleasure, rather than a terrible agony, as you
achieve a series of successes over the course of your experience.
The way Albert Edward Wiggam, the noted lecturer and popular psychologist,
managed to overcome his fear has always inspired me since I first read the story. Wiggam
recounts how a feeling of terror came over him at the thought of having to stand up at
school and give a five-minute talk.
“As the date approached, he writes, I was getting really sick. Whenever the
terrible thought came to my mind, the blood rushed to my head and my cheeks turned red, I
experienced such a painful sensation that I had to leave the school and press my face
 D.5 Communication Skills 204

against the brick wall to try to mitigate my irrepressible blush.

“On one occasion, I carefully memorized a speech that began like this: “Adams
and Jefferson no longer exist.” When I faced the audience, I felt dizzy, I barely knew where
I was. I tried to say the first sentence” and said the following: “Adams and Jefferson have
passed away.” I couldn't say another word, so I saluted... and descended solemnly to great
applause. The president stood up and said, “Well, Edward, we are very shocked by the bad
news, but we will do our best to overcome the circumstances.” Amid the general hilarity that
ensued, death would surely have been a welcome consolation. For several days I was sick.
“Certainly, the last thing I could expect in my life was to become an orator.”
A year after leaving school, Albert Wiggam was in Denver. The political campaign
of 1896 revolved around the problem of “free money.” One day Wiggam read a pamphlet
explaining the purposes of those who supported the broadcast; He became so outraged by
what he considered the mistakes and false promises of Bryan and his followers that he
pawned his watch for money needed to return to Indiana, his place of origin. Once there, he
offered his services to speak on the topic of healthy currency. Many of his old friends from
school were among the audience. “As I began,” he writes, “the memory of my speech on
Adams and Jefferson crossed my mind. I choked and started stuttering. All seemed lost,
but, as Chauncey Depew says, the audience and the speaker somehow managed to get
through the introduction. Encouraged by my small success, I spoke for what I considered
fifteen minutes. To my great astonishment, I later discovered that I had been speaking for
an hour and a half.
“As a result, over the course of the next few years, I found myself becoming a
professional speaker, at which I was more surprised than anyone else in the world.
“I knew from my own experience what William James meant when he referred to
the habit of success.”
Yes, Albert Edward Wiggam learned that one of the surest ways to banish the
annihilating fear of speaking before a group of people is to accumulate a series of fortunate
experiences.
You should expect a certain degree of fear as a natural complement to your desire
to speak in public, and you should learn to trust that relative sense of fear of the audience
to help you make your speech more brilliant.
If fear of the public cannot be controlled and seriously limits your effectiveness by
producing a mental block, lack of fluency, uncontrollable tics, excessive muscle spasms,
you should not lose all hope. These symptoms are not unusual in those who begin. If you
make the necessary effort, you will discover that the degree of fear of the audience will
soon be reduced to the point that it will be a help to you and not a hindrance.

II. PREPARE CONVENIENTLY

2.1. The keynote speaker at a luncheon at the Rotary Club of New York several
years ago was a prominent government official. We were looking forward to hearing you
describe your department's activities.
Almost immediately it became clear that he had not prepared his speech. At first
he tried to speak improvising. Unsuccessful in his attempt, he searched in his pocket for a
sheaf of notes that were evidently no more organized than a pile of scrap metal inside a
car. He manipulated them for a few moments; He became increasingly confused and
showed greater inability to deliver his speech. Minute by minute his situation was more
205 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

unsustainable and his daze more evident. But he continued his talk in fits and starts, he
continued rambling, trying to extract something from his notes that made a hint of sense;
With his trembling hand he raised, from time to time, a glass of water to his dry lips. He
presented the pitiful appearance of a man completely overcome by panic, due to his almost
total lack of preparation. Finally he sat down. He was one of the most humbled speakers I
have ever seen in my life. He had given his talk as Rousseau says a love letter should be
written: he began without knowing what he would say and ended without knowing what he
had said.
Since 1912, it has been my professional duty to critique five thousand talks a year,
from this experience emerges a great teaching that stands like Mount Everest above all
others. Only the prepared speaker deserves to have confidence. How is it possible that
someone intends to assault the fortress of fear if they go into battle armed with defective
weapons, or without any kind of ammunition? “I believe,” says Lincoln, “that I will never
have grown old enough to speak without being embarrassed when I have nothing to say.”
If you want to gain confidence, why don't you do the one thing that can give you
confidence as a speaker? “Perfect love, wrote the apostle John, banishes fear, “that makes
perfect preparation. Daniel Webster says that he would find it as inappropriate to appear
before an audience half-dressed as it would be to appear half-prepared.

2.2. Never Learn a Speech Word for Word

By “perfect preparation” do I mean that you must memorize your speech? I

answer this question with a resounding No. In their attempt to protect themselves from the
dangers of falling into a mental blackout in front of an audience, many speakers fall into the
trap of learning everything by heart. Once caught by this kind of mental opiate, the speaker
is trapped by an overwhelming method of preparation that destroys his effectiveness on the
stage.
When H. v. Kaltenborn, the dean of American commentators, was a student at
Harvard University and took part in an oratory contest. He chose a short story titled
“Gentlemen, the King.” Then his mind went blank. Better said, it was completely dark.
Kalterborn was terrified. In the midst of his desperation, he began to express the content of
the story in his own words. He was the most surprised of all the students when the judges
awarded him first prize. From that day until today, H. v. Kaltenborn has not memorized a
speech. That has been the secret of his success in his radio career. Take some notes and
speak naturally to your audience without any writing.
The man who writes and memorizes his speeches wastes his time and energy
and hovers around disaster. Throughout our lives we have spoken spontaneously. We
haven't been thinking about the words. We have thought about ideas. If our ideas are clear,
words emerge naturally and unconsciously, in the same way we breathe.
Winston Churchill himself had to learn this lesson the hard way. In his youth,
Churchill wrote and memorized his speeches. One day, during a memorized intervention in
the British Parliament, his train of thought was paralyzed. His mind went blank. Churchill
was disturbed, humiliated. He repeated his last sentence from the beginning. Once again
his mind went blank and his face turned red. He sat. To this day, Winston Churchill has
never attempted to deliver a speech learned by heart.
If we learn our talk word by word, we will probably forget it when we face our
listeners. Even if we do not forget our memorized speech, we will probably pronounce it in a
 D.5 Communication Skills 206

