Form 1 Notes

SUMMARIZED PHYSICS NOTES FORM 1
CHAPTER 1
NTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Physics as a Science
 One of the subjects offered in primary school is Science.
 At secondary school level and beyond, this subject is split into
three main areas namely;
(i) Biology, (ii) Chemistry
(iii) Physics.
Meaning of Physics
 Physics is defined as the study of matter and its relation to energy.
 The subject is applied in explaining phenomena like eclipse,
lightning, rainbow, mirage and many other wonders of nature.
 As a subject, the study of Physics involves measurement of
quantities and collection of data.
 Through experimentation and observations, hypotheses are drawn,
tested and consequently laws and principles established.
Branches of Physics
Physics as a study may be divided into the following key areas:
1. Mechanics
This involves the study of motion of bodies under the influence of forces.
2. Electricity and Magnetism
This deals with the relationship between electric currents and magnetic
fields and their extensive applications in the working of the electric
motor, magnetic relay and telephone receiver, among others.
3. Thermodynamics
This is the study of transformation of heat to and from other forms of
energy.
4. Geometrical Optics
 This is the study of the behaviour of light as it traverses various
media.
 Optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, periscopes
and laws governing their working form a major part of this branch
of physics.
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5. Waves
This involves study the propagation of energy through space.
6. Atomic Physics
This involves the study of the behaviour of particles constituting the
nucleus and the accompanying energy changes.
Relationship between Physics, other Subjects and Technology
Physics and Religion

 Systems in the universe reveal great orderliness which can be traced
back to the creator.
 The study of Physics comes up with findings that are in total
agreement with this orderliness.
 The earth faithfully maintains its rotation so that the sun will
always rise from the East and never from the West.
Physics and History

 Carbon dating, an application of radioactivity, serves as a crucial
tool to historians in establishing fossil ages and hence past patterns
of life.
 Early explorers like Vasco da Gama made use of the magnetic
properties of lodestone to determine direction.
Physics and Geography

 Establishment of weather patterns relies on the accurate use of
instruments like the thermometer, wind-vane and hygrometer.
 Heat transfer by convection explains the formation of convectional
rainfall and pressure variations that determine wind patterns.
 All these are concepts in Physics.
Physics and Home Science

 Physics knowledge has been applied in the design and manufacture
of domestic equipment.
 Examples are pressure cookers, microwave ovens, refrigerators and
the energy saving jiko and light bulb.
Physics and Biology

 Knowledge of lenses has helped in the making of the microscope
which has assisted in the study of the cell, the basic unit of life.
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 Similarly, the knowledge of levers helps to explain locomotion in

Biology.
Physics and Chemistry
 Physics has helped in explaining forces within atoms and therefore,
atomic structure.
 It is this structure of the atom that then determines the reactivity of
the atom as explained in Chemistry.
Physics and Mathematics

 Many concepts in Physics are expressed mathematically.
 In manipulations involving extreme quantities like the mass of the
earth or the charge on an electron, a good grasp of mathematical
skills is essential.
Physics and Technology

 In the field of medicine, X-rays, body scanners and lasers are
applications of Physics used in diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
 Even in the continuing research necessitated by the challenge
posed by such diseases as Ebola and HIV/AIDS, the development
of high precision equipment employing the principles of Physics
remains necessary.
 Information technology has reduced the world to a global village

through the use of satellites and microwave dishes which relay
information over extremely long distances in fractions of a second.
 The wide range of applications of Physics is used in industrial
development for the improvement of material well-being of the
human race.
 In the entertainment industry, Physics has contributed to the
refinement of sound and colour mixing techniques to create special
effects in stage presentations.
 The defence industry has also become highly technological. Wars
can now be fought using laser-guided bombs of extremely high
precision.
 However, if technology is not used responsibly, it can lead to social
and environmental problems. Notable cases are the Chernobyl
nuclear disaster in Ukraine of 1986 and the Hiroshima and
Nagasaki atomic bomb attacks during the Second World War.
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Career Opportunities in Physics

There is a wide range of opportunities involving Physics. The following is
a list of courses offered at university level that require sound knowledge of
Physics:
1. Bachelor of Arts (Buiding Economics).
2. Bachelor of Science (Construction management).
3. Bachelor of Architecture.
4. Bachelor of Medicine.
5. Bachelor of Dental Surgery.
6. Bachelor of Pharmacy.
7. Bachelor of Science (Nursing).
8. Bachelor of Science (Environmental Health).
9. Bachelor of Science (Bio-medical Science Technology).
10. Bachelor of Education (Home Science and Technology).
11. Bachelor of Science (Agricultural Education).
12. Bachelor of Science (Agricultural and Home Economics).
13. Bachelor of Science (Animal Production).
14. Bachelor of Science (Dairy and Food Technology).
15. Bachelor of Science (Fisheries).
16. Bachelor of Science (Food Technology).
17. Bachelor of Science (Food Science and Technology).
18. Bachelor of Science (Horticulture).
19. Bachelor of Science (Natural Resources).
20. Bachelor of Science (Range Management).
21. Bachelor of Science (Tourism).
22. Bachelor of Science (Wildlife and Management).
23. Bachelor of Science (Wood Science Technology).
24. Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine.
25. Bachelor of Science (Hotel and Institution Management).
26. Bachelor of Science (Environmental Studies).
27. Bachelor of Science (Textiles Design and Merchandising).
28. Bachelor of Science (Applied Aquatic Science).
29. Bachelor of Science (Food Nutrition and Dietetics).
30. Bachelor of Education (Agriculture and Home Economics).
31. Bachelor of Science (Agricultural Engineering).
32. Bachelor of Science (Civil Engineering).
33. Bachelor of Science (Electrical Engineering).
34. Bachelor of Science (Surveying).
35. Bachelor of Science (Electrical and Electronic Engineering).
36. Bachelor of Science (Electrical and Communication Engineering).
37. Bachelor of Technology (Electrical and Communication Engineering).
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38. Bachelor of Technology (Production Engineering).

39. Bachelor of Technology (Chemical and Process Engineering).
40. Bachelor of Technology (Civil and Structural Engineering).
41. Bachelor of Technology (Textile Engineering).
42. Bachelor of Science (Water and Environmental Engineering).
43. Bachelor of Science (Manufacturing and Engineering Technology).
44. Bachelor of Science (Instrumentation and Control Engineering).
45. Bachelor of Science (Computer Science).
46. Bachelor of Education (Technology).
47 Bachelor of Science (Computer Electronics, Science and Technology).
48. Bachelor of Home Economics (Food, Nutrition and

Dietetics
The above courses are also offered at diploma and certificate
levels.
Science Laboratory
 The laboratory is a facility designed and equipped for conducting
scientific research, experiments and measurements.
 An average laboratory has:
(i) electrical energy supply,
(ii) water piping system
(iii) gas piping system
(iv) workbenches
(v) cabinets for storage of equipment and chemicals.
 Some of the chemicals and equipment are particularly dangerous.
 An individual working in a typical laboratory will be exposed to a
number of dangers including poisons, flammable materials,
explosive materials, extreme temperature, moving machinery and
high voltage electricity.
 It is therefore necessary to take precautions when working in the
laboratory.
Some Basic Laboratory Rules
(i) Proper dressing must be put on. Shirts and blouses must be tucked
in and long hair tied up. Closed shoes must be worn.
(ii) Safety glasses or face shields must be worn when working with
hazardous or poisonous materials.
(iii) The locations of electricity switches, fire-fighting equipment, First
Aid kit, gas supply and water supply systems must be noted.
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(iv) While working in the laboratory, windows and doors should be kept
open. This is to prevent inhalation of dangerous materials or gases
and also to allow for easy escape/evacuation in case of an
emergency.
(v) Any instructions given must be followed carefully. Never attempt
anything while in doubt. In case of any doubt or queries, consult
your teacher or the laboratory assistant.
(vi) Never taste, eat or drink anything in the laboratory. Food should also
never be stored in the laboratory. This is to avoid the risk of
consuming dangerous or poisonous materials or substances.
Smelling of gases is also highly discouraged.
(vii) Ensure that all electrical switches, gas and water taps are turned off
when not in use. This is to avoid wastage in addition to averting the
risk of fire or other hazards.
(viii) When handling electrical apparatus, hands must be dry. Do not
splash water where electrical sockets are located. This can cause
severe electric shock.
(ix) Never plug foreign objects into electrical sockets. Apart from
damaging the socket, this can also cause an electric shock.
(x) Keep floors and working surfaces dry. Any spillage should be
wiped off immediately. Liquid on the floor surface can cause
skidding, resulting in serious injuries. Some corrosive liquids will
damage the floor or working surfaces.
(xi) All apparatus must be cleaned and returned to the correct location
of storage after use. This facilitates easy re-use of the apparatus,
apart from ensuring good order in the laboratory.
(xii) Laboratory equipment should not be taken out of the lab. This is to
minimise the risk of damage to the equipment, or even loss.
(xiii) Any waste after an experiment must be disposed of appropriately.
This is because waste from certain experiments can be quite
hazardous to the body and to the environment.
(xiv) Hands must be washed before leaving the laboratory.
(xv) Experiments should never be left unattended.
(xvi) Volatile and flammable compounds should only be used in the fume
cupboard. The same applies to procedures that should result in
hazardous fumes or any inhalable material.
(xvii) One should never look directly down into the liquid being heated in
a test- tube. The tube should also not be pointed towards anyone
nearby.
(xviii) Corrosive chemicals should be kept separately. This is to prevent
damage to other laboratory appliances especially the metallic type.
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First Aid Measures

 Accidents or emergencies are prone to occur any time and it is,
therefore, the user‟s responsibility to be conversant with the safety
and fire alarm posters strategically positioned within the laboratory
premises.
 In case of injuries in the laboratory, the teacher in charge or the
laboratory technician must be immediately informed and necessary
action taken without delay.
 Common laboratory injuries include burns, cuts and bruises
(sometimes resulting in bleeding), poisoning and foreign matter in
the eyes.
 These cases should be handled in the following way. (Those
offering first aid should ensure they are in the first place safe from
the danger).
1. Cuts
 These may result from poor handling of glass apparatus or cutting
tools like razors and scalpels.
 In case the cut results in bleeding, pressure or direct compression
should be applied directly to the wound and proper dressing applied
as medical assistance is sought.
2. Burns
 Burns may result from naked flames or even splashes of
concentrated acids and bases.
 Burns should generally be treated by flushing cold water over the
affected area.
 Acid burns could alternatively be treated with sodium hydrogen
carbonate (baking soda), and base burns with boric acid or vinegar.
3. Poisoning
 This may result from inhaling poisonous fumes or swallowing of
poisonous chemicals or materials.
 In case this happens, the poisoning agent should be noted while
urgent medical assistance is sought.
 For a poison ingested through the mouth, the recommended
antidote should be given to the victim, and vomiting should not be
induced unless recommended by a medical practitioner.
 If the poison is in form of a gas, the first step should be to remove
the victim from the area and take him/her to an area with fresher air.
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If the poison is corrosive to the skin, the victim‟s clothing should

be removed from the affected area, and cold water run over the area
for at least 30 minutes.
 If the poison gets to the eye, the same should be flushed with clean
water for at least 15 minutes, and the patient advised not to rub the
eyes.
4. Electric Shock
 This may result from touching exposed wires or using faulty
electrical appliances.
 Without getting in contact with the victim, the first thing to do is to
cut off the current causing the shock by:
(i) Turning off the current at the main switch, or,
(ii) Using a non-conducting object, such as wooden rod, to move the
victim away from the conductor.
 In the meantime, urgently seek medical assistance. If the victim has
a pulse but is not breathing, offer mouth to mouth resuscitation as
you await assistance.
 If for some reason a laboratory user faints or loses consciousness,
he/she should be promptly and gently moved to an area with fresh
air and placed in a recovery position (with the head slightly lower
than the rest of the body). If necessary, mouth to mouth
resuscitation should be offered.
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CHAPTER 3
FORCE
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
(a) define force and state its SI unit
(b) state the effects of force
(c) describe types of forces
(d) describe experiments to illustrate cohesion, adhesion and surface tension.
(e) state the difference between mass and weight
(f) state the relation between mass and weight (W = mg)
(g) solve numerical problems involving W = mg
(h) define scalar and vector quantities
Definition and SI unit of Force

 A force is a push or pull.
 The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
Effects of Force
A force acts in a particular direction and may have any of the following
effects on an object:
(i) make a stationary object start moving or increase the speed of a
moving object.
(ii) Slow down or stop a moving object.
(iii) change the direction of a moving object.
(iv) distort (change the shape of) an object.
 Some forces are small while others are large.
 Forces, therefore, have size (magnitude).
 A force is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction in

which it acts.
Figure 3.1
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Types of Forces
There are many types of forces some of which are listed below:
1. Gravitational force.
2. Tension.
3. Upthrust force.
4. Frictional force.
5. Magnetic force.
6. Centripetal force.
7. Cohesive and adhesive forces.
8. Surface tension.
9. Molecular force.
10. Electric force.
11. Nuclear force.
12. Electrostatic force.
1. Gravitational Force
 This is the force which pulls a body towards the centre of the earth.
 When an object is thrown up from or near the earth‟s surface, it

always fall downwards towards the ground. This is because of the
force of attraction which the earth exerts on the body near its
surface.
 An object near or on the surface of the moon also experiences the

gravitational force of the moon.
 Each planet exerts its own gravitational pull on an object on it.
2. Tension
 Tension is the quantity of the pulling force exerted by a string,
spring or cable on an object.
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 Some materials can withstand greater tension than others.
 Steel can withstand very high tension and is difficult to break.
 Similarly, nylon can withstand more tension than cotton.
 Tension is as a result of two opposing forces applied, one at each

end of a body.
 Stretch resulting from tension is made using bows and catapults.
 Some forces compress bodies and are called compressive forces.

 A compressed or stretched object will tend to regain its original
shape when the stretching or compressing force is removed.
 Materials that can be compressed or extended without breaking are
called elastic materials.
3. Upthrust
 This is an upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid

(liquid or gas).
 An object in a vacuum will not experience upthrust.
 The weight of an immersed object is smaller than its weight in air.
Up thrust = weight in air – weight in the fluid
Example 1
A body weighs 100 N in air and 80 N when submerged in water. Calculate
the up thrust acting on the body.
Solution
Up thrust = weight in air – weight in water
Up thrust = (100 – 80) N
Up thrust = 20 N
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4. Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

Cohesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of the same
kind, e.g., between a water molecule and another water molecule, while
adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different
kinds, e.g., between water molecules and glass molecules.
Experiment 3.1: To investigate the behaviour of water on different
surfaces
Apparatus
Clean glass slide, waxed glass slide, dropper, water.
Figure 3.2
Observation
(i) Water on the clean glass slide spreads on the glass surface (wets the
surface).
(ii) Small drops of water collect into small spherical balls on the waxed
surface.
Explanation
 Water wets the glass surface because the adhesive forces between
the water molecules and the glass molecules are greater than the
cohesive forces between water molecules.
 Water does not wet the waxed glass surface because the cohesive
force between the water molecules is greater than the adhesive force
between the water molecules and the glass molecules.
Note:
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(i) If mercury is used, small mercury drops in a clean glass dish surface
collect into spherical balls.
(ii) Larger mercury drops form oval balls.
Figure 3.3
Explanation
 Mercury does not wet the glass because the cohesive forces
between mercury molecules is stronger than the adhesive forces
between mercury molecules and the clean glass molecules.
Note:
Mercury is poisonous and should not be handled in an ordinary laboratory.
Experiment 3.2: To demonstrate cohesive and adhesive forces of
liquids in capillary tubes
Apparatus
Capillary (narrow) tubes with different sizes of bore, beaker, water,
glycerol, kerosene and methylated spirit.
Figure 3.4
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Observation
 The level of water inside the tubes is higher than outside the tubes.
 A meniscus is formed at top of water level.
 The water curves upwards from the reading level (a concave

meniscus).
 The rise in the tube with a smaller bore is higher than in the tube
with a larger bore.
 Different liquids rise by different heights, depending on the diameter

of the glass tube.
 If mercury is used, the level of mercury inside the tubes goes lower
than that outside the tubes.
 The surface of the mercury in the tubes will curve downwards, i.e.,
the meniscus curves downwards from the reading level (a convex
meniscus).
 The level of mercury in the tube with the smaller bore will be lower
than that in the tube with a larger bore.
Explanation
 Since the adhesive force between the water and glass molecules is
greater than the cohesive force between the water molecules, the
water rises up the tube so that more water molecules can be in
contact with the glass. This „wets‟ the glass.
 Liquids such as glycerol, kerosene and methylated spirit wet the
glass (or the vessel) and will rise in a narrow tube.
 On the other hand, the force of cohesion within the mercury is
greater than the force of adhesion between the mercury and glass.
The mercury, therefore, sinks down the tube to enable mercury
molecules to keep together.
 Liquids which do not „wet‟ the container will be depressed inside
the tube.
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5. Frictional Force
 Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces
in contact.
 Practical applications of friction in our daily lives include walking
and braking.
 Friction is caused by the interlocking of the surfaces and attractive
force between the surface molecules.
 The opposing force (frictional force) involving a fluid is called
viscous drag (viscosity).
 Viscous drag limits the speed with which a body can move in a
fluid.
6. Magnetic Force
 This is the force which causes attraction or repulsion by a magnet.
 A magnet has two types of poles, a north pole and a south pole.
 Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
 Some materials are attracted by a magnet while others are not.
 Those which are attracted are called magnetic materials while
those not attracted are called non-magnetic materials.
7. Electrostatic Force
 This is the force of attraction or repulsion of static charges
caused by rubbing (or friction) between two surfaces.
 A plastic pen or ruler rubbed on dry hair or fur picks up small

pieces of paper lying on a table when it is brought near them. The
same pen or ruler attracts a thin stream of water from a tap.
 When a glass window is wiped with a dry cloth on a dry day, dust
particles are attracted on it.
 Also, when shoes are brushed, they tend to attract dust particles.
This is because electrostatic charges formed on the rubbed surface
attract dust.
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8. Centripetal Force
 Centripetal Force is a force which constrains a body to move in a
circular path or orbit.
 This force is directed towards the centre of the orbit.
 Examples of where centripetal forces is applied include a stone tied
on a string (sling), separation of ghee from milk and the merry-go-
round.
9. Surface Tension
 This is the force which causes the surface of a liquid to behave like
a stretched elastic skin.
 This force is due to the force of attraction between individual
molecules of the liquid (cohesion).
 This skin always has a tendency to shrink, i.e., to have a
minimum surface area or elastic membrane.
Experiment 3.3: To investigate the behaviour of a liquid
surface
Apparatus
Beaker, steel needle or razor blade, water, kerosene or soap solution.
Figure 3.5
Procedure
 Fill a beaker with clean water to the brim.
 Place a dry steel needle or razor blade at the edge of the beaker and
carefully introduce it on the surface of the water. Take care not to
break the surface of the water. Observe what happens to the needle.
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 Put a few drops of kerosene or soap solution on the surface of the

water near the needle (not directly on the needle). Note what
happens.
 Depress the tip of the needle into the water and note what happens.
Observation
 The needle floats on the surface of the water and remains floating
so long as the water surface is not broken.
 When the surface of the water where the needle lies is observed
carefully (a magnifying lens would help), the water surface is found
to be slightly depressed and stretched like an elastic skin. (Figure
3.6)
Figure 3.6
 When drops of paraffin or soap solution are put on the surface of
the water around the needle, the needle sinks on its own after a few
seconds.
 If, alternatively, the tip of the needle is depressed lightly into the
water, the needle sinks very quickly to the bottom of the water.
Explanation
 The steel needle or the razor blade floats because it is supported

by the surface tension of the water.
 The needle or the blade sinks when a drop of kerosene or soap
solution is put in the liquid near the needle because the kerosene or
soap solution reduces the surface tension of the water.
 When the tip of the needle is pressed into the water, it pierces the
surface skin and sinks.
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Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

 Consider figure 3.7 below.
Figure 3.7
 A molecule, say C, deep in the liquid is surrounded by molecules

on all sides so that the net force on it is zero.
 However, molecules of the surface, say A and B, will have fewer
molecules on the upper side and hence will experience a resultant
inward force, causing the surface of the liquid to be in tension.
Experiment 3.4: To study the behaviour of soap bubbles
Apparatus
Glass funnel, soap or detergent solution.
Figure 3.8
Procedure
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 Take a glass funnel and dip it in liquid soap or detergent solution.
 Take it out and blow a soap bubble to the wide end [figure 3.8 (a)].
 Hold the funnel with the bubble downward and leave the top open.
[figure 3.8 (b)].
 Observe what happens.