mechanical way. Because? Because it does not arise from our hearts, but from our
memories. When we talk in private, we always think of something we want to say: words.
We have been doing the same thing our entire lives. Why should we insist on changing
this? If we write and memorize what to say, we can suffer the same experience as Vance
Bushnell. Vance had graduated from the School of Fine Arts in Paris and later became vice
president of one of the most important insurance companies in the world: The Equitable
Life Assurance Society. Years ago, he was asked to speak to two thousand Equitable Life
representatives from all over America at a meeting in White Sulfur Springs, Virginia. At the
time, he had only two years of experience in the insurance business, but he had performed
so successfully that he was chosen for a twenty-minute talk. Vance was delighted. He felt
that his conference was going to give him prestige. But, unfortunately, he wrote it down and
learned it by heart. He rehearsed forty times in front of a mirror. Everything was perfectly
calculated: every phrase, every gesture, every facial expression. There was no fault, Vance
thought. However, when he stood up to speak, he was overcome with terror. He began:
“My part in this program is…” His mind went blank. In the midst of his confusion, he took
two steps back and tried to start again by all means. Once again there was a void in his
mind. Again, he took two steps back and tried to start. He repeated the scene three times.
The stand was one and a half meters high, at the back it had no railing, and from there to
the wall there was a space about two meters wide. Thus, in his fourth retreat, he fell
backwards from the platform and disappeared into the open space. The auditorium burst
into laughter. A man fell from his chair and rolled down the hallway. Never before, nor again
since, in the history of The Equitable Life Assurance Society, has anyone given such a
comical spectacle. The most amazing part of the event is that the audience thought it was
actually a prepared act. The older folks at The Equitable Life still talk about that scene.
But what happened to the speaker, Vance Bushnell? He himself confessed to me
that that had been the occasion in which he was most disturbed in his entire life. He was so
dissatisfied that he resigned.
His superiors persuaded him to break his resignation. They tried to get him to
regain his self-confidence. Years later, Vance Bushnell became one of the most effective
speakers in his organization. But he never learned a speech by heart again. Let's take
advantage of your experience.
I have heard countless reasons why men and women try to deliver learned
speeches, but I do not remember a single speaker who was not more efficient, more full of
life, more human, after throwing his learned speech into the wastebasket. . By doing this,
you may forget some points of the talk. He may ramble a little, but at least his words will be
more human.
Abraham Lincoln once said, “I don't like to listen to a well-prepared sermon. When
I hear preaching, I like to see the speaker act as if he were fighting a swarm of bees.”
Lincoln said that he liked to hear people speak with ease and enthusiasm in a speech. No
speaker acts as if he is wrestling with a beehive when trying to remember words learned by
heart.

2.3 Gather and organize your ideas beforehand

What, then, is the proper method to prepare a speech? Simply
this: look inside yourself for experiences that have taught you something about life, and
gather your thoughts, your ideas, your convictions, whatever has arisen from those
experiences. True preparation means reflection on your own issues. This is what Dr.
207 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

Charles Reynold Brown said several years ago in a memorable series of lectures at Yale
University: “Reflect on your own subject until it matures...then record your ideas, in a few
words, the necessary to fix the idea...record them on pieces of paper: you will find that it is
easier to organize these fragments when you go to put your material in order.” Does this
seem like a very difficult program? No, and it is not. It just requires a certain concentration,
thinking carefully about a specific purpose.

2.4. Rehearse your speech with your friends

Should you rehearse your speech after you have given it a certain order? Without
a doubt. This is a foolproof, simple and effective method. Use the ideas you have selected
for your speech in daily conversation with your friends, with your partners. Instead of
ignoring the difficulty, lean across the table and say something like this: “You know, Joe,
something really strange happened to me once. “I would like to talk to you about that.” Joe
will probably love hearing the story. Observe your reactions. Pay attention to your answer.
Joe may have some interesting ideas that are of value. He doesn't have to know that you
are rehearsing a speech, and it really doesn't matter. But he will probably say later that he
enjoyed the conversation.
Allan Nevins, the distinguished historian, gives a similar warning to writers: “Pick a
friend who is interested in the subject and talk to him at length about what you have
learned. In this way you will discover that some of your interpretations may be wrong, that
some aspects of your arguments are not well determined and you will find what is the most
appropriate way to write the story that you must tell.”

III. PREDISPOSE YOUR MIND FOR SUCCESS

In the first chapter, you will remember, this phrase was used in relation to
developing the correct attitude that should be taken in the training period. The same rule
can be applied to the specific task we now face, that of transforming every opportunity to
speak into a fortunate experience. There are three ways to achieve this goal:

3.1. Dive into your topic

After you have chosen the topic of your dissertation, and arranged it according to
a plan, after having discussed it with your friends, your preparation is not finished. You
must convince yourself of the importance of your topic.
He must acquire the attitude that has inspired all the truly great people of History:
belief in his own cause. How can you fan the fire of faith in the message you must deliver?
Investigating all aspects of his topic, taking hold of its deepest meaning, and searching
within himself for the most appropriate way for his speech to help his listeners to be better
after they have heard it.

3.2. Remove your attention from all negative stimuli

For example, thinking that you may make grammatical errors or stopping suddenly
 D.5 Communication Skills 208

in the middle of your dissertation are negative attitudes that can make you lose confidence
before you start. In particular, it is very important that you turn your attention away from
yourself immediately when it is your turn to speak. Focus on what the other speakers are
saying, give them your full attention, without reservation, and you will not be able to
accumulate excessive fear of the audience.

3.3. Talk enthusiastically to yourself

Unless he is dedicated to a great cause to which he has dedicated his life, every
speaker will have moments of doubt about his topic. He will ask himself if the topic chosen
is the most appropriate for him, if it will be of interest to the audience. You will experience a
painful temptation to change the subject. On these occasions, when the negative spirit is
most on the verge of completely destroying your own confidence, you should talk to
yourself, with enthusiasm. In clear and sincere words tell yourself that your speech is the
most suitable for you, because it comes from your own experience, from what you think
about life. Tell yourself that you are better suited than any other member of the audience to
speak on the topic of your lecture and that you will do your best to express it as best as
possible. Is this an old-fashioned doctrine? It is possible, but contemporary experimental
psychologists agree that motivation based on autosuggestion constitutes one of the most
powerful incentives for rapid learning, even when simulated. How much more powerful then
will be the effect of a sincere talk with oneself based on the truth!

SAW. ACT RESOLVED

The most famous American psychologist, Professor William James, has written
the following:
“Action seems to be a consequence of feeling, but in reality, action and feeling are
inseparable; By regulating action, which is more directly under the control of the will, we
can indirectly regulate feeling, which is not.”
“Therefore, the sovereign voluntary path to happiness, if we have lost our
happiness, is to take happy attitudes, act and express ourselves as if happiness were
already ours. If this behavior does not bring with it a feeling of bliss, nothing can achieve it.
“So to feel brave, we must act as if we were, use all our will to that end, and a
feeling of courage will most likely replace our feeling of fear.”
Put Professor James' advice into practice. To gain courage when facing an
audience, act as if you already have it. Of course, as long as you are prepared; Otherwise,
all the actions in the world will be of little use to you. But assuming you know what you're
going to say, introduce yourself boldly and take a deep breath. In fact, whenever you have
to face an audience, breathe deeply for thirty seconds before you begin. The extra oxygen
supplement will help it maintain and increase its value. The great tenor Jean de Reszke
used to say that when you achieved a breath that you could “sit on,” your nervousness
vanished.
Try to stand as tall as you can and hold the audience's gaze; Start talking with the
same confidence you would feel if each of them owed you money. Imagine that they owe
you. Think that they have met there to ask you for an extension of your credit. The
psychological effect it will have will be beneficial for you.
209 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

If you doubt what this philosophy means, I would change your mind after talking
for a few minutes with some of the members of my classes who have preceded you in
applying the notions on which this book is based.
Since you can't talk to them, listen to the words of an American who will always be
a symbol of courage. He was once the most fearful of men; By putting self-conviction into
practice, he became one of the most daring; He was the symbol of hope, the man who
dominated the auditoriums, the ruler who brandished the club, the president of the United
States, Theodore Roosevelt.
“He had been a rather sickly and clumsy boy,” he writes in his autobiography. In
the early years of my youth, I felt nervous and distrustful of my abilities. I had to make
painful efforts not only in terms of my physique, but also in terms of my soul and my spirit.”
Fortunately, Roosevelt has revealed to us how he carried out his transformation.
“As a child,” Roosevelt writes, “I read a passage from one of Marryat's books that always
impressed me. The captain of a small British warship explains to the hero how to acquire
the virtue of fearlessness. He says that at first almost all men are terrified when they are
going to take action, but what they must do, then, is to deceive themselves so that they can
act as if they were not afraid. After a while, fantasy becomes reality and man becomes
brave by practicing fearlessness without feeling it.
“This is the theory that I applied from now on. There were plenty of things that
scared me at first, from grizzly bears to unruly horses to gun fighting; but acting as if I had
no fear, I gradually ceased to be. “Most men can experience the same thing if they choose
this path.”
Defeating the fear of public speaking causes a tremendous change in value in
everything we do. Those who accept this challenge later find that they are better
individuals. They discover that their victory over the fear of people has given them a richer
and more intense life.
A salesperson writes: “After standing up a few times in front of the class I felt able
to confront whoever I needed to. One morning I went to the office of a particularly tenacious
sales agent; Before he could say 'no', I had spread my samples on his desk. I signed one of
the largest orders
purchase that I have received in my life.”
A housewife told one of our representatives: “I was afraid to invite my neighbors to
my house, thinking that I would not be able to carry the conversation forward. After taking a
few lessons that required me to stand up, I made my decision and held my first evening. It
was all a success. “I did not feel any difficulty in stimulating the group towards interesting
conversations.”
In a graduation class, a sales employee expressed: “I was afraid of customers, I
spoke to them in a tone that seemed like excuses. After speaking to the class a few times, I
realized that I spoke with greater confidence and poise, and I began to respond to
objections with authority. “My sales increased by forty-five percent in the month after I
started the course.”
They all discovered that it was easy to overcome other fears and anxieties and
succeed - where before they might have failed. You will also find that public speaking will
help you deal with the problems that arise every day, thanks to the particular attitude that
confidence brings. You will be able to consider life's problems and conflicts with a new
sense of competence. What has been a series of insoluble situations can become a
luminous invitation to increase the pleasure of living.
 D.6 Visual Aids 210

III.D.6

VISUAL AIDS FOR COMMUNICATION

VISUAL AIDS

The greater the number of methods used to reinforce the content of a

presentation, the greater the learning will be. From a presentation only see Bal,
the individual will retain only 20% of what was heard. If the presentation is
accompanied by visual aids (slides, transparent sheets, films, large drawings) the
percentage of information retention increases up to 50%. So the use of visual aids
is of utmost importance for participants in a training event to grasp the message
of a given presentation. However, the use of visual aids has to be done in a
professional manner, or the effort will not achieve the expected results.