Observation
The bubble flattens to a film and the film slowly rises up the funnel.
Explanation
 The soap bubble behaves as if its surface is tightly stretched.

 As it tries to make its surface as small as possible, it rises up the
funnel. [figure 3.8 (c)]
Experiment 3.5: To study the behaviour of soap films

Apparatus
Copper wire, thread, soap solution and needle.
Figure 3.9
Procedure
 Make a rectangular loop of copper wire.
 Tie a thread loosely across it [figure 3.9 (a)].
 Dip the loop in a soap solution and bring it out so that the loop is
filled with a soap film [figure 3.9 (b)].
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 Break the soap film on one side of the thread by touching it with a hot
needle.
Note the new shape of the thread.
Observation
When the film is broken on one side, the thread assumes a perfect curve
[figure 3.9 (c)].
Explanation
 In [figure 3.9 (b)], the thread lies in any position in the soap film
because the thread is being pulled on both sides by equal forces of
surface tension.
 However, when one side of the film is broken, the surface tension
acts only on one side of the thread.
 As the water tries to make its surface as small as possible, it pulls
the thread in such a way that it forms a perfect curve.
 The soap film exhibits surface tension.
Surface Tension of Different Liquids

The difference in surface tension of different liquids can be visualised in
the following demonstrations.
(a) The surface tension of soap is less than that of water
 A match stick or a small toy boat rubbed at one end with soap and
placed on the surface of water starts moving immediately.
 It moves in one direction only and in such a way that the end that
is not rubbed with soap is always in front. [figure 3.9 (a) and (b)]
Figure 3.11
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Note:
Any attempt to make it move in the opposite direction will fail.
Explanation
 The soap at the end of the stick immediately dissolves in water,
thereby lowering the surface tension at the end of the stick.
 The surface tension at the other end which is now greater pulls the
stick and makes it move in that direction.
 The movement gradually weakens and ultimately ceases. This

happens when the whole surface of water is covered with soap
solution.
 The camphor has the same effect as that of soap.
(b) Oil Spreads on Water

A few drops of oil from a fine tube form a circular patch when they fall on a
clean water surface.
Explanation
The forces along the surface of oil are weaker than those of the water
surface. The oil is thus pulled outwards into a thin film.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension

1. Impurities
 Impurities reduce the surface tension of a liquid.
 Detergents, for instance, weaken the cohesive forces between

liquid molecules.
2. Temperature
 With rise in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules of

a liquid is increased.
 The inter-molecular distance increases and the force of cohesion

is decreased. Hence, the surface tension is lowered.
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Consequences of Surface Tension

1. Water insects can rest on the surface of water without breaking the
surface. The insects also skate across the surface of water at high
speed.
2. Mosquito larvae float on water surface. Oiling the water surface using
kerosene lowers surface tension, thus making the larvae sink. Oiling
still water, therefore, controls the breeding of mosquitoes.
10. Action and Reaction
 Action and reaction are a pair of forces that equal and act in
opposite directions.
 When a block of wood is placed on a table, its weight (action) acts
(or presses) on the table surface vertically downwards. The reaction
(force in the opposite direction) of the table acts on the block
vertically upwards. [figure 3.12 (a)]
 When you hold a hose-pipe which is projecting a powerful jet of
water, you notice that there is a steady force of reaction from the
jet. This is the force which is harnessed in some garden sprinklers.
[figure 3.12 (b)]
Figure 3.12
MASS AND WEIGHT
 While mass is the quantity of matter present in an object, weight is
a measure of the pull of gravity on the object.
 This pull of gravity is always directed towards the centre of the
earth.
 Thus, weight has both direction and size.
 The SI unit of weight is the newton (symbol N).
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 Weight is measured by a spring balance calibrated in newtons.

 The weight of an object varies from place to place for two reasons:
(i) The earth is not a perfect sphere.
 It is flattened at the poles such that the distance between the centre
of the earth and the poles is shorter than that between the centre of
the earth and the equator.
 Thus, a body weighs more at the poles than at the equator.
(ii) Due to the shape and rotation of the earth.
 The rotation of the earth decreases the value of acceleration due to
gravity slightly.
 This decrease is maximum at the equator and minimum at the poles.
 Thus, a body weighs more at the poles than at the equator.
Relationship between Mass and Weight

 On the earth‟s surface, an object of mass m kilograms has a
gravitational pull of m x g = mg on it, where g is acceleration due
to gravity (free fall).
 Thus, Weight, W = mg.

 The earth pulls each kilogram of mass on its surface with a force of
about 9.8 N, which is approximately 10 Nkg–1 i.e., g = 10 Nkg–1
W = mg, m = and g =
Example 2
Calculate the weight W of an object whose mass is 50 kg. (Take g =
10 Nkg–1)
Solution
W = mg
W = 50 × 10
W = 500 N
Page 23 of 210
Example 3
Calculate the mass m of an object whose weight is 900 N.
Solution
m=
m=
m = 90 kg
Example 4
A mass of 7.5 kg has weight of 30 N on a certain planet. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity on this planet.
Solution
g=
g=
g = 4 Nkg–1
Scalar and Vector Quantities

 A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude (size) only
but no direction.
 It can be specified by a number and a unit, e.g., if the mass of a car
is 800 kg, then the value represent the magnitude of mass.
 Examples of scalar quantities include mass, area, density, volume,
energy, time, pressure, temperature and length.
 Scalar quantities are added by the normal rules of arithmetic. For
example, 3 kg added to 2 kg make 5 kg and 4 hours added to 2
hours make 6 hours.
 A vector quantity is a quantity which has direction as well as

magnitude.
 It can be specified by a number, unit and direction. If the weight of
a car is 8 000 N, then 8 000 gives the number, N is its unit and it
is directed towards the centre of the earth.
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 Examples of vector quantities are force, velocity, displacement,

acceleration, momentum and magnetic field strength.
 All vector quantities obey a special rule for addition and subtraction,
which takes account of direction as well as magnitude (size).
 A vector quantity is represented on a diagram by a straight line
with an arrow.
 Figure 3.13 shows different vector quantities.
Figure 3.13
 The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector

quantity (when drawn to scale) and the arrow shows the direction
and line of action of the vector.
 The sum of two or more vectors is the resultant vector.
 Parallel forces which act on the same object can be added
arithmetically, taking account of their directions.
 Figure 3.14 gives examples of addition of parallel forces acting on a
body.
Figure 3.14
Page 25 of 210
Note:
(i) When forces are acting in opposite directions, the resultant is their
difference, and vice versa.
(ii) To specify resultant force, both magnitude and direction are given. For
example, the resultant force on figure 3.12 (b) is 3 N, acting in the same
direction as the 5 N force.
Page 26 of 210
Chapter 4
PRESSURE
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
(a) define pressure and state its SI units

(b ) determine pressure exerted by solids
(c) describe experiments to investigate factors affecting pressure in fluids.
(d) derive the formula P = ρgh
(e) state the principle of transmission of pressure in fluids (Pascal‟s principle)
(f) explain atmospheric pressure and its effects
(g) state and explain the applications of pressure
(h) solve numerical problems involving pressure.
Definition of pressure
Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (or perpendicularly) per unit
area.
Units of pressure
 From the definition,

pressure (P) =
 Therefore, the SI of pressure is derived from i.e
.
 The SI unit of pressure is thus newton per square metre (N/m2 or
Nm⁻2).
 One newton per square metre is called the Pascal (Pa).
 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
 High pressures are expressed in kilopascal (kPa).
 1kPa = 1 000 Pa = 1 000 N/m2
Page 27 of 210
 Other units of pressure include millimeters of mercury (mmHg),

centimeters of mercury (cmHg) and an atmosphere (atm).
PRESSURE IN SOLIDS
 Pressure in solids is calculated using the formula:
Pressure = i.e P=
 F = P x A and A =
Example 1
A loaded box has a weight of 600 N. Calculate the pressure it exerts on the
ground when the area of contact with its base is 0.12 m3.
Solution
Weight of the box = Force
P=
P=
P = 5 000 N/m2
Example 2
A metallic block of mass 40 kg exerts a pressure of 20 Nm¯2 on a flat surface.
Determine the area of contact between the block and the surface.
(Take g = 10 Nkg¯1)
Solution
Since P = , then A =
Force = weight of the block = mg
F = 40 x 10= 400 N
A=
A = 20 m2
Example 3
A boy standing upright exerts a pressure of 13 600 Nm⁻2 on the floor. Given
that the total area of contact of the shoes and the floor is 0.0368 m2, determine:
Page 28 of 210
(a) the pressure that he would exert on the floor if he stood on one foot.
P=
P = 6 800 Nm⁻2
(b) the mass of the boy.
P = 13 600 Nm⁻2, A = 0.0368 m2, F = ?
Force, F = Weight, W of the boy Since W= mg, then mass, m =
From P = , F = P x A
F = W = 13 600 x 0.0368
500.48 N
m=
m = 50.048 kg
Maximum and Minimum Pressure Exerted on a Horizontal

Surface
Illustrative Example
Figure 4.1 shows a glass block that measures 20 cm by 10 cm by 5 cm. It has a
weight of 20 N.
Figure 4.1
Calculate the pressure it exerts on wet clay when placed in positions W, X and
Y respectively.
Page 29 of 210
Solution
P=
For all cases, weight, W, of the block = Force, F = 20N
Position W:
Base area, AX = 20 x 10 AX = 200 cm2
AX = m2 AX = 0.02 m2
Hence PW = PW =
PW = 1 000 N/m2
Position X:
Base area, AX = 20 x 5 AX = 100 cm2
m2 AX = 0.01 m2
Hence PX = PX = 2 000 N/m2
Position Y:
Base area, AY = 10 x 5 AY = 50 cm2
AY = 0.005 m2
Hence PY = PY = 4 000 N/m2
Conclusion
 It is now clear that if force is kept constant, then the larger the area of
contact, the lower the pressure and the smaller the area of contact, the
higher the pressure exerted.
 Similarly, if area is held constant, then the greater the force, the higher
the pressure and the smaller the force, the lower the pressure exerted.
Page 30 of 210
Exercise 2 (Take g = 10 N/kg)
1. A rectangular block of metal measuring 2m by 1m by 50 cm has a mass of 10

kg. Calculate the:
(a) maximum pressure,
(b) minimum pressure that it will exert when resting on a flat surface.
2. A block of copper of density 8,9 g/cm3 measures 5 cm x 3 cm x 2 cm.

Determine the:
(a) maximum pressure,

(b) minimum pressure that it can exert on a horizontal surface.
Some Practical Applications of Pressure and Area in Everyday
Life
1. Knives, pins, nails, needles, hoes (jembes), axes razor blades e.t.c have sharp
edges or ends so that the force applied acts on a small area and a high pressure
is produced.
2. When you walk barefoot and step on a sharp stone, you at once feel hurt. This
is because your weight (force pressing downwards) acts on a small area of your
foot producing high pressure and it hurts.
3. When you carry a heavy load on your bare head, it hurts. However, when you
put a head-ring of cloth (or turban) on your head and carry the same load, it
does not hurt. This is because the weight spreads out over a larger area
producing less pressure and so the discomfort is much reduced.
4. Buses and lorries have wide tyres and more than four. Their weight is
distributed over a large area. Hence the pressure on the tyres and on the ground
surfaces is much reduced.
Also, the wide tyres do not burst and they prevent the vehicle from sinking into
the soft surface.
5. Large caterpillar tracks are able to move through thick mud and very soft
surface without sinking. This is because their weight is distributed over a very
large area and the pressure is much reduced.
6. Tractors, graders, road pressors etc have large broad tyres or sometimes
chains (caterpillar tracks) to increase the surface area and hence reduce the
pressure so that they do not sink on wet or soft grounds.
7. Camels are well adapted for walking on soft sand without sinking. A camel
has wide flat pads on his feet. His heavy weight spreads over a large area and so
the pressure on the sand is much reduced.
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Hippopotamus which live in muddy areas have large feet and so have the
elephants who have to carry large body weight.
Some birds, which live near water, have webbed feet.
8. Foundations of buildings cover a large area to reduce the pressure and this
prevents the building from sinking.
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
 Pressure is also exerted in liquids.
 Pressure in liquids varies with depth among other factors.
Experiment 4.1: To show variation of pressure in liquids.
Apparatus
A tall tin, a small nail, water.
Figure 4.2
Procedure
(i) Using the nail, make three holes, A B and C, of the same diameter along a
vertical line on one side of the tin.
(ii) Fill the tin with water and observe the jets of water from the holes A, B and
C.
Observation
The lower hole, A, throws the water the farthest distance z, followed by B
distance y and lastly C distance x.
Explanation
Pressure of water at A is greater than pressure at B and pressure at B is greater
than at C.
Conclusion
Pressure in liquids increases with depth.
Page 32 of 210
Practical Application of Pressure in Liquids

 Dam walls are constructed thicker at the bottom than at the top.
 Additionally, the walls of the dam are curved to increase the surface area
and hence reduce the pressure.
Note:
It can also be shown that pressure in liquids increases with the density of the
liquid.
Summary
(i) pressure in a liquid increases with the depth below its surface.
(ii) pressure in a liquid increases with the density of the liquid.
(iii) the distribution of pressure in a liquid at a particular depth is the same in all
directions.
Liquid Levels
When a liquid is poured into a set of open connected vessels with different
shapes (and area of cross-section), it flows until the levels are the same in all the
vessels.
Figure 4.3
Conclusion
A liquid flows to find its own height regardless of the shape of the vessel.
Fluid Pressure Formula (P = gh)

 Liquids and gases are collectively referred to as fluids.
 This formula is derived as illustrated below.
 Consider some water put in a container with a uniform cross-section as
shown in figure 4.4.
Page 33 of 210
Figure 4.4
If A is the area of cross-section of the liquid column, h the height of the column
and the density of the liquid, then;
Volume, V of the liquid = Area of the uniform cross-section, A x height, h
V = Ah
Mass, M of the liquid = volume of the liquid, V x density,
M=Vx =Axhx
M = Ah
Weight, W of the liquid column = mass, M of the liquid x gravitational force, g
per unit mass.
W=Axhx xg
W = Ah g
From the definition of pressure, P = (F = W)
P=
Thus,
P = gh
Conclusion
1. Pressure in liquids depend on:
(i) height (or depth), h of the liquid column
(ii) density, of the liquid.
2. Pressure in fluids does not depend on the area of the cross-section of the
container which holds the liquid.
Note:
This formula is also used to determine pressure due to a column of gas.
Page 34 of 210
Example 4
1. The density of mercury is 13 600kg/m3. Determine the liquid pressure at a
point 76 cm below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg⁻1)
Solution
P = gh
P = 13 600 x 10 x 0.76
P= 103 360 N/m2
Example 5
2. A diver is 10 m below the surface of water in a dam. If the density of water is
1 000 kg/m3, determine the pressure due to the water on the diver.
Solution
P = gh
P = 1000 x 10 x 10
P = 100 000 N/m2
Transmission of Pressure in Liquids
 Liquids transmit pressure from one point to another.
 Figure 4.5 (a) and (b) shows a round-bottomed flask with a piston and
holes of the same diameter drilled along the same horizontal level.
Figure 4.5
Explanation
 Initially, the water squirts out at the same rate with some force.
 When the plunger is pushed in, the liquid squirts out at the same rate but
with increased force.
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 If the plunger exerts a force F and the area of the piston is A, then the
additional pressure P = , developed is transmitted equally to all parts of
the liquid forcing the liquid out of the holes with the same increased
force.
Experiment 4.2: To investigate how pressure is transmitted in liquids
(Pascal’s Principle)
(a) Using Identical Syringes