This section presents guidelines on the use of visual aids. Other materials on this
topic are presented in Volume II, Interpretation Module, topics 6 and 9.

III.D.6.a

VISUAL AID EQUIPMENT: NOTES

(Taken from OFDA Course)

There are three categories of visual aids:

1. Objects as aids - models, prototypes, simulators, computers, the object itself,

you.

2. Aids that are projected - video playback equipment, overhead projectors,

movie projectors, slide projectors and any other projectors you care to
mention.

3. Aids that are not projected : flipchart, blackboard, distribution materials,

maps, diagrams, photographs, flannel boards.

Why do we use visual aids?

1. They provide variety.

2. They reinforce information.
3. They reduce instructor anxiety by presenting notes in sequence.
4. They help with retention.
5. They encourage you to participate.
6. They attract attention.
211 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

When should we use visual aids?

1. When difficult concepts are presented . There are certain things that are
difficult to explain but are clear if they can be shown - a heliographic plan,

national.
 D.6 Visual Aids 212

2. When specific emphasis needs to be placed . Underline main points to

help students identify them within the many details of a complex topic.

3. When you have to summarize the main points . It is a useful way to

organize the presentation and conduct the summary during the conclusion.

4. When you have to demonstrate relationships . A pie chart can

demonstrate the distribution of a budget. An organization chart shows
management levels, etc.

ACCEPTABLE AID CRITERIA

1. Ideal for the subject - in theme and seriousness. Avoid cartoons or jokes
that are not related to the topic.

2. Order - Use mounts or water-dilutable ink markers to develop complex visual

aids. Too much information presented at one time is confusing and
overwhelming.

3. Visible from a Distance - Lighting must be adequate for the aid selected.
Help should be appropriate for the size of the room and group. Lines of sight
must not be obstructed.

4. Technically correct - If there is an error in your visual aid, your audience

may begin to doubt the accuracy of the rest of your presentation.

5. They contain only one main idea - Don't try to compress too much
information into a visual aid. Give each help a title and a topic.

6. Simple and functional - The simpler the help, the better your chances of the
help working correctly.

7. Good physical condition - If your visual aid is becoming worn, stained, etc.
replace it. Poor or poor quality visual aids can have a negative effect on your
credibility and on the degree of student engagement and retention.

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT VISUAL AIDS

Flipchart

Transparencies (Acetates)
213 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

Slides (Slides) Whiteboard

III.D.6.b

PAPELOGRAPHS: NOTES

(Taken from OFDA Course)

Letter:
Size: Three centimeters minimum
Style: Without serif, simple.
Upper case
lower case: Use them both

Feathers
Color: Alternate colors. do not use yellow. red to highlight.
Guy: From water or oil

Spot: Wide tip.

Paper :
Guys: Newspaper, lined, squared, white, plastic (erasable-
reusable).
Size: Sheet

Peel It vs Stick It :
It can be used, taken off and used again or simply thrown away.

Content :
Only the key points, use simple graphics, other alternatives can be used,
participant manual, distribution material.

Only 10 lines per sheet.

Tricks :
Prepare the pages first with a pencil, then in class with a marker, prepare
the page with previously drawn lines as a guide for texts, separate pages
with blank sheets. use adhesive tape as a separator, relevel gradually.
 D.6 Visual Aids 214

Review of key points in the use of flipchart

1. Print 3 cm (1 1/4) to 5 cm (2 inches) high.

2. Large auditorium, large group, write in “bold”.

3. When speaking, address the audience and not the flipchart.

4. Do not write more than 10 lines of information per sheet.

5. Leave 5 cm (two inches) of margin at the bottom of the sheet.

6. Write only the key points on the sheet.

7. Complex or difficult material... prepare the sheet in advance.

8. Difficult words... write them in pencil at the top of the page.

9. Incorporate reminder cues into your notes to remind yourself of key aspects of
the sheet.

10. When you finish writing... wait 20 to 30 seconds before changing the sheet.

11. Practice changing leaves.

12. Once you have finished writing, do not cover the flipchart with your body.

III.D.6.c

USE OF ACETATE TRANSPARENCIES: NOTES

(Taken from OFDA Course)

Minimum Size:
Style:

.65 cm. or 18 points

Sin serif

Letter :
Uppercase/lowercase: Use them together

Color :
215 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

Movie:
Transparent. Colors for transparency and chemical burner.
Feathers:
For thick and thin transparent paper and for chemical.

Illustrations :
Simple to be easy to understand, illustrations or graphics instead of
words.

Content :
A single concept or idea, the minimum of words.

Construction :
Original:
Of a book. of a text or composition.
Movie:
It will depend on the transparencies available.
Mounting:
The film in contact with the glass, the arc over it.
Alternatives:
Different types of frames, reinforced edges thereof.

Tricks :
Use of drawing books, use of texts, compositions, enlargement using a
photocopier, elaboration with markers, elaboration with a photocopier,
mixtures of use.

The Overhead Projector

Setting: Body with bulb, fan and screen. Arm, lens and mirror.

Operation: Power switch, height, distance to the screen, focus. Position of

the transparencies, use of the pointer, cleaning, operation of the
fan.

Issues: Irregular focus due to reflector mirror problems. Location in the

living room. Light bulb change.

Advantages: Easy transport, allows it to be used in various spaces, does not

require as much darkness as others, allows you to improvise
du rating the presentation by adding or modifying. You can use
different types of material such as transparencies, acetates,
celluloid and even transparent plastic.
 D.6 Visual Aids 216

Limitations: High cost of equipment, fragility, requires electrical energy,

During the day it cannot be used outdoors or in very bright
rooms.

Review of key points in the use of transparencies

1. Check that the location of the projection screen is appropriate.

2. The overhead projector should be placed on a low counter or table.

3. The light beam coming from the projector lamp must form a 90-degree angle
with the screen and must coincide with its center.