Apparatus
Two identical syringes, rubber tubing, water, pairs of different masses, two
stands and clamps
Figure 4.6
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure 4.6
 Place a mass m on one of the plungers and observe what happens.
 Place an identical mass on the other plunger and observe what happens.
 Repeat with other pairs of identical masses.
Observation
(i) When the first mass is placed on the plunger, the plunger moves downwards
and the second plunger moves up.
(ii) When an identical mass is placed on the second plunger, the first plunger
with the mass on it moves upwards and stops when their levels are the same.
Page 36 of 210
Explanation
The pressure in the two syringes is the same. This is because the masses and the
diameters of the syringes are the same.
(b) Using Syringes of Different Diameters

Apparatus
Syringes of different diameters, rubber tubing, water, different masses, two
stands and clamps
Figure 4.7
Procedure
 Replace one of the syringes in experiment 4.2 with a syringe of different
diameter, and set up the apparatus as shown in figure 4.7.
 Starting with a large mass on syringe Q, place masses on syringe P until
the plunger in syringe Q starts to move upwards.
 Note the mass on P and Q as in table 4.1.
Syringe Syringe
P Q
Area, A of
piston (m2)
Weight, F
on piston
(N)
 From the table, compare the value of in P and Q.
Page 37 of 210
Observation
At balance, the pressure due to the mass in P is equal to the pressure due to the
other mass in Q.
Conclusion
 From the foregoing experiment,
pressure applied at one part of an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally to
all other parts of the enclosed liquid.
 This is called the principle of transmission of pressure in liquids (
Pascal’s Principle).
Note:
Gases may transmit pressure in a similar way when they are confined and
incompressible.
Transmission of Pressure through a Liquid and Density of

Liquids.
 Figure 4.8 shows a U-tube containing two liquids A and B.
Figure 4.8
 Liquid A exerts pressure on liquid B at point X.
 Points X and Y are at the same horizontal level and therefore pressure at
X is equal to pressure at Y.
Page 38 of 210
 PX = AghA, where A is the density of liquid A and hA is the height of

liquid A column above point X.
 PY = BghB, where B is the density of liquid B and hB is the height of

liquid B column above point Y.
 But PX = PY, that is AghA = BghB.
 Diving both sides of the equation AghA = BghB by „g‟ gives:
AhA = BhB
Example 6
An immiscible liquid A is poured into one arm of a U-tube containing water.
The result is shown in figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9
Given that the density of water is 1 g/cm3, determine the density of liquid A.
Solution
AhA = whw
A =
A = 0.8 g/cm3
Page 39 of 210
Example 7
Two liquids were sucked up in two identical tubes as shown in the figure 4.10
Figure 4.10
Given that the liquid in beaker B2 is water (density 1 g/cm3), determine the
density of liquid L in the beaker B1.
LhL = whw
L =
L = 0.8 g/cm3
Applications of the Principle of Transmission of Pressure in

Liquids
 It‟s made use of in hydraulic machines where a small force applied at
one point of an enclosed liquid produces a much larger force at some
other point of the liquid.
Note:
(i) A hydraulic machine is a machine that is operated by liquid e.g. oil moving
through pipes under pressure.
(ii) Hydraulic machines include hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic
brake system.
Page 40 of 210
1. Hydraulic Lift
 Hydraulic lifts are used to hoist cars in garages
 Figure 4.13 shows the main features of a simple hydraulic lift.
Figure 4.13
 It consists of:
(i) a small tight-fitting piston, S of area of cross-section, A1 moving in a
narrower cylinder, X.
(ii) a large tight-fitting piston, L of area of cross-section, A2 moving in a
wide cylinder, Y.
(iii) a communicating tube connecting the two cylinders, X and Y. The cylinders
and the tube are filled with a liquid, e.g. oil.
 When a small force, F1 is applied on the smaller piston S, the pressure
generated by the force is transmitted throughout the liquid to the larger
piston L, where it produces force F2.
 Pressure P generated on the liquid by the piston S due to the force F1 is

given by;
P= …………..Equation 1
 This pressure is transmitted by the liquid to the larger piston L (Pascal’s
Principle). Therefore, pressure of the liquid acting on the area A2 of the
larger piston is equal to P.
 Thus, the force F2 produced on the larger piston is given by;
F2 = Pressure x Area
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F2 = P x A2
It follows that P = Equation 2
 Equating equations 1 and 2, then:
= or =
Note:
Since A2 is very large compared to A1, the force F2 produced on the larger
piston is much bigger than the applied force F1 on the smaller piston.
Example 8
The area of the small piston of a hydraulic lift is 0.25 m2 and that of the large
piston is 10 m2. A force of 100 N is applied on the smaller piston. Determine:
(i) the pressure generated on the liquid by the force applied at the small piston.
Solution
P=
P=
P = 400 N/m2
(ii) the pressure exerted on the larger piston by the liquid.

Solution
P = 400 N/m2
(iii) the force produced on the larger piston.

Solution
F2 = P x A2
F2 = 400 x 10
F2 = 4 000 N.
Note:
A small force applied on the small piston produces a much bigger force on the
larger piston.
2. Hydraulic press
Page 42 of 210
 It is used to compress certain materials such as cotton or clothing into

bales into the required shapes and sizes so that they occupy a small
volume for transportation.
 It is also used to compress steel or other materials at large engineering

works.
 It operates in the same way as the hydraulic lift.
3. Hydraulic Brake System

 Figure 4.15 below shows a simplified diagram of a vehicle hydraulic
brake system.
Figure 4.15
 It operates as follows:
- The force applied on the brake pedal exerts pressure on the master
cylinder.
- The pressure is transmitted by the brake fluid to the slave cylinder.
- This causes the pistons of the slave cylinder to open the brake shoe
and hence the brake lining presses on the drum.
- The rotation of the wheel is thus resisted and the car slows down (or
stops).
- When the force on the foot pedal is withdrawn, the return spring pulls
back the brake shoe which then pushes the slave cylinder piston back.
 The advantage of this system is that the pressure exerted in the master
cylinder is transmitted equally to all the four wheel cylinders. Hence, the
braking force obtained is uniform.
Note:
The liquid to be used as a brake fluid should have the following properties:
(i) Be incompressible to ensure that pressure exerted at one point is
transmitted equally to all other parts in the liquid.
Page 43 of 210
(ii) Have a low freezing point and a high boiling point.
(iii) Should not corrode the inner parts of the brake system.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
 The term atmosphere means “the air surrounding the earth”.
 The air is bound around the earth by the earth‟s gravity.
 The atmosphere thins outwards, indicating that the density of air
decreases with the distance from the surface of the earth.
 This column of air stands on the surface of the earth like a liquid column
in a tube and exerts pressure on the surface of the earth.
 The pressure exerted on the surface of the earth by the weight of the air
column is called atmospheric pressure.
 The existence of atmospheric pressure is demonstrated by the crushing
can experiment.
Experiment 4.3: To demonstrate the existence of the atmospheric pressure
(Crushing Can Experiment)
Apparatus
Tin container with a tight-fitting cork, water, tripod stand, Bunsen burner.
Figure 4.16
Procedure
 Remove the cork from the container and pour in some little water.
 Boil the water for several minutes.
 Replace the cork and allow the container to cool.
Page 44 of 210
 Observe what happens to the container.
Observation
During the cooling, the container is crushed in.
Explanation
 Steam from the boiling water drives out most of air inside the container.
 When the cork is first replaced, the steam pressure inside the container
balances the atmospheric pressure outside.
 On cooling, the steam condenses. A partial vacuum is therefore created in
the container
 Since pressure inside the container is less than the atmospheric pressure
outside, the container is crushed.
Example 9
A girl in a school situated in the coast region (sea level) plans to make a
barometer using sea-water of density 1 030 kgm–3. If the atmospheric
pressure is 103 000 Nm–2, Determine the minimum length of the
tube that she will require.
Solution
Pressure in liquid is given by
P = hρg
But P = atmospheric pressure
Therefore, hρg = atmospheric pressure
h × 1 030 × 10 = 103 000
h=
h = 10 m
Example 10
A sea diver is 35 m below the surface of sea-water. If density of the sea-
water is
1.03 g/cm3 and g is 10 Nkg–1, determine the total pressure on him. (Take
atmospheric pressure to be 103,00 N/m–2
Page 45 of 210
Solution
Pressure in liquid is given by

P = hρg
But total pressure = atmospheric pressure, Pa + liquid pressure
= Pa + hρg
= 103 000 + (35 × 1 030 × 10)
= 463 500 Nm–2
Example 11
The air pressure at the base of a mountain is 75.0 cm of mercury while at
the top it is 60.0 cm of mercury. Given that the average density of air is
1.25 kgm–3 and the density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3, calculate the
height of the mountain.
Solution
Pressure difference due to column of air (height of mountain)

= Pressure difference due to mercury column
Pressure at the top of the mountain
= 0.60 × 13 600 × 10
= 81 600 Nm–2
Pressure at the base of the mountain
= 0.75 × 13 600 × 10
= 102 000 Nm–2
Pressure difference
= 102 000 – 81 600
= 20 400 Nm–2
Page 46 of 210
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
1. Mercury Barometer
 The atmospheric pressure supports a liquid column in a tube. When this
arrangement is used to measure pressure, it is called a barometer.
 At sea level, the atmospheric pressure supports a mercury column of
approximately 76 cm or 760 mm (76 cmHg or 760 mmHg), while it
supports a water column of approximately 10 metres or 1 000 cm or 10
000 mm.
 Mercury is about 13.6 times denser than water, that is density of mercury
= 13 600 kg/m3 while that of water = 1 000 kg/m3.
 Therefore, mercury is chosen for measurement of atmospheric pressure
since it gives a much shorter and measurable column.
 Figure 4.17 below shows a simple mercury barometer.
Figure 4.17
 The height h of the mercury column is called the barometric height. It is

a measure of the atmospheric pressure.
 At sea level, h = 76 cm or 760 mm of mercury column
(76 cmHg or 760 mmHg).
 Since density of mercury = 13 600 kg/m3, atmospheric pressure
is calculated as follows:
Pa = gh
Pa = 13 600 x 10 x 0.76
Pa = 103 360 N/m2
Page 47 of 210
 This is the standard atmospheric pressure. It is sometimes referred to

as one atmosphere.
Note:
 If the barometer has air at the top, then it is faulty.
 The value of pressure indicated by such a barometer is less than the actual
value since the trapped air also exerts pressure on the mercury column.
 To test for the vacuum, the tube is tilted as shown in figure 4.18 so that
the topmost part of the tube is below the height that is supported by
atmospheric pressure.
Figure 4.18
 If there is air in the tube, then the mercury will not fill the tube
completely.
 However, if the space above the mercury is a vacuum, then the mercury
fills the tube completely.
 The space above the mercury in the tube when upright is called
Toricellian vacuum and it contains a little mercury vapour.
2. U-Tube Manometer
 A manometer is an instrument that can measure fluid pressure.
 It consists of a U-tube filled with water or any other suitable liquid.
 Suppose one limb of the manometer is connected to a gas supply as
shown in figure 4.19
Page 48 of 210
Figure 4.19
 Due to the pressure of the gas Pg, the water level in the other limb rises
to, say, point Y.
 This difference in water levels is the difference between gas pressure Pg
and the atmospheric pressure Pa.
 Since points X and Y are at the same horizontal level, pressure at X
equals pressure at Z, that is PX = PY
 Pressure at Z = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to the water
column YZ.
 Therefore, Pg = Pa + gh
Note:
Since the pressure in a liquid is proportional to the depth below the surface,
pressures can be measured in terms of the height of a liquid e.g. cmHg and
mmHg.
Example 12
1. Refer to figure 4.19 Suppose YZ = 20.0 cm, calculate the gas pressure, in
N/m2, in the U-tube manometer above.
(Take atmospheric pressure = 103 000 N/m2, density of water = 1000 kg/m3 and
acceleration due to gravity = 10 N/kg)
Solution
Pg = Pa + gh
Pg = 103 000 + (1 000 x 10 x 0.20)
Pg = 105 000 N/m2
Example 13
Refer to figure 4.19. Suppose YZ = 10.2 cm, calculate the gas
2
pressure in (a) mmHg, (b) N/m . (Take atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg,
density of mercury = 13 600 kg/m3, density of water = 1 000 kg/m3 and g
= 10 N/kg).
(a) Gas pressure at X = atmospheric pressure + height of water column YZ
Page 49 of 210
Pg = 760 mmHg + ( ) mmHg

Pg = 760 mmHg + 7.5 mmHg
Pg = 767.5 mmHg
(b) Gas pressure, Pg = gh

Pg = 13 600 x 10 x 0.7675
Pg = 104 380 N/m2
APPLICATIONS OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AND GASES
1. Drinking Straw
 Consider figure 4.2
Figure 4.20
 When a liquid such as soda or water is sucked up a straw, the air pressure
inside the straw reduces below atmospheric pressure.
 The pressure difference thus pushes the liquid up the straw.
2. The bicycle Pump

 Figure 4.21 shows the main parts of the pump.
Figure 4.21
Page 50 of 210
 It has a flexible leather washer which works both as a valve and a piston
inside the pump barrel.
 Before the pump is used, it is connected to the tyre which has a rubber
valve in it.
(i) Pump handle drawn out
(a)
 When the pump handle is drawn out, the air below the washer expands
and its pressure reduces below the atmospheric pressure.
 Air from outside the pump then flows past the leather washer into the
barrel. At the same time, the higher air pressure in the tube closes the tyre
valve.
(ii) Pump handle pushed in
(b)
 When the pump handle is pushed in, the air in the pump barrel is
compressed.
 The high pressure in the barrel presses the leather washer against the
sides of the barrel.
 When the pressure of the compressed air becomes greater than that of the
air in the tyre, the tyre valve opens and air is forced into the tyre.
Note:
There is an increase in temperature of the pump barrel during pumping because
of the work done in compressing the air.
3. The Lift Pump

 It is used to raise water from wells.
 It consists of a cylindrical metal barrel with a spout.
Page 51 of 210
 It has two valves, such as P and Q in the figure 4.22.
Figure 4.22
 To start the pump, water is poured on top of the piston (priming) so that a
good air-tight seal is made round the piston and valve P.
 The pump is operated by means of a lever as shown in figure 4.20.
(i) During upstroke

 When the plunger moves up during the upstroke, valve P closes due to its
weight and the pressure of the water above it.
At the same time, air above valve Q expands and its pressure reduces
below atmospheric pressure.
 The atmospheric pressure acting on the water in the well below thus
pushing the water up past valve Q into the barrel.
Note:
The plunger is moved up and down until the space between P and Q is filled
with water.
(ii) During downstroke

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 During downstroke, valve Q closes due to its weight and pressure of

water above it.
 Water is forced out through valve P and thus flows out of the spout.
Limitations of the lift pump

In practice, the possible height of water that can be raised by this pump is less
than 10 metres because of:
(a) reduced atmospheric pressure in places high above sea level.
(b) leakages at the valves and pistons.
4. The Force Pump

This can be used to raise water to heights of more than 10 metres.
Figure 4.23
(i) During Upstroke

 During upstroke, air above the valve S expands and its pressure reduces
below atmospheric pressure.
 The atmospheric pressure on the water in the well below pushes water up
valve S into the barrel.
Note:
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Pressure above valve T is atmospheric. Hence, this valve does not open during
upstroke.
(ii) During Downstroke

 During downstroke, the valve S closes.
 Increase in pressure in the water in the barrel makes valve T to open and
forces water into the chamber C.
 As the water fills chamber C, air is trapped and compressed at the upper
part.
Note:
During the next upstroke, valve T closes and the compressed air expands,
ensuring a continuous flow of water through pipe P.
Advantages of the force pump over the lift pump
(a) It enables a continuous flow of water.
(b) The height to which water can be raised does not depend on atmospheric
pressure.
Note:
The height to which force pump can raise water depends on:
(a) Amount of force applied during downstroke.
(b) Ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand pressure of the long
column of water in chamber C.
5. The Siphon
 This is a tube, usually made of plastic or rubber that is used to empty
tanks or draw petrol from petrol tanks of cars.
 Figure 4.24 illustrates how a siphon operates.
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Figure 4.24
 The tube is first filled with the liquid, ensuring there are no bubbles.
 One of the ends of the tube is put in the container that has the liquid to be
emptied while the other end, C is held below the liquid surface.
 The liquid will continue to run out so long as the end C is below the
liquid surface.
Explanation
 Pressure at the surface of the liquid is atmospheric.
 Since points A and B are at the same horizontal level, the pressure at
point B is also atmospheric.
 Pressure at point C, Pc = atmospheric pressure, Pa + pressure due to

the liquid column BC ( gh), where is the density of the liquid.
 Pc = Pa + gh
 The excess pressure ( gh) thus cause the liquid to flow out of the tube at
C.
Summary
The siphon will only work if:
(i) the end C of the tube is below the surface of the liquid to be emptied.
(ii) the tube is first filled with the liquid, without any bubbles in it.
(iii) the tube does not rise above the height of the liquid surface.
(iv) one end of the tube is inside the liquid to be emptied.
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Note:
(i) A siphon can operate in a vacuum.
(ii) An application of the siphon is the automatic flushing unit used where
constant cleaning is necessary, like urinals.
CHAPTER 5
THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Introduction
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Matter commonly exists as solid, liquid or gas.
 Matter is not continuous, but is made up of tiny particles.
Investigating Matter
There are several experiments that can be performed to show that matter is
made up of tiny particles. Some are considered below.
Experiment 5.1: To demonstrate that matter is made of tiny particles
Apparatus
A sheet of paper and a pair of scissors.
Procedure
 Cut the piece of paper into two parts.
 Take one part and cut it again into two parts and continue the process.
Observation
The process of cutting can continue until further subdivision becomes
impracticable.
Conclusion
The fact that the piece of paper can be subdivided into tiny pieces suggests
that matter is made up of tiny particles.
Experiment 5.2: To demonstrate dilution
Apparatus
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Beaker, potassium permanganate crystals, water.
Figure 5.1
Procedure
 Pour water into the beaker till it is a quarter full.
 Dissolve a few crystals of potassium permanganate in the water until

the colour is deep purple.
 Add water to top up the volume to about half full as you observe the
change in colour intensity.
 Gradually add more water as you observe the change in colour
intensity. Continue the process until the beaker is full.
Observation
The process of dilution can continue until the solution appears colourless.
This suggests that the particles of potassium permanganate are spread out
evenly on the water.Through each dilution process, the particles spread out
further. As water particles increase, the particles of potassium
permanganate are spread further, making the purple colour less and less
deep until it appears colourless.
Conclusion
Potassium permanganate is made up of tiny particles.
Experiment 5.3: Dissolving a solid in a solvent