4. The distance between the screen and the first row of seats must be equal to 2
x A (A=width of the screen).

5. The distance between the screen and the last row of seats must be equal to 6
x A.

6. Limit the content of the slide to just one topic.

7. Keep transparencies simple.

8. Letters must be at least 0.65 (1/4 inch) tall.

9. Use upper and lower case letters to write most of the text, write few words in
capital letters to highlight their importance.

10. Preferably use illustrations, cartoons, graphs and diagrams instead of words.

11. Use colored transparent material to make your transparencies in order to

reduce the glare produced by the projector lamp.
217 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

III.D.7

ROOM MANAGEMENT
Codes Atmosphere Size Best Uses
This section presents a series of drawings and figures that will help you view and I
= Informal P = Small 4-15 Inf. = Meetings of
i Int s e t ra u c c c t i o r n a determ F in = a F r o la rm m at best organ Miz = ac M io en dia d n
eo l 1 m 5 o - 4 b 0 iliary available In i f b o l r e m e a n tio n the room that Gr v u a po a s to use.

Obviously the organizationTo make. In any case, it is important to know that E u = e Ex la ce u

le b n ic te well - thought - out use of chairs , tables and other mu S e P bl = es R d
e e a u i n on a e s s a d la e de i B n = s B tru u e c n c o ion can greatly improve
the environment, facilitating d S e o l e uc s i t ó a n m e a r a l R a = p R o is g i u b l i a li
rity for the instructor to transmit his message, and therefore m r a e s cing e P l = n P i o v b e r l
e
of learning.
T
S i e po de d b e e act t om a or r da e c n io c n uent V a is q ta ue la T s am m a e ñ d o ida
In
s te p ra o c p c o ir ó c n ionad A a m s b s i o ent guides, M n e o jore g s las. Experience
has
shown that these methods are optimal for certain situations .
situations.
EMB Without argo, instructor must adapt wear them at circumstance
Existing conference. s
U-shaped M B I or F
the- B
Box-shaped b M b Yo SP

U-shaped in Rows AND M b I or F CP

E-shaped R g R I or F Info.
T-shaped R M b F Info.
Board of Directors Q M PR F Info.
Oval shaped b M b Yo SP

Small Group
Diamond b M B.E. Yo CP-SP
Round table AND M AND Yo CP-SP
Circle (without tables) AND M AND Yo CP-SP
Triangle b M B.E. Yo SP
Rectangle R.B. Q R.B. I or F CP-SP
Oval b Q b I or F CP-SP
Trapezoid b Q B.E. Yo CP-SP

Square, V or L shaped b P.M B.E. Yo CP-SP

Audience
Square R g Q F Info.
Semicircular b g Q F Info.
V-shaped R.B. g Q F Info.

Classroom
T-Square PR g Q F Inf.-CP
Perpendicular Q g Q F Inf.-CP
V-Common b M R.B. Yo CP
Inverted V R.B. M R.B. Yo CP
 D.7 Room Management 218

III.D.7.a

ANALYSIS OF ACCOMMODATIONS

(Taken from OFDA Course)

7 Space and seats

Minimum
Space
distance
(in meters)
1. Between the opposite wall and the first
line of tables ........................................ 3

2.
Width of hallways along side walls ...... 0.60

3. Main hallway width .............................. 1.20

4. Between lines of tables ....................... 1.20

5.
Allowed for chair space from table ......
0.90
6.
Between lines of tables when people sit
back to back ........................................
1.50
7. Back of the room: distance from the
table to the wall (includes space for
chair) ...................................................
2.40
8.
Writing space on the table (per person)
0.75 or 0.90 •
219 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

III.D.7.b

BASIC ACCOMMODATION GUIDELINES

(Taken from OFDA Course)

TYPES OF
ACCOMMODATIONS
FOR CONFERENCES

U-SHAPED IN THE SHAPE OF "BOX"

(Square or Rectangular)

U-SHAPED
IN ROWS

T-SHAPED E-SHAPED BOARD OF DIRECTORS

 D.7 Room Management 220

TYPES OF ACCOMMODATIONS FOR SMALL GROUPS

ROUND TABLE

ei
t
h
e
r

ei
t
CIRCLE
h
(Without TRIANGLE
e
Tables)
r
SQUARE RECTANGLE OVAL TRAPEZOID
□□
□□□
□□□
221 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

TYPES OF ACCOMMODATIONS FOR

AUDITORIUMS OR THEATERS

□ □ □ □ □
□ □ □ □ □
□ □ □ □ □
□ □ □ □ □
□ □ □ □ □
□ □ □ □ □
□ □ □ □ □

SQUARE SEMICIRCULAR

V-SHAPED
222 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

TYPES OF CLASSROOM ACCOMMODATIONS

SQUARE (Traditional)
PERPENDICULAR

(Common (Inverted V)
V)

V-SHAPED
 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 223

III.D.7.c

TYPES OF ACCOMMODATIONS

(Taken from OFDA Course)

 224 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

III.D.8
EVALUATION AND TESTING

III.D.8.a

EVALUATION AND TESTING

by: Manuel Ramirez R. and Thais Castillo A.