Apparatus
Flask with a stopper, common salt, pipette.
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Figure 5.2
Procedure
 Put 100 g of salt into the flask and add water carefully using a pipette
without shaking the salt, until the flask is full, see figure 5.2 (a).
 Insert the stopper to the mouth of the flask and shake to dissolve the salt.
Observation
From figure 5.2 (b), the volume of the solution of salt is less than the
volume in figure 5.2 (a).
Conclusion
Particles of salt are able to occupy some spaces between the water particles.
This suggests that the particles of water and the particles of salt differ in
size. The of the solution pack more closely in the available space, thus
reducing the volume. This further suggests that particles of salt are broken
down to fit into the spaces between the water particles.
BROWNIAN MOTION
 This refers to the constant random movement of particles of a substance
in a fluid due to their collisions with the invisible particles (or
molecules) of the fluid that are also in constant random motion.
 Brownian motion is named after the Scottish botanist Robert Brown who
first observed the effect in 1827.
A. Brownian Motion in Liquids.
Experiment 5.4: To demonstrate the Brownian motion in liquids
Apparatus
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Beaker, hand lens, pollen grains or chalk dust, transparent lid.
Figure 5.3
Procedure
 Pour water into the beaker, about three quarters full, as shown in figure 3.
 Sprinkle pollen grains or chalk dust on the surface of the water (it is
important that the grains be very small in size, light and evenly
sprinkled on the water surface for good results).
 Cover the beaker with a transparent lid.
 With the help of a hand lens, observe what happens to the pollen grains
on the water surface.
Observation
It is observed that the pollen grains are in constant random motion, as
shown figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4
Explanation
The pollen grains are being continually bombarded (hit) by the small
invisible particles of water. The
movement is random, suggesting that the particles of water are also in
constant random movement.
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B. Brownian Motion in Air

 This can be demonstrated using the smoke cell experiment.
 The smoke cell is a small transparent box with a transparent lid.
Experiment 5.4: To demonstrate the Brownian motion in Air
Apparatus
Smoke cell, drinking straw, microscope, converging lens and a bright source of
light.
Figure 5.5
Procedure
 Burn one end of a straw and let the smoke fill the smoke cell from the
other end.
 Remove the straw.
 Put a cover plate on top to seal the smoke and the air in the cell.
 Set the apparatus as shown in the figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6
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 Illuminate the cell with a bright light.
 Use a converging lens to focus the light on the smoke cell.
 Adjust the microscope until you can see very bright specks against the
grey background.
Observation
Bright specks in continuous random motion are seen in the smoke cell.
Explanation
 The bright specks are particles of smoke which scatter the light shining
on them and so appear as bright points.
 They move about in a continuous random motion because of uneven

bombardment by the invisible air particles.
Conclusion
This suggests that air is made up of very tiny particles which are in continuous
random motion. This is called the kinetic theory of matter.
Kinetic Theory of Matter.

 It states that matter is made up of very small particles which are in
constant random motion.
 The particles move faster with increase in temperature due to increased

kinetic energy.
Question
Explain the role of the smoke particles, lens and microscope in the
experiment
(i) Smoke particles

They are used to show the behavior of air molecules. This is because they are
more visible than air molecules and light enough to move when bombarded by
the air molecules.
(ii) Converging lens
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It focuses the light from the lamp on the smoke particles, causing them to be
observable.
(iii) Microscope
It enlarges (magnifies) the smoke particles so that they are visible.
Arrangement of Particles in the
Figure 5.7
States of Matter
 Figure 5.7 summarizes the states of matter.
 The processes involved in the change of state are as follows:
A – Melting B – Vaporization
C – Condensation D – Solidification (or freezing),
E – Sublimation F – Deposition.
1. Solids
 Particles are closely packed together in an organized way due to strong
cohesive force between the solid particles.
 The particles vibrate to – and – fro about their fixed positions.
 The rate of vibration increases with increase in temperature due to

increased kinetic energy.
 At a particular temperature, for a particular solid, the particles break away

from the knit structure and the solid is said to have melted.
2. Liquids
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 The particles are further apart than in solids.
 The particles are not fixed as in solids but move about in Brownian
motion.
 The cohesive forces between liquid particles are weaker than in solids.
Due to this reason, liquids can flow and take up the shape of a container
in which they are put.
 When a liquid is heated, the particles gain more kinetic energy and move
faster. The particles leave the liquid surface and change into a gaseous
state by a process called vaporization.
3. Gases
 The particles are much further apart than those in liquids.
 They have increased random motion compared to those in liquid state.
 The cohesive forces are much weaker than those in liquids. Therefore, it
is much easier to compress gases than liquids.
 Gas molecules can lose some of their energy and fall back into the liquid
state by a process called condensation.
Note:
(i) Some solids directly change to gas state when heated. This process is called
sublimation.
(ii) The reverse process of sublimation is called deposition.
Plasma
 Related to the gaseous state is another state of matter called plasma.
 Plasma is a state of matter in which a certain portion of the

particles in the gas are in the form of ions, i.e., molecules or atoms
in which the number of positively charged particles is not equal to
the number of negative electrons.
 Heating a gas to very high temperatures may ionise it thus turning it
into a plasma.
 Common forms of plasmas include lightning and some extremely hot

flames.
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 Plasma can also be artificially produced, e.g., inside fluorescent tubes

and in plasma television set displays.
 Figure 5.8 summarizes the stages in the plasma state of matter.
Figure 5.8
DIFFUSION
 This is the process by which particles of a substance spread from
regions of high concentration to those of low concentration.
 Diffusion takes place in solids, liquids and gases.
(a) Diffusion in Solids
This is exceedingly slow, but occurs when two metals are placed in
contact with each other, e.g. lead and gold metal blocks.
(a) Diffusion in Liquids
Experiment 5.6: To investigate diffusion in liquids

Apparatus
Funnel, beaker, saturated copper (II) sulphate solution, water
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Figure 5.9
Procedure
 Pour water into the beaker until it is half full.
 Pour saturated copper(II) sulphate solution down the funnel slowly and
notice how the two liquids settle, as shown in figure 5.9.
 Remove the funnel carefully so that the liquids are not disturbed.
 Repeat the same steps with another set of apparatus, but using warm
liquids. Make observations several times over a period of, say, two days
 Make observations several times over a period of, say, two days
Observation
 Initially, the water layer floats on top of the saturated copper(II)
sulphate solution because it is less dense.
 After sometime, the boundary disappears and the two liquids form a
homogeneous pale blue mixture.
Explanation
 Formation of the mixture is faster with hot liquids because the
movement of particles is faster due to increased energy.
 There is greater movement of water particles (molecules) from the

water layer into the copper(II) sulphate layer because it has greater
concentration of water molecules than copper(II) sulphate particles.
 Similarly, there is greater movement of particles from copper(II)

sulphate layer into the water layer because of greater concentration
of copper(II) sulphate particles than water molecules.
(b) Diffusion in Gases
Experiment 5.7: To demonstrate diffusion in gases
Note:
This experiment should be done in a fume cupboard or fume chamber
because of the poisonous nature of bromine.
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Apparatus
Two gas jars, bromine gas, cardboard

Procedure
 A gas jar containing brown bromine gas and covered with a sheet of
cardboard is placed in contact with an open end of a gas jar of the
same diameter with the mouth smeared with grease, as shown in
figure 5.10 (a)
 The cardboard is removed and the jars pressed together tightly, as
shown in figure 5.10 (b).
Figure 5.10
Observation and Explanation

 The bromine gas spreads into the gas jar B at a greater speed than it
returns to gas jar A because of high concentration of bromine
particles.
 Likewise, air spreads into gas jar A at greater rate than it returns to B
because of high concentration of air particles in B.
 A homogeneous pale brown mixture forms in the two jars as shown in
figure 5.10 (b). Since this happens in a very short time, it suggests
that the random movement of the particles is more rapid in gases
than diffusion in liquids.
 Performing the same experiment with the jars held vertically
instead of horizontally slows down the rate of diffusion because of
the different densities of the gases. The less dense gas diffuses
much faster into the more dense gas.
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 The characteristic smell of cooking gas used in laboratories can be

detected when there is a leakage. This is because the gas diffuses
into the air.
(c) Diffusion in solids
 Diffusion in solids is exceedingly slow, but occurs when two
metals are placed in contact with each other, e.g., lead and gold
metal blocks.
 Vibrating atoms break away from the substance to which they
belong and enter the other substance to be trapped by its attractive
forces.
 This process is speeded up by high temperatures.
Note:
(a) Diffusion in liquids occurs at a faster rate than in solids.
(b) Diffusion in gases is occurs faster than in liquids since their particles
have:
(i) lower density,
(ii) weaker cohesive forces,
(iii) higher kinetic energy.
Rates of Diffusion in Gases
Experiment 5.8: To investigate the rates of diffusion of ammonia gas

molecules and hydrochloric acid molecules.
Apparatus
Long glass tube with fitting corks, cotton wool, concentrated solution of
hydrochrolic acid gas and concentrated ammonia solution gas.
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Figure 5.11
Procedure
 Clamp a long glass tube horizontally as shown in figure 5.11.
 Soak a piece of cotton wool in concentrated hydrochloric acid and

another in concentrated ammonia solution using forceps.
 Simultaneously, insert the soaked cotton wool pieces at the opposite ends
of the horizontal glass tube and cork it.
 Observe what happens.
Observation
A white deposit of ammonium chloride forms on the walls of the glass tube in
the region nearer hydrochrolic acid.
Explanation
This suggests that although both gases diffused, ammonia gas did so at a higher
rate than the hydrochrolic acid gas.
Conclusion
 Different gases have different rates of diffusion.
 A gas of high density has heavier molecules and hence diffuses more
slowly than a lighter one.
B: Diffusion through Porous Materials

 Figures 5.12 (a) and (b) shows diffusion through a porous pot.
Figure 5.12
 The porous pot has very fine holes through which the hydrogen gas
diffuses into the pot and air diffuses out.
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 The hydrogen gas bubbles out of the glass tube as shown in the diagram.
 When the gas supply is stopped, the hydrogen gas diffuse out of the pot
through the fine holes at a faster rate than air diffuses back into the pot.
 The gas pressure in the pot decreases below the atmospheric pressure.
 Therefore the atmospheric pressure acting on the water surface in the

beaker pushes the water up the tube.Note
The glass beaker in figure 5.12 (a) is used to confine the hydrogen gas around
the porous pot.
CHAPTER 6
THERMAL EXPANSION
Temperature
 This is the degree (or extent) of coldness or hotness of a body on some
chosen scale.
 It is measured by an instrument called a thermometer.
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
 However, it is also measured in degrees Celsius (0C).
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS
 Expansion refers to increase in size while contraction refers to

decrease in size.
 Metals and other solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
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 Expansion and contraction in metals can be demonstrated using two

experiments:
1. The ball and ring apparatus experiment.
2. The bar and gauge apparatus experiment.
Experiment 6.1: To demonstrate expansion of solids using the ball and ring
apparatus experiment
Apparatus
Ball and ring apparatus, Bunsen burner, a pair of tongs, retort stand and clamp
Note:
The ball should be such that it just passes through the ring when both are at
room temperature.
Figure 6.1
Procedure
 Heat the ball and try to pass it through the ring. Observe what happens.
 Leave the ball on the ring for some time and observe what happens.
Observation
 When both the ball and the ring are at room temperature, the ball just
passes through the ring.
 When the ball is heated, it does not go through the ring initially but when
left there for sometime, it goes through.
Explanation
 When heated, the ball expands so that it cannot go through the ring.
 When left on the ring for sometime, the ring conducts heat from the ball,
so that the ball contracts while the ring expands. Therefore the ball goes
through the ring.
Conclusion
Metals expand when heated and contract when cooled.
2. The bar and gauge apparatus experiment.
Apparatus
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Bar and gauge apparatus, Bunsen burner.
Figure 6.2
Procedure
 Fit the metal bar in the gauge when cold and note what happens.
 Heat the metal bar and try to fit it in the gauge and note what happens.
Observation
 When the bar is cold, it just fits into the gauge.
 When heated, the bar does not fit into the gauge.
Explanation
The bar expands when heated.
Note:
(a) Metals expand differently when heated through the same length of time and
temperature.
(b) When expansion occurs in a material:
(i) its volume increases,
(ii) its mass does not change,
(iii) its density decreases.
Linear Expansivity
 The increase in length of a metal rod when it is heated is called linear
expansion.
 The measure of the tendency of a particular material to expand is called
its expansivity.
 Aluminium, for example, expands more than iron. Thus aluminium has
higher expansivity than iron.
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 Table 6.1 shows linear expansivity values of some materials.

Table 6.1
Material Linear
Expansivity
(K⁻1)
Aluminium 2.6 x 10⁻5
Brass 1.9 x 10⁻5
Copper 1.68 x 10⁻5
Iron 1.2 x 10⁻5
Concrete 1.1 x 10⁻5
Steel 1.1 x 10⁻5
Ordinary glass 9.0 x 10⁻6
Platinum alloy 9.0 x 10⁻6
Silica 4.2 x 10⁻6
Pyrex glass 3.2 x 10⁻6
Invar 1.0 x 10⁻7
 The knowledge of linear expansivity is applied in the designing of

materials to ensure that they are able to operate well under varying
thermal conditions.
 Ordinary glass expands at a higher rate than Pyrex glass. When hot water
is poured into a tumbler made of ordinary glass, it breaks. However,
when Pyrex tumbler is used, there is no danger of it cracking.
 In building and construction, concrete beams are reinforced with steel
metal rods because steel and concrete expand at the same rate.
Some Applications of Expansion and Contraction in Solids
1. Railway Lines.
 Railway lines are constructed in sections held together by fishplates.
 The bolt holes in the rail are oval to allow free expansion and contraction
of the rails with changes in temperature.
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Figure 6.3
A more modern method of allowing for expansion and contraction in railway

lines is to taper the ends of the rails so that they overlap.
Figure 6.4
2. Steam Pipes
 Pipes carrying steam from boilers are fitted with loops or expansion joints
as shown in the figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5
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 These allow the pipes to expand and contract easily when steam passes
through, and when the pipe cools down.
3. Electricity wires
 Electricity wires are loosely fixed to allow for expansion and contraction
with changes in temperature.
 During cold weather, they become shorter (contract) and during hot they
become longer (expand).
 They appear to be shorter and taut in the morning. However, in the hot
afternoon, they appear longer and slack.
4. Steel Bridges
 In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed and the other end placed
on rollers to allow for expansion and contraction. (Figure 6.6)
Figure 6.6
5. Rivets
 Thick metal plates, sheets and girders in ships are joined together by
means of rivets.
 The rivet is fitted when hot and then hammered flat.
 On cooling, it contracts, pulling the two metal plates firmly
together.[figure 6.7(a) and (b)]
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Figure 6.7
6. Bimetallic Strip
 When two metals of different linear expansivity are riveted together, they
form a bimetallic strip.
 Figure 6.8 (a) shows a bimetallic strip made using brass and iron metals.
Figure 6.8
(i) Heating the bimetallic strip

On heating the bimetallic strip, it bends towards the iron side, with the brass on
the outside of the curve as shown in figure 6.8 (b).
Reason:
Brass expands more than iron. Thus brass becomes longer than iron for the
same temperature range.
(ii) Cooling the bimetallic strip

On cooling the straight bimetallic strip, it bends towards the brass side, with the
brass on the inner of the curve as shown in figure 6.8 (c).
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Reason:
Brass contracts more than iron. Thus brass becomes shorter than iron for the
same temperature range.
Some Applications of the Bimetallic Strip

 Bimetallic strips have several applications such as in the thermostat.
 A thermostat is a device for maintaining a steady temperature in many
electrical devices such as electric room heaters, fire alarms, electric irons,
electric cookers, refrigerators etc.
(a) Electric room heater
Figure 6.9
 It is connected through the electric terminals shown.

 When the room becomes warm, the bimetallic strip gets heated, expands
and bends towards the iron side because brass expands more than iron.
This breaks the circuit and switches off the heater.
 On cooling, the bimetallic strip contracts and bends towards the brass side
since brass contracts more than iron. The gap between the contacts is
closed and the heater is switched on again.
 The process of switching the heater on and off continues repeatedly.
Note:
The temperature at which the thermostat switches the heater on and off is
adjusted by setting the knob.
(b) Simple fire alarm
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Figure 6.10
 When there is a fire break out, the bimetallic strip is heated, expands and
bends towards the iron side since brass expands more than iron.
 The bimetallic strip closes the gap at the contact.
 The electric circuit is completed and the bell rings.
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN LIQUIDS

Experiment 6.2: To demonstrate the expansion of water.
Apparatus
A round-bottomed flask, coloured water, tight-fitting rubber cork with a hole,
glass tube, Bunsen burner, retort stand, tripod stand and clamp, wire gauze.
Figure 6.11
Procedure
 Fill the round-bottomed flask with coloured water and arrange the
apparatus as shown in figure 6.11.
 Mark the initial level of water in the glass tube.
 Heat the flask with the burner flame as you observe the level of water in
the glass tube.
Observation
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The level of water in the glass tube initially falls slightly at first and then starts
rising.
Explanation
 The initial fall of the water level is due to expansion of the round-
bottomed glass flask which gets heated first.
 The water starts expanding when the heat finally reaches it, and it rises up
the tube.
Note:
(i) The water expands faster than glass.
(ii) Some liquids expand more than others for a given rise in temperature.
The Anomalous (or Unusual) Expansion of Water.

 When ice is heated from, say for example, ⁻200C, it expands without
melting until its temperature reaches 00C.
 At 00C, the ice melts with no change in temperature to form ice water.
 The ice water formed contracts until all the ice has melted.
 As the ice water at 00C is heated, it continues to contract as its
temperature rises to 40C when the water attains minimum volume.
 Above 40C, the water expands with increase in temperature.
Graph of variation of volume of water with temperature.
Figure 6.12
Note 1:
(i) Remember: Density =
(ii) Since a given mass of water has minimum volume at 40C, water at this
temperature has maximum density, slightly higher than 1 g/cm3.
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Graph of variation of density of water with temperature.
Figure 6.13
Note 2:
(i) If water at say 200C is cooled, it freezes (or solidifies) at 00C without change
in temperature.
(ii) As it freezes, its volume increases drastically, resulting in a large decrease
in density as ice forms.
This explains why pipes sometimes burst during frosty weather.
Some Effects of the Anomalous Expansion of Water
1. Freezing of lakes and ponds

 During very cold weather (winter), the temperature of water in a pond or
a lake falls. .
 The water at the surface contracts, becomes denser and sinks to the
bottom.
 Water that is warmer and less dense moves to the surface. It is cooled,
contracts, becomes denser and sinks.
 A circulation is thus set up until all the water reaches its maximum
density at 40C.
 If further cooling occurs, any water below 40C will stay at the top owing
to its less density.
 Ice will form at the surface and float on the water since it is less dense
than water.
 Water at 40C, being the most dense, remains at the bottom of the lake.
 Since ice is a bad conductor of heat, it insulates the water below it against
loss of heat to the cold air above it.
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 The layers of water below the ice have temperatures of 00C, 10C, 20C,
30C and 40C as shown in the figure 6.14.
Figure 6.14
 Fish and other aquatic animals and plants can, therefore, survive by living
in the water layers below the ice.
2. Icebergs
 Since the density of ice (0.92 g/cm3) is slightly less than that of water
(1 g/cm3), it floats with only a small portion above the water surface. The
rest and the bigger portion remains under water.
 A big mass of submerged ice is called an iceberg.
 Icebergs pose great danger to ships as navigators cannot see the
submerged part.
3. Weathering of rocks
 When water in a crack in a rock freezes, it expands.
 This expansion breaks the rock into small pieces.
4. Bursting of water pipes

 Water pipes burst when water flowing through them freeze.
 This is because freezing is accompanied by increase in volume.
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF GASES
1. Experiment on Expansion and Contraction of gases

Apparatus
A round-bottomed flask, tight-fitting rubber cork with a hole, a glass tube, a
basin of coloured water, retort stand and clamp.
Page 80 of 210
Figure 6.15
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure 6.15.
 Warm the glass flask with your hands for some time and observe what
happens.
 Remove your hands and let flask cool while the tube is still inserted in
water. Observe what happens.
Observation
 When the flask is warmed, the level of the water column inside the glass
tube drops.
 When the flask is warmed further, bubbles of air are seen coming out
through the water.
 On cooling the glass flask, the water rises up the glass tube.
Explanation
 When the glass flask is warmed, the air inside becomes heated and
expands.
 As the air escapes from the glass flask through the glass tube, it pushes
the water level in the tube downwards.
 The air bubbles are seen to emerge from the lower end of the tube.
 When the flask is cooled, the air in the flask contracts and the
atmospheric pressure acting on the water surface forces the water to rise
up the glass tube.
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MEASURING TEMPERATURE
 Temperature is measured using an instrument called a thermometer.
 There are many types of thermometers each designed for a specific

purpose.
Temperature Scale
 A scale of temperature is obtained by selecting two temperatures known
as the lower fixed point and the upper fixed point
 The range between these two fixed points is divided into 100 equal
divisions.
 Each division called a degree.
(a) The lower fixed point
 On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure
melting ice.
 It is taken as 00C.
Note:
Impurities in ice would lower its melting point.
(b) The upper fixed point
 This is the temperature of steam above water boiling at normal
atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg.
 It is taken as 1000C.
Note:
(i) Impurities in water would raise its boiling point.
(ii) The temperature of the steam is not affected by impurities in water.
The Celsius and the Kelvin Scales
 These are the two most commonly used temperature scales.
(i) The Celsius scale
 It has the fixed points at 00C and 1000C.
 It is also referred to as Centigrade scale.
 Temperatures in this scale can have negative values.
(ii) The Kelvin scale
 In this scale, the temperature of pure melting ice is 273K while that of
steam from boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure is 373K.
 The lowest temperature attainable in this scale is zero K (0K).
 0K is also referred to as absolute zero.
 0K is the temperature at which the energy of the particles in a material is
zero.
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Note:
Temperature in the Kelvin scale cannot have a negative value.
 Figure 6.16 compares the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale.
Figure 6.16
Note:
(a) To convert 0C to Kelvin, add 273.
(b) To convert Kelvin to 0C, subtract 273.
Examples
1. Convert each of the following temperatures into Kelvin:
(a) 250C
250C = (25 + 273) K = 298K.
(b) 1000C
1000C = (100 + 273) K = 373K
(c) 00C
00C = (0 + 273) K = 273K
(d) ⁻1230C
⁻1230C = (⁻123 + 273) K = 150K
2. Convert each of the following temperatures into 0C:

(a) 350K
350K = (350 – 273) 0C = 770C
(b) 100K
100K = 100 - 273 = ⁻1730C
(c) 0K
0K = 0 – 273 = ⁻2730C
(d) 1032K
1032K = 1032 – 273 = 7590C
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TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
A. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
 It contains a liquid contained in a glass bulb.
 When the bulb is heated, the liquid expands up a capillary tube.
 The liquid in the bulb must:
(i) be easily seen (visible).
(ii) have a wide range of temperature between boiling and freezing
points.
(iii) not stick to the inside of the capillary tube (should not wet the
inside of the capillary tube)
(iv) expand or contract uniformly and by a large amount over a small
range of temperature.
 The most common liquids for use in thermometers are mercury and
alcohol.
 Table 2 compares the two thermometric liquid.
Table 2
Alcohol Mercury
1 Lower boiling point, 780C Higher boiling point, 3570C
2 Lower freezing point, ⁻1150C Relatively higher freezing point,
⁻390C
3 Poor thermal conductor Good thermal conductor

4 Expansion slightly irregular Expands regularly
5 Wets the inside of the capillary Does not wet the inside of the capillary tube
tube
6 Transparent, and therefore it has Opaque and silvery
to coloured to make it easily
visible
Note:
(a) Alcohol is, therefore, suitable for measurements of temperatures below
⁻390C.
(b) Pentane is used for extremely low temperature work (down to ⁻2000C).
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(c) Water is unsuitable for use in thermometers for two reasons:

(i) it freezes at 00C.
(ii) its expansion is irregular.
 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers include the:

1. Common laboratory thermometer.
2. Clinical thermometer.
3. Six‟s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer
1. Common Laboratory Thermometer
 Figure 6.17 shows the main features of a common laboratory

thermometer.
Figure 6.17
(a) Thin glass bulb

 It carries the liquid in the thermometer.
 It has a thin glass wall for effective heat transmission between the liquid
inside and the body whose temperature is to be taken.
(b) Capillary bore

 The liquid expands and contracts along the capillary tube.
 It is narrow for high degree of accuracy.
(c) Thick glass stem
 This is a thick glass wall surrounding the capillary bore.
 It also serves as magnifying glass for easy reading of the scale.
2. Clinical thermometer
 This is specifically designed for measuring human body temperature.
 Figure 6.18 shows the main features of the clinical thermometer:
Figure 6.18
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(a) Short scale

Its temperature range is about 350C to 430C, which makes it suitable since the
temperature of a healthy person is about 370C.
(b) Constriction
 The capillary tube has a constriction just beyond the thin-walled glass
bulb.
 When the thermometer is used to take the temperature of a patient, the
mercury in the bulb expands, forcing its way past the constriction.
 When the thermometer is withdrawn from the patient, the mercury in the
bulb suddenly cools and contracts, breaking the mercury thread at the
constriction.
 The mercury beyond the constriction stays in the capillary tube, showing
the body temperature.
 After the temperature has been read, the mercury is returned to the bulb
by a simple flick of the wrist.
 Methylated spirit may be used to sterilize the thermometer after use.
Note:
 A more recent technology in the measurement of temperature is the use of
non-contact infra-red (IR) thermo gun thermometer, also known as the
laser thermometer.
 It operates by making use of thermal radiation emitted by the body whose
temperature is being measured.
 It usually uses a lens to focus IR light from one object on to a detector,
called a thermopile.
 The thermopile absorbs the IR radiation and converts it to heat.
 The more IR energy, the hotter the thermopile gets. This heat is converted
into electricity.
 The electricity is sent to a detector, which uses it to determine the
temperature of the body that the thermometer is pointed at.
 It is digital and therefore useful when a fast response is required.
3. Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer
 This is a special thermometer that is used to record the maximum and
minimum temperatures reached in an area during a specified period, e.g.,
a day.
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 Figure 6.19 shows its main features.
Figure 6.19
 Before the thermometer is used to measure temperatures, ensure that the
steel indices are on the surface of mercury surfaces in both limbs. This is
done using a magnet.
 When it becomes hot, the alcohol in bulb P expands to push the mercury
in the left limb downwards and that in the right limb upwards.
 As the mercury in the right limb is pushed upwards, the air and the
alcohol vapour in the bulb Q becomes compressed
 The mercury in the right limb pushes the steel index A upwards until the
maximum temperature is attained.
 The lower end of the steel index A indicates the maximum temperature
attained.
 The steel index has a spring which holds it in position in the glass tube.
 When the temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb P contracts while the air
and the alcohol vapour in the bulb Q expands.
 The mercury in the right limb is therefore pushed downwards, leaving
behind the steel index A while the mercury in the left limb is pushed
upwards.
 The steel index B is pushed upwards until the minimum temperature is
attained.
 The lower end of the steel index B indicates the minimum temperature
attained.
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B. Bimetallic Thermometer
 It consists of a coiled bimetallic strip as shown in the figure 6.20.
Figure 6.20
 One end of the spiral is fixed while the other end is attached to the
spindle of a pointer which moves over a calibrated scale.
 The outer metal expands more than the inner metal.
 An increase in temperature causes the bimetallic strip to expand and
curve inwards, forcing the pointer to move in the clockwise direction.
Page 88 of 210
Chapter 7
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
 Heat is a form of energy which passes from a body at a higher

temperature to a body at a lower temperature.
 If a body receives heat energy, its temperature increases whereas if a
body gives out heat, its temperature decreases.
 If two bodies at the same temperature are in contact, then there is no net
flow of heat from one body to the other. The two bodies are said to be at
thermal equilibrium.
 The SI unit of heat is called the joule (J).
 The amount of heat cannot be measured directly by an instrument but it is
calculated.
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat can travel through a medium and also through a vacuum.

 There are three modes of heat transfer namely:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
 Both conduction and convection require a material medium, but radiation
can take place in a vacuum.
 Conduction of heat takes place in solids while convection takes place in
fluids (liquids and gases).
A. CONDUCTION
 Conduction is the process of heat transfer in solids as a result of vibration

of particles.
 During thermal conduction, heat energy flows through the material
without the material flowing or shifting.
1. Thermal Conductivity in Solids
 Different materials have different thermal conductivities.
 Metals are generally good conductors of heat.
 Non-metals (insulators).are poor conductors of heat.
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 Solids that are good conductors of heat (metals) use both vibration of
the atoms and free electrons to conduct heat.
 Solids that are poor conductors of heat like glass, wood and rubber
make use of vibration of atoms as a mechanism to conduct heat
because they have no free or mobile electrons.
Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity in solid materials

1. The temperature difference between the ends of the conductor.
The rate of flow of heat increases with increase in temperature difference.
2. The length of the conductor.
Thermal conductivity increases with increase decrease in length.
3. The area of cross-section of the conductor.
Thermal conductivity increases with increase in the area of cross-section of
the conducting material.
4. The nature of the material.
Different materials have different thermal conductivities.
Experiment 7.1: Comparison of conductivities of wood and iron rods
Apparatus
Iron rod and wooden rod of the same diameter joined end to end, Bunsen
burner, a piece of paper.
Figure 7.1
Procedure
- The piece of paper is wrapped round the joint so that some of the
paper is over the iron rod and some over the wooden rod.
- A flame is passed over the paper several times.
Observation
The paper gets charred (blackened) on the region covering the wooden rod.
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Explanation
This is because the wood does not conduct heat from the paper.
Conclusion
Wood is said to be a bad conductor of heat while iron is a good conductor.
2. Thermal Conductivity in Liquids
Experiment 7.2: To demonstrate that water is a poor conductor of heat.
Apparatus
Boiling tube, water, ice wrapped in a wire gauze, Bunsen burner.
Figure 7.2
Procedure
 Heat the water at the top until it starts boiling.
 Note the changes, if any, in the ice.
Observation
Water at the top of the boiling tube boils while the ice remains unmelted.
Conclusion
Water is a poor conductor of heat.
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Note:
(i) The test tube is made of glass (a poor conductor of heat), which limits
possible conduction of heat down the tube.
(ii) The ice is wrapped in wire gauze to ensure that it does not float.
Figure 7.3
(iii) The fact that the wire gauze is a good conductor of heat and yet the ice does
not melt shows that there is very little heat transfer in the water, unable to melt
the ice.
(iv) Water is heated at the top to eliminate possibility of heat transfer to the ice
by convection.
 Even though liquids are generally poor conductors of heat, some liquids
are better heat conductors than others, e.g., mercury is a better conductor
of heat than water.
Question
Explain why liquids are poor conductors of heat
Answer
Liquids have larger inter-molecular distances. Therefore there are fewer
collisions between the molecules
Note:
Although liquids are in general poor conductors of heat, the experimental
set-up shown in figure 7.3 can be used to show that some liquids are better
heat conductors than others.
Figure 7.3
The test-tubes are coated with a uniform layer of candle wax.
Page 92 of 210
Observation
(i) When region A of the copper rod, which is midway from the centres
of the test-tubes is heated for some time, the wax on the test-tube
with mercury begins to melt.
(ii) Later, the wax near the top of the test-tube with water melts while
the wax lower down the test- tube does not melt.
Conclusion
Mercury is a better conductor of heat than water.
Caution!
Mercury vapour is poisonous.
3. Thermal Conductivity in Gases

 Since thermal conduction is by means of vibration of atoms and the
presence of free electrons, gases are worst conductors of heat
because of large inter- molecular distance between the atoms.
 Figure 7.4 demonstrates the poor thermal conductivity in gases.
Figure 7.4
Observation
A match-stick held within the unburnt gas region of a Bunsen burner flame
is not ignited by the heat from the hot part of the flame.
Conclusion
Gases are poor conductors of heat.
Some Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat
1. Cooking utensils, soldering irons and boilers are made of metals which
conduct heat rapidly.
2. For cooking utensils, the handles are made of poor conductors of heat such
wood or plastic.
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3. Metal pipes carrying hot water from boilers are lagged with cloth soaked in
plaster of Paris to minimize heat losses.
Note:
Lagging refers to the covering of good conductors of heat with insulating
materials to reduce loss of heat through the surface by conduction.
4. Fire fighters put on special suits made of asbestos material to keep safe while
putting out fires.
5. Film directors cloth their characters in asbestos suits as the characters act in
stunts involving burning.
6. Birds flap their wings after getting wet as a means of introducing air pockets
in their feathers. Air, being a poor conductor, reduces heat loss from their
bodies.
7. Wool, fur and thatch on roofs have a lot of air pockets that reduces loss of
heat.
8. A soft-board ceiling is better than a concrete ceiling because it has many air
pockets. Concrete is a better conductor of heat than air.
9. In modern buildings where the desired inside temperature is to be stabilized,
double walls are constructed. Materials such as fibre glass and foam plastic that
are good insulators of heat and can trap air are put between the walls. Similarly,
double-glazed windows have air trapped between two glass sheets.
10. In experiments involving heating water or liquid in a glass beaker, the
beaker is placed on wire gauze. The wire gauze when heated spreads the heat to
a large area of the beaker. This reduces the chances of the beaker cracking.
11. A heat sink (a metal plate) is fixed onto the integrated circuits and
transistors in electronic devices so as to conduct away undesired heat.
The heat sinks have metal fins that increase the surface area of the heat sink
thus increasing the rate of heat loss to the surrounding.
B. CONVECTION
 This is the process by which heat is transferred through fluids (liquids and
gases).
 The heat transfer is by the actual movement of the fluid, called

convection currents.
 There are two types of convection:
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(i) Natural convection.