(Taken from OFDA Course)

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION

II. GOALS

III. ASSESSMENT
A. Informal evaluation
B. Formal evaluation

V. EVALUATION APPROACHES AND CRITERIA

VI. WHY, WHAT, WHEN AND HOW WE EVALUATE

VII. EVALUATION AND RELATED CONCEPTS: MEASUREMENT

AND TESTING A. Measurement
8. Evidence
1. Written test
1.1 Types of questions - Objective response -
Developmental response
2. Oral test
3. Test run

VIII. QUALITIES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

A. Validity
B. Reliability
C. Objectivity
D. Representativeness
E. Practicability

IX. VALIDITY OF QUESTIONS

A. Congruence
B. Technical Quality
C. Difficulty level

X. BIBLIOGRAPHY
D.8 Evaluation and Testing 229
 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 230

I. INTRODUCTION

The instruction process, as a systematic activity, responds to proposed

objectives that, clearly defined, guide the work and also indicate commitments of
achievement and performance to be achieved.
The evaluation represents the activity immersed in this process, which
offers the necessary information for the instructor to identify during, by periods or
at the end of the teaching project, the results obtained.
Therefore, it is essential that the instructor masters the various forms,
techniques and instruments of evaluation, so that he can know, accurately and in
a timely manner, about the level of achievement of his work, in light of the
student's results.

II. GOALS

Upon completing this unit the participant will be able to:

SPIRAL OF THE
EDUCATION

- Explain the concept of evaluation and the formal and informal process.
- Determine the characteristics of the evaluation.
- Distinguish between evaluation approaches and criteria.
- Describe why, what, when and how it is evaluated.
231 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

- Identify the difference between evaluating and measuring.

- Explain the difference between written, oral and execution or performance
tests.
- List different types of questions that can be used in the
construction of the written test.
- Distinguish the qualities that measurement instruments must possess: validity,
reliability and others.
- Distinguish the validity of the questions.

III. ASSESSMENT

“Evaluation refers to the total context of an educational situation, its causes and
its results.”
(Lawton, 1980)

The evaluation presents as features that:

- It is based on data to provide information

- The information must be useful for decision making
- Decisions are made in a broader context, in relation to the situation being
evaluated.
- Evaluation decisions involve values.

Evaluation is generally associated with forms or tests, but the existence of

another evaluation, the informal one, is hidden.

One can then distinguish between evaluation as an informal process and a formal
process.

A. INFORMAL EVALUATION

Evaluation as an informal process is carried out spontaneously, without

any system, method, or criterion (Bazinet, 1984). It occurs as a natural process of
observation and perception of the person in charge of their work, or staff, to form
a judgment about the real contribution they make to the organization. It is the daily
observation of work.

This informal evaluation solves the problems that arise every day,
informs, reviews and evaluates at all hours, ensuring continuous regulation of the
activity; However, this informal evaluation, when carried out daily, with subjective
criteria and on immediate events, neglects those general and transcendent
aspects that are also important in the organization.

B. FORMAL EVALUATION

Evaluation as a formal process “is systematic and structured, uses

 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 232

techniques and methods, tends to unify the point of view of the evaluators and
those evaluated and, ultimately, adheres to a set of known rules.” (Bazinet, 1984)

Formal evaluation makes it possible to obtain uniform data on people's

performance, summarize the systematic and continuous evaluation carried out by
the instructor, and compare the results in time and space. In time because the
results of different pre-established dates are compared. In space because
performance is compared between groups in the same organization.

The evaluation goes beyond obtaining data and information, it is the

interpretation of them, granting judgments or evaluations about knowledge,
performance, performance, among others, for making decisions in this regard,
applying the most appropriate measures. rectifying certain objectives, or perhaps
to rethink an entire program...

The evaluation contributes to a continuous perfection of the work; implies

the presence in each and every one of the components of the process, of the will
to perfection (Benedict, V. and others 1977).

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EVALUATION

The evaluation has certain implicit characteristics:

It is dynamic because it is a process where transformation is
generated.

It is flexible because it must be adjusted to the conditions of the

participants and the environment in which it is carried
out.
It is continuous because it is permanently manifested in the process.

because the relationship between social agents must be

It is dialogic
based on communication.

Show situations because it presents information from the context of

reality and offers opinions to recognize, decide and guide
that reality.

The approach is the way of approaching the analysis of a subject.

Choosing an approach is equivalent to placing the entire evaluation process from
a particular perspective.

For the purposes of the instructor training course, two complementary

approaches are proposed: the individual evaluation approach and the results
evaluation approach.

The individual evaluation approach is aimed at evaluating the person,

their behavior, their personality and their potential. This evaluation is achieved
233 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

through the use of criteria capable of describing reality: knowledge and

experience, appearance and health, judgment, ability to function, decision-making
spirit and management skills, among others.

The approach to the evaluation of results is oriented towards the

evaluation of the function performed by the individual, aiming to assess the quality
and degree of completion of the assigned tasks. This assessment is achieved
through the use of quantitative criteria and achievement criteria (objectives of the
proposed work).

Quantitative criteria are based primarily on the various aspects of

instructional achievement: people educated, “amount” of instruction, and time.

Achievement criteria (work objectives) are based mainly on the

comparison between the expected results (which become criteria) and those
actually obtained.

The evaluation criteria constitute the basic elements, they are the
starting points in matters of evaluation, they have a normative value, they are the
guide for the assessment and they must be capable of providing information that
can be measured, for this reason their selection must be careful and sensible

In the process. evaluation, it must be determined not only which criteria

are to be used, according to the approach, but also whether the criteria will be the
same for all those evaluated and the most appropriate means for their weighting,
that is, ensuring the weight that the criteria will have. that reflects its importance in
reality.

SAW. WHY, WHAT, WHEN AND HOW WE EVALUATE

WHY IS IT EVALUATED ?

The reason for evaluation can be expressed in a general purpose: to

verify whether sufficient performance has been achieved in the educational
process, given the planned objectives and the personal and material conditions
with which work has been done.

- Evaluation is the means to know each student personally, in terms of

quantity and quality of knowledge, physical and social characteristics, interests
and aptitudes, which makes possible the guidance and assistance of the
educational process.
- The evaluation can also show if what fails are the given objectives,
indicating that they are above the student's capabilities, which means the need to
modify them and make them within their reach.
- The evaluation also includes the manifestation of the effectiveness of
the instructor's work in search of improvement.
- The evaluation allows the granting of grades.
- The evaluation affects each and every one of the participating
 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 234

elements.