This involves change in density of the fluid with temperature.
(ii) Forced convection
This involves mixing of hot and cold parts of the fluid through some external
stirring, like a fan or pump.
1. Convection Currents in Liquids
Experiment 7.3: To demonstrate convection currents in liquids
Apparatus
A large glass beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystals, Bunsen burner
tripod stand.
Figure 7.5
Procedure
 Half fill the beaker with water.
 Place the beaker on the tripod stand.
 Put some crystals of potassium permanganate in one corner of the glass

beaker.
 Heat the corner of the beaker containing potassium permanganate and

observe what happens. (figure 7.5)
Observation
A purple colouration rises up from the potassium permanganate, forming a loop.
Conclusion
Convection currents are set up when a liquid is heated.
Page 95 of 210
Explanation
 When a liquid is heated, it expands, becomes less dense and rises up.
Colder and denser liquid moves towards the bottom to take its place.
 This process continues until all the liquid turns purple. This movement of
liquid forms convection liquid currents.
2. Convection Currents in Gass

Experiment 7.4: To demonstrate convection currents in gases
Apparatus
A box with two chimneys, A and B and a transparent front, a candle, a
smouldering straw.
Figure 7.6
Procedure
 Light the candle beneath chimney B. (figure 7.6)
 Place the smouldering straw at the mouth of chimney A and leave it there
for some time.
 Observe what happens to the smoke that is produced by the burning

straw.
 Now put off the candle and repeat the experiment.
Observation
 Smoke is sucked into the box through chimney A, moves across the box
and exits through chimney B.
 When the candle is put off, the smoke is not drawn into the box.
Conclusion
Convection currents are set up when air or gas is heated.
Page 96 of 210
Explanation
 The candle heats up the air above it, expands, becomes less dense and
rises up through chimney B.
 Colder heavier air is drawn in through chimney A, carrying with it the

smoke which replaces the air that is escaping through chimney B.
Some Applications of Convection in Fluids
1. Domestic Hot Water System

 The figure 7.7 shows the main features of a commercial domestic hot
water supply.
Figure 7.7
 When the water is heated in the boiler, it expands, becomes less dense
and rises up into the cylinder.
 The force of gravity makes the cold water to flow down from the cold
water tank into the boiler to replace the hot water that has rise up.
 The hot water floats on the cold water in the cylinder since it is less
dense.
 Once the cold water flows down the cylinder, the main pipe allows more
cold water to flow into the cold water tank.
 When filled to capacity, the ball cock lever floating on the water closes a
valve in the main pipe, stopping further inflow of cold water.
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 An overflow pipe lets out water from the cold water tank if the valve fails
to close.
 The hot water tap and the expansion pipe are connected to the upper
region of the cylinder.
 The expansion pipe is an outlet for excess water that could have resulted
from overheating.
 The piping that carries the hot water and the cylinder is lagged to
minimize
heat losses.
2. Ventilation.
 This refers to the supply of fresh air to a room.
 The ventilation holes in a room are fixed above the windows and the
doors.
 The air that the room occupants breathe out is warm and less dense. It
therefore rises up and escapes through the ventilation holes.
 Cool fresh air flows into the room through the windows and the doors to
replace the warm air that has risen.
 The room thus gets a continuous flow of fresh air.
Note:
Some houses are fitted with air conditioning devices which cause forced
convection of air, giving out cold dry air and absorbing warm moist air.
3. Car Engine Cooling System
 The engine is surrounded by a metal water jacket that is connected to the
radiator.(Figure 7.8)
Page 98 of 210
Figure 7.8
 The metal surface conducts away the heat from the engine. This heats up
the water, setting up convection currents.
 The hot water is pumped into the radiator which has thin copper fins that
conduct away heat from the water.
 Air flowing past the fins speeds up the cooling process.
 The fan in front of the radiator speeds up the cooling process.
1. Land and Sea Breeze
(a) Sea Breeze
 During the day, the land heats up much faster than the sea.
 The air just above the land gets heated up, expands, becomes less dense
and rises up.
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 Cooler air above the sea then blows towards the land to replace the warm
air that has risen up.
 This is called a sea breeze. [figure 7.9 (a)]
(b) Land Breeze
 In the evening, the temperature of the sea water is higher than that of the
land. This is because water takes a longer time to cool than the land after
being raised to the same temperature.
 The air above the water being warm and less dense rises up.
 Cooler air from the land blows towards the sea to replace the warm air
that has risen up.
 This is called a land breeze. [figure 7.9 (b)]
C. RADIATION
 Radiation is the process of flow of heat from one place to another by
means of electromagnetic waves.
 All bodies absorb and emit radiation.
 The higher the temperature of an object, the greater the amount of

radiation.
Emission and Absorption of Radiant Heat

Method 1
Apparatus
U-tube containing coloured water, two boiling tubes A and B painted

black, a hollow cube painted black on one side and polished (shiny) on the
opposite side, connecting tubes.
Figure 7.10
Page 100 of 210

Procedure
- Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 7.10 and ensure that:
 The metal cube is centralized between the two boiling tubes, i.e
., distance x = distance y.
 The level of coloured water in the U-tube is at the same height
in both arms of the tube.
- Pour hot water into the metal cube. Observe what happens to the
coloured water levels in the U-tube.
- Repeat the experiment with the sides of the metal cube exchanged.
Observation
The water level in limb A rises while the level in B falls.

Explanation
The boiling tube B receives more heat than boiling tube A, warming the air
inside it. The air expands, increasing air pressure that pushes down the
coloured water in limb B. When the sides of the metal cube are exchanged,
the level of the water in limb A falls while the level in B rises. This
experiment suggests that black surfaces are better heat emitters than
polished (shiny) ones.
Experiment 7.5: To compare the rate of EMISSION of radiant heat from
different surfaces
Apparatus
Two similar tins (tin A blackened and tin B shiny) with equal amounts of hot
water at the same temperature, two lids, two corks, two thermometers (TB and
TS), a stop watch, two blocks of wood.
Figure 7.11
Page 101 of 210

Procedure
 Record the initial temperature on thermometers TB and TS.
 Read and record the temperatures of TB and TS at intervals of two

minutes for about 20 minutes.
Time in 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
minutes
Temp,
TB
Temp,
TS
 On the same axes, draw two graphs of temperature (0C) for TB and TS
against time (minutes).
Observation
 After some time, it is noted that the temperature recorded by thermometer
TB is lower than that recorded by thermometer TS.
 Figure 7.12 shows the expected graphs.
Figure 7.12
Explanation
The water from the blackened tin lost heat faster than that in the shiny tin.
Conclusion
Black (dull) surfaces are better emitters of radiant heat than shiny (polished)
surfaces.
Page 102 of 210

Experiment 7.6: To compare the rate of ABSORPTION of radiant heat

from different surfaces
Method 1
Apparatus
Two similar sheets of aluminium plates, one polished and the other painted
black(dull), source of heat.
Figure 7.13
Procedure
- Using wax, fix a cork on the reverse side of each plate, as shown in
figure 7.13.
- Set the plates vertically at a reasonable distance apart.
- Place the Bunsen burner midway between the plates and away from
draught. Observe the corks fixed on the plates.
Observation
The cork fixed on the dull plate falls off after the wax melts, while the cork
on the polished plate remains fixed for a longer time.
Method 2
Apparatus
Two similar tins (tin A blackened and tin B shiny) with equal amounts water at
the same temperature, two lids, two corks, two thermometers (TB and TS), a stop
watch, two blocks of wood, source of heat.
Page 103 of 210

Figure 7.14
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure 7.14. The heater is midway
between tins A and B.
 Read and record the temperatures of TB and TS at intervals of two

minutes for about 20 minutes.
Time in minutes 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Temp, TB
Temp, TS
 On the same axes, draw two graphs of temperature (0C) for TB and TS
against time (minutes).
Observation
 The thermometer TB immersed in water in the blackened tin A records
higher readings than that of thermometer TS.
 Figure 7.15 shows the expected graphs.
Figure 7.15
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Explanation
The water in the blackened tin absorbed heat faster than that in the shiny tin.
Conclusion
Black surfaces are better absorbers of radiant heat than shiny surfaces.
Summary
(i) Good absorbers of radiant heat are also good emitters.
(ii) Poor absorbers of radiant heat are also poor emitters.
(iii) Poor emitters of radiant heat are also good reflectors.
Some Applications of Thermal Radiation

1. Kettles, cooking pans and iron boxes have highly polished surfaces to reduce
heat loss through thermal radiation.
2. Petrol tanks are painted silvery bright to reflect away as much heat as
possible to reduce chances of explosion.
3. Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted with bright colours to
reflect heat and therefore remain cool, while those in cold regions have walls
and roofs painted with dull colours to absorb as much heat as possible.
4. In solar concentrators, electromagnetic waves in the form of radiant heat are
reflected to a common point (focus) by a concave reflector.
The temperature at this point is sufficiently high to boil water.
Figure 7.16
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5. The Greenhouse Effect (Heat Trap)

 A greenhouse is a structure with walls and roofs made chiefly of
transparent materials, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated
climatic conditions are grown.
 The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the surface of the
earth.
 Very hot bodies such as the sun emit most of their radiation in the form of
visible light and high energy infrared rays.
 The infrared rays easily pass through glass without being absorbed.
 These rays are absorbed by the earth and objects inside the greenhouse
which, in turn, raise the temperature f the air by conduction and
convection.
 The warm air, being enclosed, cannot escape.
 The warm objects inside the greenhouse also radiate energy, but, owing
to their comparatively low temperature, the infrared rays they emit have
lower energy. They therefore cannot penetrate the glass. The cumulative
effect is that the temperatures of the greenhouses increase substantially.
6. Solar Heater
 It uses solar energy to heat water.
 It consists of coiled blackened copper pipe placed on a blackened

insulating surface.
 The coiled pipe is covered with a glass window.
Figure 7.17
Page 106 of 210

 Radiant heat energy from the sun penetrates through the glass and is
absorbed by the blackened copper pipes that contain water, which is
heated up.
 Copper pipes and copper collectors are used because copper is a good
conductor of heat.
 The copper pipes and copper collectors are painted black to increase their
absorbing power.
 The warm objects inside the solar heater also radiate energy, but, owing
to their comparatively low temperature, they emit radiations are of lower
energy. They therefore cannot penetrate the glass. .
 The temperature of the air above the pipe thus increases, boosting the
heating of the water.
7. Vacuum (or Thermos) Flask

 It is designed to keep its content fairly hot or cold as desired.
 It is made of high quality glass, blown in such a way that it is double-

walled.
 The air between the walls is pumped out through the sealed-off neck to
create a vacuum.
Figure 7.18
Page 107 of 210

 The following are the main features of the flask and how they minimizes
heat losses:
(a) double-walled glass: by conduction.

(b) vacuum: by conduction and convection.
(c) silver coating on the double-walls: by radiation.
(d) stopper: by conduction and evaporation.
Note:
(i) The metal or plastic case protects the glass envelope from breaking easily.
(ii) The soft padding holds the glass flask firmly in the case.
Page 108 of 210

CHAPTER 8
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION AT PLANE

SURFACES
Introduction
 Light is a form of energy that makes visual perception possible.
 It is also essential as a source of energy for the process by which plants
manufacture their food (photosynthesis).
Sources of Light
1. Luminous Sources
 These are objects that produce their own light.
 Examples: sun, stars, burning wood or charcoal, burning candle, electric
light bulbs, a red-hot heating element, television screens, glow worms,
among others.
2. Non-luminous Sources
 These are objects that do not produce their own light but they are visible
when light falling on them from luminous sources is reflected.
 Examples: moon, planets, plants, human beings, books stones, clothes,
among others.
Note:
A source of light produces pulses of energy which spreads out in all directions.
Rays and Beams of Light
Ray of light
 This is the path along which light energy travels.
 In diagrams, rays of light are represented by straight lines with arrows on
them to show the direction of travel. (figure 8.1)
Figure 8.1
Beam of light
 This is a stream of light energy which is considered to be a bundle of rays
of light.
 There are three types of beams of light namely:
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(a) Divergent beam

 This is a beam of light that appear to spread out (diverge) from the
source.
[figure 8.2 (a)]

 Example: beam of light from a spotlight.
(b) Parallel beam

 This is a beam of light in which the rays appear to be perfectly parallel to
each from the source.
[figure 8.2 (b)]
 Example: beam of light from the sun reaching the surface of the earth.
(c) Convergent beam
 This is a beam of light that appear to collect (converge) to a point.
figure 8.2 (c)]

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Opaque, Translucent and Transparent Objects

(a) Opaque objects
 These do not allow light to pass through them at all.
 Examples: Wood, stone, metals, bricks, among others.
(a) Translucent objects
 These allow light to pass through, but we cannot see through them.
 Examples: greased paper, some glass panes used in toilet and bathroom
windows, among others.
(b) Transparent objects
 These allow light to pass through and we see through them.
 Examples: ordinary window panes and car windscreens.
A. RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
 Rectilinear propagation of light is the property of light that light travels
in a straight line.
 In a vacuum, the speed of light is 300,000,000 m/s (3.0 x 108 m/s).
 Rectilinear propagation of light is demonstrated by:
1. Formation of shadows.
2. Occurrence of eclipses.
3. Formation of images in a pinhole camera.
1. Formation of Shadows
Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4
 Shadows are formed when an opaque object is in the path of a beam of

light.
 The type of shadow formed depends on:
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(a) The size of source of light.

(i) Point source of light
 In this case, a light bulb is placed inside a ray box with a small hole in
it.A point source of light is
 This is illustrated in figure 8.3 above.
 The shadow formed has the following properties:

(I) It is uniformly and totally dark. This shadow is called the umbra
(Latin word for „shade‟).
(II) It has a sharp edge, supporting the idea that light travels in straight
lines.
(ii) Extended source of light.

 A ray box with a large hole is used to act an extended source of light.
 This is illustrated in figure 8.4 above
 The shadow formed has the following properties:
(I) It has a smaller umbra surrounded by a border of partial darkness, called

penumbra.
(II) It is much softer and without sharp edges.
Note:
Extended sources of light are used in frosted light bulbs and lamp shades to
provide a more pleasant lighting with less sharp shadows.
(b) The size of opaque object.

The smaller the opaque object the smaller the shadow and the larger the object,
the larger the shadow.
(c) The distance between the object and the source of light.
For an extended source of light:
(i) When the object is moved closer to the source of light, a ring of penumbra is
formed. No umbra is seen.
(ii) When the object is moved far away from the source, there is umbra
surrounded by penumbra.
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2. Occurrence of Eclipses
 An eclipse refers to the total or partial disappearance of the sun or moon
as seen from the earth.
 Eclipses are explained in terms of the relative positions of the earth, the
moon and the
sun.
(a) Solar Eclipse
 This is also called the eclipse of the sun.
 It occurs when the moon passes between the sun and the earth.
 The shadow of the moon is cast on the earth causing darkness during the
day. (figure 8.5)
Note: Figure 8.5

(i) A total solar eclipse never lasts more than 8 minutes since the path of the
moon‟s umbra across the surface of the earth is very narrow (never wider than
272 km). Therefore most people on the earth see mainly a partial eclipse.
(ii) Sometimes when the moon is farthest away from the earth, the umbra of the
moon is not long enough to reach the earth. However, a bright ring of sunlight
can be seen round the edge of the dark disc of the moon. This is called an
annular or ring eclipse. (figure 8.6)
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Figure 8.6
(b) Lunar Eclipse

 This is also called the eclipse of the moon.
 It occurs during the night when the moon passes through the earth‟s
umbra. (figure 8.7)
Figure 8.7
Note:
(i) A lunar eclipse only happens occasionally when the moon is full.
(ii) It can last for as long as 1 hour 45min, because the moon is much smaller
than the earth and takes some time to pass through the earth‟s umbra.
(iii) During a total lunar eclipse, it is still possible to see the moon because a
small amount of sunlight reaches it.
3. The Pinhole Camera.
 This is a light proof box with a small hole on the front side and a
translucent paper (screen) on the back side. (figure 8.8)
Figure 8.8
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(a) Image formation in a pinhole camera

 Figure 8.9 below illustrates how the image is formed in a pinhole
camera.
Figure 8.9
Observation
When the camera is set up with the pinhole facing a brightly-lit object (pin), a
sharp inverted image of the object is seen on the screen.
Explanation
 Each point on the object acts as a source of light, emitting rays in all
directions.
 The pinhole admits narrow cones of light from all points on the object
facing the hole.
 When these cones of light fall on the screen they produce bright spots on
every part of the object, hence the formation of the image.
Characteristics of the Image

The image formed is:
(i) Real
(ii) Inverted (upside down). This is because light from the top of the object
forms the lower part of the image while light from the bottom of the object
forms the upper part of the image. This further confirms the rectilinear
propagation of light.
(iii) Smaller than the object.
(b) Effect of Increasing the number of holes close to the first main hole
 Each of the pinholes forms its own image on the screen.
 All these images overlap on the screen.
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 The overall image is blurred but brighter since more light is now
admitted into the pinhole.
(c) Effect of Enlarging the Pinhole
 This is equivalent to adding the number of holes close to the first main
hole.
 Each of the imaginary pinholes forms its own image on the screen.
 All these images overlap on the screen.
 The overall image is blurred but brighter since more light is now
admitted into the pinhole.
(d) Effect of Changing the distance between the pinhole and the screen while
the distance between the object and the pinhole remain fixed.
 When the distance between the pinhole and the screen is increased, the
image enlarges.
 When the distance between the pinhole and the screen is reduced, the
image becomes smaller.
Note:
The distance between the pinhole and the screen is also called the length of
the camera.
(e) Effect of Changing the Distance between the Object and the Pinhole while
the distance between the pinhole and the screen remain fixed.
 When the pinhole camera is moved nearer to the object, the size (height)
of the image formed on the screen increases, i.e, the image becomes
larger.
 Conversely, when the camera is moved farther away from the object, the
image becomes smaller.
Magnification, m
 This refers to the change in the size of an image relative to that of the
object.
 Thus, Magnification, m = .
 Magnification is also given by:
Magnification, m =
 Hence, m = =
Note:
Magnification has no units since it is a ratio of two lengths.
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Example1
An object of height 5 metres is placed 10 metres away from a pinhole camera.
Calculate the:
(a) Size of the image if its magnification is 0.01.
m=
0.01 =
hi = 0.01 x 5
hi = 0.05 m
(b) Length of the pin hole camera.
m=
0.01 =
v = 0.01 x 10
v = 0.1 m
Example 2
The distance between the pinhole and the screen of a pinhole camera is 10 cm.
The height of the screen is 20 cm. At what minimum distance from the pinhole
must a man 1.6 m tall stand if a full length image is required?
Solution
v = 10 cm, = 20 cm, = 160 cm, u=?
=
=
20u = 1 600
u=
u = 80 cm.
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Taking photographs with a pinhole camera

The pinhole camera can be used to take still photographs if it is modified as
follows:
(a) The box should be painted black on the inside to eliminate reflection
of light.
(b) The translucent screen should be replaced by a light-tight lid with a
photographic film fitted on the inside
(c) The pinhole should be covered with a thin black card which acts
as a Shutter. (figure 8.10)
Figure 8.10
(i) A photograph may be taken by facing the camera towards the scene
to be photographed, which should be well lit.
(ii) The camera is then supported firmly and the shutter pulled up for a
suitable duration to expose the film to the light from the scene.
(iii) Since the pinhole is very small, it allows very little light to reach
the film. The exposure time, therefore, needs to be long enough to
allow sufficient light to pass through.
Note 1:
The exposure time depends on the following factors:
I. The size of the pinhole.
II. The lighting conditions.
III. The sensitivity of the film.
IV. The length of the camera.
(iv) When the best time is found and photograph taken, the film is
removed and the negative developed and printed.
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Advantage of the pinhole camera over a lens camera

It is able to form focused images on the film of objects both far and near the
camera. The camera is said to possess a large depth of field because of the
small aperture.
Disadvantage of the pinhole camera over a lens camera
Since it has small aperture, then the exposure time has to be long in order to
get clearer pictures. During this long exposure, there is every likelihood of
movement which would produce blurred pictures.
Note 2:
The exposure time could be reduced by enlarging the pinhole, but as
observed, this will also produce blurred photographs
B. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
 Reflection refers to the „bouncing off of light‟ when it falls on a surface.
 The amount of light energy reflected by a body depends on the nature of

the surface of the body (smooth or rough).
 The smoother the surface, the greater the fraction of light reflected from
the body and the brighter the body appears to our eyes.
Regular and Diffuse Reflection

(i) Regular (specular) reflection
 It takes place on a smooth polished surface.
 Parallel rays from a source are reflected in a parallel in one direction

only.
[figure 8.11(a)]
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(ii) Diffuse reflection

 It takes place on a rough surface, e.g., paper.
 Parallel rays from a source are reflected in different directions by a rough

surface.
[figure 8.11 (b)]
Reflection by Plane Mirrors

 A plane mirror is a flat smooth reflecting surface which forms images
by regular reflection.
 It is often made by silvering the back side of a flat sheet of glass.
 The silvered side of the mirror is shown by the shading behind the
reflecting surface.
 The silvered surface should be placed on the reflecting line drawn for the
experiment. (figure 8.12)
Figure 8.12
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Definition of Terms used in Reflection of Light
Figure 8.13 illustrates these terms:
Figure 8.13
(i) Incident Ray: This is the ray of light that travels from the source to the
reflecting surface.
(ii) Normal: This is the line drawn perpendicularly at the point where the
incident ray strikes the reflecting surface (point of incidence).
(iii) Reflected Ray: This is the ray that bounces off from the point of incidence
on the reflecting surface.
(iv) Angle of Incidence, i: This is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal.
(v) Angle of Reflection, r: This is the angle between the reflected ray and the
normal.
Laws of Reflection of Light

(i) The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence
all lie on the same plane.
Note:
These laws hold true for all reflecting surfaces.
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Relationship Between Angle of Rotation of a Plane Mirror and the Angle of

Rotation of the Reflected Ray
 This is illustrated in figure 8.14 (a) and (b).
Figure 8.14
 A plane mirror with its reflecting surface is placed vertical to the

plane of the paper along XY[figure 8.14 (a)]
 A ray of light is directed to the mirror at an appropriate angle to the
mirror line at O.
 The paths of the incident and the reflected rays are marked.
 Keeping the direction of the incident ray constant in figure 8.14 (b),
the mirror is rotated to lie along the line X‟Y‟.
 The path of the new reflected ray is marked again.
 The source of light and the mirror are then removed. The incident ray
and the two positions of reflected rays are then drawn, producing
them to meet at O.
 The angle between the two mirror positions and the angle between the
two positions of the reflected rays.
Conclusion:
If the direction of the incident ray remains fixed, then the angle of rotation of
the reflected ray is twice the angle of rotation of the mirror.
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Example 3
Angle of rotation of the plane mirror Angle of rotation of the reflected ray
200 200 x 2 = 400
500 500 x 2 = 1000
850 850 x 2 = 1700
x0 x0 x 2 = 2x0
Note:
This property is used in instruments where a beam of light is used as a
pointer. For example, it is used in the mirror galvanometer (used for
measuring very small electric currents) and the sextant (used in navigation
for measuring the angle of elevation of the sun or stars).
Example 4
A plane mirror lying with its face up makes an angle of 10° with the
horizontal. A ray of light shines down vertically on the mirror as shown in
figure 8.15.
Figure 8.15
(a) What is the angle of incidence?
(b) What angle will the reflected ray make with:
(i) the vertical?
(ii) the horizontal?
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Solution
(a) The incident ray is perpendicular to the horizontal. A normal

drawn to the inclined mirror through the point of incidence
makes an angle i with the incident ray. Using the property of
vertically opposite angles, the angle i is 10°.
Since i = r, angle of reflection is also 10°.
Therefore, the reflected ray makes:
(i) angle of 20° with the vertical.
(ii) angle of (90 – 20) = 70° with the horizontal.
Example 5
Figure 8.16 shows a ray incident at an angle of 25° at position 1. The
mirror is turned through 6° to position 2. Through what angle is the
reflected ray rotated.
Figure 8.16
Solution
The incoming ray is fixed.
Rotation changes the angle of incidence from 25° to (25 + 6) = 31°.
Hence, the angle of reflection is 31° from the new normal. Since this
angle is measured off the normal to the mirror which itself has rotated
through 6°, the total change in the angle of reflected ray is 12°.
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Example 6
A suspended plane mirror makes an angle of 20° with a wall. Light from a
window strikes the mirror horizontally as shown in figure 8.18.
Find:
(a) the angle of incidence.
(b) the angle between the horizontal and reflected ray.
Solution
(a) From figure 8.18, the light makes an angle 70° with the mirror.
Hence, the angle of incidence equals 20°.
(b) Since i = r = 20°, the reflected ray makes an angle of 40° with
the horizontal.
Formation of Images by Plane Mirrors

 Figure 8.19 shows a ray diagram on how the image of a point object is
formed in a plane mirror.
Figure 8.19
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Characteristics of Images Formed by Plane Mirrors

The image is:
(i) Formed as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
(ii) Same size as the object.
(iii) Virtual
(iv) Erect (upright).
(v) Laterally inverted (right side turned to left side and left side turned to right
side).
Note:
(i) A real image is formed by real rays and is therefore formed on a screen, e.g.,
in a pinhole camera.
(ii) A virtual image is formed by imaginary rays and therefore it cannot be
formed on the screen.
Parallax
 Imagine viewing two trees positioned in a line, one behind the other,
as shown in figure 8.20.
 With the eye at position E1, tree 2 appears to right of tree 1 and with
the eye at position E2, tree 2 appears to the left of tree 1.
 This apparent relative motion of two objects due to the movement

of the observer is called parallax.
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Figure 8.20
Note:
(a) Parallax occurs only when objects are some distance apart. When the
objects are at the same position, there is no parallax.
(b) In measurements using a metre rule, it is found that when the eye is
not positioned vertically above the point to be measured, there is an
error due to parallax.
(c) Other instruments that have moving pointers above a scale, e.g.,
electrical meters, may suffer errors of parallax if the line of sight is
not placed perpendicular to the pointer.
Example 7
A girl stands 2.0 m in front of a plane mirror.
(a) Calculate the distance between the girl and her image.
(b) If the mirror is moved 0.6 m away from the girl, what will be the
distance between her and the image?
Solution
Figure 8.21
(a) Since object distance equals image distance, the image is 2.0 m
behind the mirror.
Thus:
Distance between object and image
= object distance + image distance
= 2.0 + 2.0
= 4.0 m
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(b) When the mirror is moved 0.6 m away; object distance becomes
2.0 + 0.6 = 2.6 m
The image distance is also 2.6 m.
Hence, distance between them
= 2.6 + 2.6 m
= 5.2 m
Images Formed by Two Plane mirrors Inclined at an Angle
The relationship between the angle of inclination, θ (Greek letter pronounced

“theta”) and the number of images, n formed is given by the formula:
n=( )-1
Note:
(i) The number of images increases as the angle of inclination becomes
smaller.
(ii) When the two plane mirrors are parallel to each other, i.e., θ = 00, the
number of images formed is infinite.
 This is evident as one walks between two parallel mirrors, as in some
wash rooms or barbers shops.
 The farther images are fainter due to absorption of light on each
reflection.
Example 8
Complete the table below.
Angle between Number of

two mirrors ( ) images (n)
200
450
600
900
1200
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Example 9
Two parallel plane mirrors are placed 30 cm apart. An object placed
between them is 10 cm from one mirror. Determine the image distance of
two nearest images formed by each mirror.
Figure 8.22 illustrates the set-up.
Figure 8.22
Since image distance equals object distance, then:
The image of the object on mirror 1 is I1. Image distance is 10 cm.
The image of object on mirror 2 is I2. Image distance is 20 cm.
The image distance of I2 on mirror 1 is 50 cm.
The image distance of I1 on mirror 2 is 40 cm.
Example 10
Two plane mirrors are inclined at angle 60° to each other. A ray of light
makes an angle of 40° with mirror M1 and goes on to strike mirror M2 as
shown in figure 8.23.
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Figure 8.23
Find the angle of reflection on the second mirror M2.

Solution
The angle of incidence on mirror 1 is 50°.
Since I = r, the angle of reflection is also 50°.
Hence, the incident ray makes an angle of 10° with the normal of mirror
2. Therefore, the angle of reflection on mirror 2 is 10°.
Exercise
At what angle would the two mirrors be inclined to form:
(i) 9 images.
(ii) 17 images.
(iii) 29 images
Applications of Plane Mirrors

1. The Kaleidoscope
 The kaleidoscope applies the principle of mirrors at an angle. Initially,
it was produced as a toy under the name „mirrorscope‟.
 It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2 placed at an angle of 60° to each

other inside a tube.
 The bottom of the tube is a ground glass plate for admitting light. On
this plate is scattered small pieces of brightly coloured glass, which
act as objects
 When one looks down the tube, five images of the object are seen
which together with the object form a symmetrical pattern in six
sectors, as shown in figure 8.24.
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Figure 8.24
 The instrument is used by designers to obtain ideas on symmetrical

patterns.
2. The periscope
 This is an instrument used to view objects over obstacles.
 It is used in submarines and also to watch over the heads of crowds.
 The images seen are erect and virtual.
 A simple periscope may be constructed by arranging two plane mirrors
inclined at 450 to the horizontal, as shown in figure 8.25
Figure 8.25
 The rays from the object are reflected by the top mirror and then reflected
again by the bottom mirror into the observer‟s eye.
Note:
 More elaborate prisms used in submarines use glass prisms instead of
mirrors.
 Here, prisms are used instead of mirrors and the tube supporting
them incorporates a telescope to extend the range of vision.
Page 131 of 210

Chapter 9
ELECTROSTATICS (I)
Introduction
 Electrostatics is the study of electric charges that are at rest.
 There are two types of charges:
(i) Negative charges.
(ii) Positive charges.
 The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
 Smaller units of the coulomb are the millicoulombs (mC) and the
microcoulombs (μC).
 1,000 mC = 1 C
 1,000,000 μC = 1 C.
Origin of Charge
 Matter is made up of atoms.
 An atom consists of particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
 The protons and neutrons are concentrated in a small space at the centre of
the atom and form the nucleus of the atom.
 Protons are positively charged while neutrons have no charge.
 The electrons are negatively charged and move in orbits around the
nucleus.
 The nucleus has a positive charge due to the charge on the protons.
 The total number of the positive charges in the nucleus is equal to the total
number of negatives charges on the electrons. Therefore, the whole atom is
said to be electrically neutral.
 Figure 9.1 shows an electrically neutral atom.
Page 132 of 210

Figure 9.1
The Law of Electrostatic Charges

It states that:
Like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other.
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING OF MATERIALS
1. Charging by Rubbing Method

 Electrons in the outermost orbit are weakly held by the nucleus and can be
transferred easily from the atoms of one material to another by rubbing.
 The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged while the one
that loses electrons becomes positively charged.
Examples
(i) When a polythene rod is rubbed with a piece of cloth, the cloth loses electrons
to the polythene rod. Therefore the cloth becomes positively charged and the
polythene rod negatively charged.
(ii) When a glass rod is rubbed with silk material, glass loses electrons to silk.
Therefore the glass rod becomes positively charged and the silk negatively
charged.
Note:
(i) Charge is neither created nor destroyed during rubbing or charging, but
simply transferred from one object to another.
(ii) A positively charged object (or material) has more protons than electrons.
(iii) A negatively charged object (or material) has more electrons than protons.
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(iv) During the charging process, only the electrons are transferred but not
protons since the protons are enclosed in the nucleus of the atom.
(v) Charges flow through a conductor (metal) but they do not flow through an
insulator, e.g., plastic.
(vi) A negatively or positively charged atom is called an ion.
2. Charging by Contact Method
(a) Charging Positively
Procedure Diagram Effect (s)

(i) Suspend an uncharged
polystyrene ball coated
with aluminium paint on a
retort stand using a dry
cotton thread.
(ii) Bring a positively charged Negative charges

glass rod close to, but not are attracted
touching the ball. towards the
charging rod
while positive
charges are
repelled to the
right part of the
ball.
(iii) Bring the charged glass rod Some of the
in contact with the ball and negative charges
roll it over on the surface. on the ball are
neutralized by
some positive
charges on the
rod
(iv) Withdraw the charged rod. The +ve charges
on the ball repel
and redistribute
themselves all
over the surface
of the ball.
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(v) Bring a charged polythene The ball is

rod close to but not attracted towards
touching the suspended the negatively
ball and observe what charged rod.
happens.
Conclusion
The ball is positively charged by contact method.
Note:
When an object is charged by contact method, it acquires charges that are similar
to the ones on the charged rod.
(b) Charging Negatively
Procedure Diagram Effect (s)

with aluminium on a
retort stand using a dry
cotton thread.
(ii) Bring a negatively Positive charges

charged polythene rod are attracted
close to, but not touching towards the
the ball. charging rod
while negative
charges are
repelled to the
right part of the
ball.
(iii) Bring the charged Some of the
polythene rod in contact positive charges
with the ball and roll it on the ball are
over on the surface. neutralized by
some negative
charges on the
rod
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(iv) Withdraw the charged The -ve charges

rod. on the ball repel
and redistribute
themselves all
over the surface
of the ball.
(v) Bring a +vely charged The ball is

glass rod close to but not attracted
touching the suspended towards the
ball and observe what +vely charged
happens. rod.
Conclusion
The ball is negatively charged by contact method
3. Charging by Induction Method

(a) Charging Negatively
Procedure Diagram Effect(s)
with aluminium paint on
a retort stand using a dry
cotton thread.
(ii) Bring a +vely charged The -ve charges

glass rod close to but not on the ball will be
touching the suspended attracted towards
ball the charging rod
while the +ve
charges will be
repelled to the
right part of the
ball.
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(iii) While holding the ₋ There will be a

charging rod in place, brief flow of
touch the right hand side electrons from the
of the ball with your earth through the
finger or connect that body to neutralize
side of the ball with a the +ve charges on
wire to the ground. This the right part of
process is called the ball.
earthing the ball or the ₋ The -ve charges
conductor on the ball will
remain attracted
towards the
charging rod.
(iv) While still holding the The -ve charges
charging rod in place, on the ball will
remove the finger from remain attracted
the ball. towards the
charging rod.
(v) Remove the charging rod. The -ve charges

on the ball repel
and redistribute
themselves all
over the surface of
the ball.
(vi) Bring a –vely charged The ball is

rod close to, but not repelled
touching the ball. confirming that it
is negatively
charged.
Page 137 of 210

Note:
(i) When an object is charged by induction, it acquires charges that are opposite to
the charging rod.
(ii) When a +vely charged object is connected to the earth, some electrons on the
earth flows to neutralize the +ve charges on the object since +ve charges do not
flow.
(iii) The electrical symbol for earthing is E

with aluminium paint on
a retort stand using a dry
cotton thread.
(ii) Bring a -vely charged The +ve charges
polythene rod close to but on the ball will be
not touching the attracted towards
suspended ball the charging rod
while the -ve
charges will be
repelled to the
right part of the
ball.
(iii) While holding the ₋ The electrons on
charging rod in place, the right part of
touch the right hand side the ball will flow
of the ball with your to the earth
finger. through the body.
₋ The +ve charges
on the ball will
remain attracted
towards the
charging rod.
Page 138 of 210

(iv) While still holding the The +ve charges

charging rod in place, on the ball will
remove the finger from remain attracted
the ball. towards the
charging rod.
(v) Remove the charging rod. The +ve charges

on the ball repel
and redistribute
themselves all
over the surface of
the ball.
(vi) Bring a +vely charged The ball is

rod close to, but not repelled
touching the ball. confirming that it
is positively
charged.
Note:
When a –vely charged object is connected to the earth, the electrons flow from the
object to the earth.
Page 139 of 210

4. Charging by Separation Method

Procedure Diagram(s) Effect(s)
(i) Place two insulated
uncharged spherical
metal conductors A
and B together so that
they form a single
conductor.
(ii) Bring a –vely charged The positive
polythene rod close charges on both
to, but not touching spheres will be
sphere A. attracted towards
the left part of A
while all the
electrons will be
repelled to the
right part of B.
(iii) While still holding the The +ve charges
charging rod in place, remain attracted
move sphere B to the left part of
slightly away from A A while the –ve
to break the contact. charges remain
repelled to the
right part of B.
(iv) Withdraw the ₋ The +ve charges
charging rod. on A repel and
redistribute
themselves all
over sphere A.
₋ Similarly, the –
ve charges on
sphere B repel
and redistribute
themselves all
Page 140 of 210

over sphere B.
(v) Test the two spheres A Sphere A attracts

and B in turn using a the rod while
suspended negatively sphere B repels it.
charged polythene rod This confirms that
for the presence and sphere A is +vely
type of charge on each
charged while B
of the spheres.
is –vely charged.
Note:
(i) When two metal spheres are charged by separation, one becomes –vely charged
while the other one becomes +vely charged.
(ii) Charging can be done using either a +vely or a –vely charged rod.
THE ELECTROSCOPE
-This is an instrument which works on the principle of electrostatic charges.
-It is used for investigating the effects of electric charges.
-Figure 9.2 below shows a common type of electroscope.
Figure 9.2
Page 141 of 210

- It consists of a thin gold or aluminium leaf fixed on a brass plate.