WHAT IS EVALUATED?

The what of evaluation is very broad, it refers to everything that

constitutes a process, in which clear and specific criteria are desired to be
determined.

Some of the aspects that are evaluated are:

- Acquired knowledge
- Skills achieved
- Developed attitudes
- Scope of a program
- Dimension or number of people covered.
- Duration of the program
- Program complexity

WHEN IS IT EVALUATED?

The appropriate time to carry out the evaluation is determined by the

evaluator, according to the needs and circumstances proposed in the evaluation
system.

If you apply formative evaluation, you must evaluate at all times during
the process.

If you apply summative evaluation, you must evaluate in certain periods

and at the end of the process.
If you apply diagnostic evaluation, you must evaluate the student at the
beginning of instruction or at the beginning of each topic.

HOW IS IT EVALUATED?

A well-organized evaluation system must offer information on all aspects

that are implicit in the instruction and learning process.

To evaluate all aspects, you must use different observation instruments:

checklists, anecdotal records; and measurement instruments: objective tests,
developmental tests, or a combination of objective and developmental testing.

VII. EVALUATION AND RELATED CONCEPTS: MEASUREMENT AND

TESTING

Systematic and continuous evaluation is based on the greatest number of

data possible, seeking to obtain extensive information, to make value judgments
235 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

based on this information.

The evaluation takes into account the results obtained by the

measurement and interprets those results based on a certain person or situation.

TO. MEASUREMENT

Measurement constitutes the objective, that is, quantitative assessment

of a product or performance. The measurement essentially aims to describe the
degree to which a cognitive, affective or psychomotor trait or character is
possessed, through numbers or letters, without taking anything else into account
(Benedicto et al., 1977).

Frederik Brown agrees with Stevens (1980), defining measurement as

the process of assigning numerical values to a person's performances or events,
according to specific rules.

For Lindeman (1971), measurement is the act by which a

correspondence relationship is established between a set or series of numbers
and another set of people or objects, according to certain established standards.
Measurement is the assignment of a numerical value to an event and
generally consists of the administration and scoring of exercises.

The type of measurement that is intended to be used must be determined

in part by the type of objective that is sought to be measured.

The measurement covers the quantitative aspects of what is examined;

re It answers the question, how much (quantity) The role of measurements is to
provide accurate and important information to facilitate the making of correct
decisions that result in effective education.

Some functions that educational measurement fulfills are:

- obtain information to guide the student to solve their problems.

- determine students' strengths or weaknesses.
- determine the level of performance achieved.
- affirm the level of mastery of a certain knowledge.
- obtain data and information that allows decision making.

Information and data are obtained through the use of measuring

instruments, as well as other techniques. The measure used is determined by the
type of objective that is intended to be measured.

The objective contents can be measured accurately to specify the

quantity or proportion in which they exist, through tests: development objectives,
oral tests, mathematical problems and others.

To measure the execution skills of a task or its product, controlled

observation techniques are used: checklists, rating scales.
 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 236

The emotional or subjective aspects of the individual, through techniques

such as: interviews, autobiographies and others.

The test constitutes a measuring instrument.

8. TESTS

“Tests consist of planning a situation that individuals must resolve, using

learned behaviors” Ugalde, 1985)

The test must consider the group of people to whom it will be applied:
age, intellectual level, environmental conditions and circumstances of its
application.

Tests require correct planning that involves:

- formulation of test objectives

- determination of contents to be evaluated
- preparation of a table of specifications, which relates the objectives to
the contents.
- selection of the type of questions or problems
- score assignment according to the type of questions and level of
difficulty.

The tests are valuable to examinees among other things:

- adopt systematic study habits

- favors the organization of time.
- acquire and reproduce their knowledge
- expand your capabilities
- objectively and independently estimate your progress
- They understand the need to intensify their efforts.

The most frequently used tests are the following:

- written or pencil and paper tests

- oral tests and
- execution or performance tests

1. THE WRITTEN TESTS

The written test is the one that requires a written response from the
student and can be used individually or in groups. The written or pencil and paper
test “requires some type of response to a base of inquiry that ranges from the
unstructured to the highly structured.” (Lafourcade, 1969)

This is...
The classification of these tests is very varied, but can be generalized by
the form of response: essay tests and objective tests.
237 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

The essay test refers to questions that require the person who answers
them, time, organization and expression in their own words to provide the
answers. The question requires long answers, with creativity and thought from the
person answering. They offer the opportunity to express the individuality of both
the person asking the question and the person answering. The essay test is easy
to prepare but difficult to correct and measure.

Objective testing refers to questions that require the responder to give a

short answer, or to choose the correct answer from several options. The objective
test requires a lot of time to prepare and offers freedom of expression only to the
person who prepares it. In the objective test, the student spends more time
reading and thinking for decision-making than expressing the answer.

KIND OF QUESTIONS

In the written tests, both objective response and developmental response

questions are used. The questions require, for their preparation, a careful
selection of content to be evaluated, and rigor in their structure and wording.

TYPES OF OBJECTIVE RESPONSE QUESTIONS ARE:

Complete : It consists of a sentence where an important word is omitted, so that

the person answering can write it. It serves to measure concrete
knowledge and correct use of terms.

Selection : It consists of a statement that presents a situation or problem and a

series of options from which the correct, best or most complete answer
will be chosen, according to the instructions.

It is called single selection when only one of the options is correct and
the others act as distractors. It is called multiple selection when more
than one option is selected or when all the options are correct but one of
them is the best (that is, due to multiple difficulty). These selection
questions serve to measure recognition, exercise reasoning and
evocation. It serves to evaluate the proposed cognitive objectives in all
hierarchies.

Identification : It consists of presenting graphics, drawings, diagrams, maps or

texts, so that the elements or parts indicated in the instruction are
recognized. It serves to exploit understanding, recognition, application
and analysis. (Sampascual; 1978)

TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTAL RESPONSE QUESTIONS:

Problems : It consists of posing situations that represent certain relationships or

concepts that are known, associated with a certain degree of difficulty
and that demand a response or solution. The problems serve to measure
the level of reasoning, the relationship between concepts, knowledge and
logical thinking.
 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 238

Essay : It consists of approaches that demand creative responses, organization

of ideas and logical and coherent expression of knowledge.

2. THE ORAL TESTS

The oral test is one that requires a voice response to questions asked in
the same way. Lafourcade classifies oral tests into formal and informal.

Formal Tests :

They are those in which the person responding has complete freedom to
focus on the topic proposed without interruptions and without strict time
limitations. There are appropriate situations for the evaluation of this type of
test: lectures, participation in group discussions, oral reports and

others. When grading, it is advisable to use checklists or rating scales.

Informal tests:

They are those in which questions with specific content are asked, which
require answers on what is requested by the evaluator, which may be on a
topic, different topics, opinion and personal reflection.

3. EXECUTION OR PERFORMANCE TESTS

The execution test is one in which a task or activity is carried out in

compliance with a specific order; It determines not only what the person knows or
knows, but also what he or she can execute. In this type of test, the person is
asked to carry out a certain real activity to check the effectiveness of its
performance. The performance test is mainly used when you want to measure
psychomotor objectives: manual skills, skills, also in the case of evaluation of
processes and products.

Processes : sequence of actions when preparing the work.

Product : result of the process.

VIII. QUALITIES OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Every test must bring together a series of qualities that, to the extent that
they are achieved, will be exponents of its quality. These qualities include validity,
reliability, objectivity, representativeness and practicability.

A. VALIDITY

A test is valid to the extent that its results measure what it is

intended to measure, that is, that they provide truthful information about
239 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

the cognitive, affective or psychomotor aspect about which information is

desired. If the results are to be used to measure the acquisition of certain
objectives, it will be valid if it measures those objectives and not others.

If the results are to be used to predict students' success in some

future activity, the test should provide as accurate information about
future success as possible. As can be seen, validity always refers to the
specific use that must be given to its results and the degree of veracity of
the information derived from it.

It is worth keeping in mind that validity refers to the results of a

test and not to the instrument itself, it is a matter of degree (high
validity, medium validity and low validity) and is always specific to
some particular use.

Validity can be determined from various angles: content validity,

psychological validity and statistical validity.

Content validity consists of the perfect adaptation of the test to

the content developed and reviewed in class, as well as the time
dedicated to the assimilation of those previously determined objectives.

Psychological validity consists of preparing the test in such a

way that its results reveal the level of maturation of the students.

Statistical validity refers to the correlation of the test result and

the evaluator's judgment of the student's academic performance. If, for
example, a group of students who have been showing interest and
maturity in their work fail a certain test, their value should be doubted.

B. RELIABILITY

A test is reliable when applied on various occasions, in a certain

period of time and to the same group or to
 D.8 Evaluation and Testing 240

parallel groups, produces approximately similar results. A test must have

consistency. Consistency is demonstrated when the test is applied on
different occasions to parallel classes and the student obtains the same
or similar results. Perfect consistency is impossible to achieve, since a
test cannot be applied several times under the same circumstances. It is
logical that multiple factors affect the scores: fatigue, chance, different
rates of forgetting, new learning, etc. However, this is about verifying how
accurately a test measures something.

C. OBJECTIVITY

Another characteristic of any test is objectivity. It is the condition

that makes it an instrument independent of personal opinion. A test is
objective when the evaluator's opinion does not affect the grade. The test
must be written in such a way that for each question only one answer fully
satisfies.

CH. REPRESENTATIVENESS

Balancing a test so that it is truly representative of the unit

objectives worked on in class is a task that cannot be improvised. The
test must be representative of the contents and objectives developed and
reviewed in class. The content of the test must be a selection or
representative sample of everything taught in the teaching and learning
process. The above is guaranteed with the use of the specifications table
that relates the objectives to the contents of the subject.

D. PRACTICABILITY

It would be of no use for the test to meet the characteristics

indicated above if it lacked the possibility of being applied in feasible
situations. It will no longer be a test that is too expensive, that requires
long explanations for students to understand, or that requires tiring
preparation work. The test must be practical in its application, easy to
organize, administer and correct (Castillo, T. and others, 1988).

IX. VALIDITY OF QUESTIONS

In relation to questions, they must also possess certain qualities. The

validity of the question consists of the specific value it has, directed to a purpose,
a content, a group of students, and a special circumstance. It is one of the
fundamental characteristics of the question to achieve the information you want to
obtain. The validity of the questions can be carried out before applying the test,
using the judges' criteria on three aspects:

A. Congruence between the question with the content and with the objective
241 IMPROVING OUR ABILITY TO TRAIN

to be evaluated.
B. Technical quality of the question
C. Question difficulty level

A. Congruence

Congruence is established by relating the question to the content, so that

this relationship is logical.- When relating the question to the objective, it
must be found to respond logically to the objective and the hierarchy in
which it is written.

B. Technical Quality

The technical quality of the question considers three aspects: structure,

writing and scoring.

Structure :

The structure corresponds to the parts that make up the question

according to their classification: select, complete, match or another
objective response, as well as the corresponding parts in the
development response questions.

Drafting:

The wording of the question must be in accordance with the known

vocabulary of the person who is going to solve it, making clear sense.
Each judge must indicate if any of the conditions are not met in each
question they validate.

Score:

The score must be assigned according to the type of question if it is an

objective response and according to the number of difficulties if it is a
developmental response.

C. Difficulty level

The judge will validate the question by assigning the level of difficulty of
each one according to his criteria.