- The brass plate is connected to a brass metal rod that has a circular brass cap at
the top.
-The cap is circular to ensure uniform distribution of charges on it.
-The cap acquires a charge through contact or induction method and spreads it
down the rod to the plate and leaf.
-Both the plate and the leaf show the presence of charges by repelling each
other, making the leaf to rise (diverge)
-The absence of charges is shown when the leaf divergence does not change.
-The metal casing is used for protecting the leaf from the effects of draught.
-The metal casing has a glass window through which observations are made.
-The rod is supported by passing it through a plug of good insulating material such
as rubber.
-The insulator stops charge given to the cap from spreading onto the metal casing
and leaking away.
-The metal casing may have a terminal for connection to the earth, labeled E.
-When the cap of the electroscope is either touched with a finger or connected to
the earth by a wire, electrons flow either to the earth or from the earth,
depending on the charge on the electroscope.
-The process of losing charges to the earth or gaining charges from the earth
through a conductor is called earthing.
Page 142 of 210

CHARGING AN ELECTROSCOPE
1. By Contact Method
(a) Charging Negatively

(i) Bring a negatively ₋ Positive charges
charged polythene rod will be attracted to
close to, but not touching the cap while –ve
the cap of an uncharged charges will be
electroscope. repelled to the leaf
and plate.
₋ Repulsion
between the leaf
and the plate will
occur causing the
leaf to diverge.
(ii) Place the negatively ₋ Some of the
charged rod on the cap, negative charges
roll it over the cap and on the rod
subsequently remove it. neutralizes the
positive charges
on the cap.
₋ The leaf
divergence
increases.
(iii) Withdraw the charging ₋ The negative
rod. charges on the leaf
and the plate repel
and redistribute
over the leaf, plate
and the cap.
₋ The leaf
divergence
decreases.
Page 143 of 210

(iv) Repeat steps (i), (ii) and The leaf

(iii) above several times. divergence
increases to a
maximum point,
Conclusion
The electroscope is said to be charged –vely by contact method.
Note:
(i) The electroscope can be discharged by touching the brass cap with a finger.
(ii) The charging rod is an insulator. Therefore only the charges on the surface of
the rod coming into contact with the cap are used in neutralizing the charges on the
cap.

(i) Bring a +vely charged ₋ Negative charges
glass rod close to, but not will be attracted to
touching the cap of an the cap while +ve
uncharged electroscope. charges will be
repelled to the leaf
and plate.
₋ Repulsion
between the leaf
and the plate will
occur causing the
leaf to diverge.
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(ii) Place the +vely charged ₋ Negative charges

rod on the cap, roll it on the cap
over the cap.. neutralizes some
positive charges
on the rod.
₋ The leaf
divergence
increases.
(iii) Withdraw the charging ₋ The +ve charges
rod. on the leaf and the
plate repel and
redistribute over
the leaf, plate and
the cap.
₋ The leaf
divergence
decreases.
(iv) Repeat steps (i), (ii) and The leaf

(iii) above several times. divergence
increases to a
maximum point,
Conclusion
The electroscope is said to be charged +vely by contact method.
2. Charging by Induction Method

This is the most effective way of charging an electroscope.
Page 145 of 210


(i) Bring a –vely charged ₋ Positive charges
polythene rod close to, will be attracted to
but not touching the the cap while –ve
cap of an uncharged charges will be
repelled to the leaf
electroscope and plate.
₋ Repulsion between
the leaf and the
plate will occur
causing the leaf to
diverge.
(ii) While holding the ₋ Electrons on the
charging rod in place, plate and leaf briefly
touch the cap of the flow to the earth
electroscope with your through the body.
₋ The +ve charges
finger.
on the cap remain
strongly attracted to
the charging rod.
₋ The leaf collapses
(falls)
(iii) While holding the ₋ The +ve charges

charging rod in place, on the cap remain
remove the finger strongly attracted to
from the cap. the charging rod.
₋ The leaf remains
collapsed (fallen)
Page 146 of 210

(iv) Finally withdraw the ₋ The +ve charges

charging rod. on the cap repel and
redistribute
themselves onto the
cap, leaf and plate.
₋ The leaf diverges.
Conclusion
The electroscope becomes +vely charged by induction.
(b) Charging Negatively

(i) Bring a +vely charged ₋ Negative charges
glass rod close to, but will be attracted to
not touching the cap of the cap while +ve
an uncharged charges will be
electroscope repelled to the leaf
and plate.
₋ Repulsion between
the leaf and the
plate will occur
causing the leaf to
diverge.
(ii) While holding the ₋ Electrons briefly
charging rod in place, flow from the
touch the cap of the earth through the
electroscope with your body to neutralize
finger. the +ve charges on
the leaf and plate.
₋ The -ve charges on
the cap remain
strongly attracted to
the charging rod.
Page 147 of 210

₋ The leaf collapses

(falls)
(iii) While holding the ₋ The -ve charges on

charging rod in place, the cap remain
remove the finger strongly attracted to
from the cap. the charging rod.
₋ The leaf remains
collapsed (fallen)
(iv) Finally withdraw the ₋ The -ve charges on

charging rod. the cap repel and
redistribute
themselves onto the
cap, leaf and plate.
₋ The leaf diverges.
Conclusion
The electroscope becomes -vely charged by induction.
Note:
Note the difference between „leaf diverges’ and „leaf divergence increases’, „leaf
collapses (falls)‟ and „leaf divergence decreases.‟
USES OF THE ELECTROSCOPE
1. To detect the presence of charge on an object.
The material to be tested is placed on or brought close to the cap of the
electroscope.
If the material is not charged, then the leaf does not diverge.
2. To test the sign of charge on a charged object.
Page 148 of 210

Case 1
- Figure 9.3 shows what happens when a strong negative charge is brought near to
the cap of a positively charged electroscope.
Figure 9.3
-Starting with the charge high above the cap, the leaf divergence decreases.
Reason:
The positive charge on the leaf and plate become partially neutralized by the free
electrons which are repelled downwards [figure 9.3 (b)].
-As the negatively charged rod is gradually lowered, more electrons will be
repelled to the leaf and plate, until eventually the leaf collapses completely.
Reason:
The positive charges on the leaf and plate become completely neutralized [figure
9.3 (c)].
After this stage has been reached, a further lowering of the negatively charged
rod will cause the leaf to diverge again.
Reason:
The leaf and the plate now acquire excess of electrons [figure 9.3 (d)].
Conclusion:
-A charged body must be brought from a good height slowly down towards a cap
of a gold-leaf electroscope so that the initial decrease in the leaf divergence (if any)
will not be overlooked.
Page 149 of 210

-Otherwise, if the charges are of opposite sign and the observer notices only the
final increase in divergence, then he will conclude wrongly that the test charge and
the electroscope charge are of the same kind.
Case 2:
-When a strong positively charged rod is brought from high position towards
the negatively electroscope, the leaf divergence first decreases.
Reason:
This is because the positive charges on the rod attract negative charges on
the leaf and the plate, making the electroscope neutral.
-As the rod is gradually lowered, the leaf divergence increases again to a
higher position.
Reason:
The strong positively charged rod attracts more electrons from the plate and
the leaf, making them more positive. Hence, they repel further.
Note:
On moving a neutral conductor close to a charged electroscope, the leaf
divergence decreases.
Reason:
The charges on the electroscope induce opposite charges on the conductor,
causing attraction and hence the decrease in the leaf divergence.
-The table below shows a summary of the results obtained when the sign on a
charged object and an uncharged object is tested using differently charged
electroscopes:
Charge on Electroscope Charge brought near Effect on leaf divergence
the cap
+ + Increase
- - Increase
+ - Decrease
- + Decrease
+ or - Uncharged body Decrease
Page 150 of 210

Conclusion:
An increase in the divergence of the leaf is therefore the only sure way of
confirming the kind of charge on a body.
3. To test the quantity of charge on a charged object.

A larger object causes a greater increase in leaf divergence while a smaller object
causes a smaller increase in leaf divergence.
4. To test for insulation properties of an object
Task:
-The insulating or, conversely, the conducting property of a given material (or
substance) may be tested by holding a sample of the substance in the hand and then
bringing it into contact with the cap of a charged electroscope.
Observation:
If the substance is a good insulator, then there will be no leakage of charge
through it and hence the leaf divergence will not change (or alter).
If, however, the leaf collapses instantly, then it shows that the substance is a good
conductor of charge.
Explanation:
Conductors
-Materials like copper, iron, aluminium, zinc and graphite make the leaf
divergence decrease.
-The leaf divergence decreases because they allow electrons to flow between the
electroscope and the earth. Such materials are called conductors.
-In conductors, electrons freely move from one atom to another. Such electrons are
called free electrons.
Insulators
-For materials like plastic, glass, dry wood, dry thread and paper, there is no
change in the leaf divergence because they do not allow electrons to flow between
the electroscope and the earth.
Page 151 of 210

In these materials, the electrons are not free to move because they are strongly
bound to the nuclei. Such materials are called insulators.
Note:
-There are other materials like silicon and germanium which are conductors
under special conditions.
-Their conductivity is between the conductivity of insulators and conductors.
Such materials are called semiconductors.
Charges in Air
-Air can also be charged.
-The presence of charges in air can be shown by heating air above a charged
electroscope.
-It observed that the leaf divergence decreases.
Applications of Electrostatic Charges
Some of the applications of electrostatics include electrostatic precipitators,
spray painting and photocopiers.
Dangers of Electrostatics
Some dangers associated with electrostatics include:
(i) Sparks and fires
• Fuel rubbing the inside of a pipe becomes charged and can cause a
spark which ignites the fuel.
• Fuel in plastic cans generates charges as it rubs with inner walls of
the can.
• Fast moving water jets become charged and may cause fuel tanks in
shops to explode while cleaning them out.
(ii) Electric shock
• A person walking on a nylon carpet can experience shock by

touching metallic door handles in the building.
• A car radiator generates charges that can cause shock if touched.
(iii) Lightning
Electrostatic charges from lightning cause shock leading to death
Page 152 of 210

Chapter 10
CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Introduction
 Electricity is one of the most common forms of energy.
 It is used, among other things, for lighting, heating and powering devices
like radio, television, computers and mobile phones.
Electric Circuit
 Electric circuit refers to the complete path of wires and devices through
which an electric current flows.
 A simple electric circuit consists of a dry cell, a torch bulb (or lamp), a
switch and connecting wires.
 The dry cell is the source of electrical energy in the circuit and maintains
the flow of charges round the circuit.
Note:
(i) The wires are covered by an
insulating material like rubber to prevent the user from electric shocks if the
electric current is too high.
(ii) Copper wires are usually
preferred since they are very good conductors of electricity.
Drawing Circuit Diagrams

 The components in a circuit are joined together by wires.
 Although the wires are usually flexible and bent, they are drawn as straight
lines with right-angle corners for clarity and neatness.
 Where wires cross, they are shown as lines crossing at right angles.
 Where the wires are joined, a round blob is used, which looks rather like a
soldered joint.
 When the current direction needs to be shown, an arrow-head is drawn to
represent the conventional current direction, i.e. from the positive terminal
of the cell (or battery) to the negative terminal.
Page 153 of 210

Note:
 For clarity and neatness, symbols are used to represent the components (or
devices) of an electric circuit.
Common Electric Devices and their corresponding Electrical Symbols

 These are given in table 10.1.
Table 10.1
Page 154 of 210

Testing an Electric Circuit
Task 1(Open Circuit)

Connect up a circuit as shown in figure 10.1 (a).
Figure 10.1 (a): Switch Open
 When the switch is open as in figure 10.1(a) above, the circuit is referred to
as an open (broken) circuit.
 The bulb does not light since there is a gap along the circuit.
Task 2 (Closed Circuit)

Press the switch to close the circuit. [Figure 10.1 (b)]
Figure 10.1 (b): Switch closed
 When the switch is closed as in figure 10.1 (b), the circuit is referred to as a
closed circuit.
 The bulb lights since there is no gap along the circuit
Note:
Loose connection of wires or components in the circuit may open the circuit, even
though the switch is closed.
Page 155 of 210

Task 3 (Short Circuit)

 Complete (or close) the circuit again so that the lamp lights.
 Now connect a piece of wire between points A and B and note what
happens.
Note:
Do not leave this wire connected for very long period of time because it will drain
the dry cell very quickly.
Figure 10.1 (c): Switch closed
Observation
The bulb does not light, even though the circuit is closed.
Reason:
The electric current avoids flowing through the bulb but instead flows through wire
AB. The bulb is said to be short circuited by wire AB.
 A short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows a current to flow along an
unintended path that has no or very low electrical resistance.
 A short circuit results in an excessive current flowing through the circuit.
 It can cause serious damage, fire, and even small-scale explosions.
Page 156 of 210

Electric Current
 Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge.
 It can also be defined as the flow of electric charge per unit time.
 Its SI unit is the ampere (A).
 It is measured using an instrument called an ammeter.
 When the switch is closed in an electric circuit, the bulb lights because
charges are flowing through it in a given time.
 From the definition of electric current;
Current, I =
I= or Q = I x t =It or t =
SI unit of current is the ampere (A)
SI unit of quantity of charge is the coulomb (C)
SI unit of time is the second (s)
Example1
Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 300 coulombs of charge
flows through a point in 2.5 minutes.
Solution
I= ,
I= ,
I=2A
Example 2
A current of 0.3A flows through a circuit in one and a half hours. Calculate the
quantity of charge.
Solution
Q = It,
Q = 0.3 x 1.5 x 3 600
Q = 1 620 C
Page 157 of 210

Example 3
912 coulombs of electricity are used when a steady current of 1.5 A is passed
through a circuit. Calculate the length of time for which the current is passed.
Solution
t= ,t= , t = 608 s or 10 min 8 s.
Exercise
1. A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 30 seconds. If the current in
the circuit is 5 A, find the quantity of charge that passes through the
battery.
2. A charge of 180 coulombs flows through a lamp every minute. Current the
current flowing through the lamp.
3. A battery circulates 225 coulombs of charge round a circuit. If the current is
held at 2.5 A, calculate the length of time for which the current flows.
Electromotive Force (e.m.f) and Potential Difference (p.d)
 The e.m.f. of a cell is the voltage across its terminals in an open circuit.
 The p.d of a cell is the voltage drop across its terminals in a closed circuit.
 Both the e.m.f and the p.d are measured by an instrument called voltmeter.
 The S.I unit of both the e.m.f and the p.d is the volt.
 Figure 10.2 (a) and (b) respectively illustrate the e.m.f of the cell as 1.5 V
and the p.d as 1.45 V.
Page 158 of 210

Figure 10.2: e.m.f and p.d of a cell

 The difference between the e.m.f and the p.d is known as the lost volts.
 In this case, lost volts = 1.5 – 1.45 = 0.05 V
 This voltage (0.05 V) is lost because of the opposition to the flow of charges
within the cell (internal resistance)
Note:
The term „voltage‟ or „potential‟ refers to the „electrical level‟ of a cell.
Arranging Identical Cells in Series and in Parallel
(a) Cells arranged in Series

 Two or more cells are said to be connected in series when the positive terminal
of one is connected to the negative terminal of another. (figure 10.3)
Figure 10.3
 When two or more cells are connected in series, they form a battery.
Experiment 10.1: To investigate the effect of series connection on current and
e.m.f
Apparatus
Two dry cells, cell holder, a switch, a 2.5 V torch bulb, ammeter (0 – 5 A), voltmeter
(0 – 5 V), connecting wires
Page 159 of 210

Figure 10.4
Procedure
 Set up the circuit as shown in figure 10.4 (a). Note the way the ammeter and
voltmeter are connected.
 Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
 Close the switch.
 Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Also note the brightness
of the bulb.
 Repeat the experiment with tow cells, as shown in figure 10.4 (b).
Observation
(i) There is an increase in the e.m.f.
Total e.m.f = 1.5 + 1.5 = 3.0 V
(ii)There is an increase in the current in the circuit.
(iii) There is an increase in the brightness of the bulb.
Note:
(i) An ammeter is always connected in series with the cell.
(ii)voltmeter is always connected across the cell (or in parallel with the cell)
(b) Cells arranged in Parallel
Page 160 of 210

Two or more cells are said to be connected in parallel when they are placed side by
side, the positive terminals joined together and the negative terminals also joined
together. (Figure 10.5)
Figure 10.5
Experiment 10.2: To investigate the effect of parallel connection on current and

e.m.f
Apparatus
Two dry cells, cell holder, a switch, a 2.5 V torch bulb, ammeter (0 – 5 A), voltmeter
(0 – 5 V), connecting wires
Figure 10.6
Procedure
 Set up the circuit as shown in figure 10.6. Note the way the ammeter and
voltmeter are connected.
 Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings.
 Close the switch
 Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Also note the brightness
of the bulb.
Observation
(i) The e.m.f of the cells is the same as that of a single cell.
(ii) There is no significant increase in the brightness of the bulb. (iii) Therefore
there is no significant increase in the current flowing in the circuit.
Note:
Cells should only be arranged in parallel when they have identical e.m.fs.
Page 161 of 210
The advantage of connecting cells in parallel is that the current is supplied for a
longer period of time.
Connecting Identical Bulbs in Series and in Parallel
(a) Bulbs connected in Series
Experiment 10.3: To investigate the current flowing in a circuit when devices

(bulbs) are arranged in series
Two dry cells, cell holder, a switch, three identical 2.5 V torch bulb, ammeter (0 – 5
A), connecting wires
Figure 10.7
 Set up the circuit as shown in figure 10.7.
 Read and record the ammeter reading. Also note the brightness of the bulb.
 Disconnect one of the bulbs and observe what happens to the other bulbs
and the reading of the ammeter.
Observation:
(i) The three bulbs give out light of the same brightness.
(ii) When one bulb is disconnected or blows off, it introduces a gap in the circuit.
The other bulbs go off too.
Note:
Electrical devices (bulbs) connected in series offer greater opposition (resistance) to
the flow of current
Page 162 of 210

(b) Bulbs connected in Parallel
Experiment 10.4: To investigate the current flowing in a circuit when devices

(bulbs) are arranged in parallel
Figure 10.8
Procedure
 Set up the circuit as shown in figure 10.8.
 Read and record the ammeter reading. Also note the brightness of the bulb.
 Disconnect one of the bulbs and observe what happens to the other bulbs
and the reading of the ammeter.
Observation
(i) The three bulbs give out light of the same brightness, but brighter than the ones
connected in series.
(ii) When one or two bulbs are disconnected, the others continue to light with the
same brightness.
Note:
(i) For devices (bulbs) connected in parallel, the current flowing in one does not affect
the current flowing in the other devices.
(ii) In domestic electrical wiring (lighting circuit), bulbs (lamps) are connected in
parallel as illustrated in the figure 10.9.
Page 163 of 210

Figure 10.9
Advantages of connecting bulbs in parallel

(i) The three bulbs can be switched on or off independently.
(i) If one bulb blows out, it does not affect the lighting of the remaining bulbs.
Example 4
Three cells have an e.m.f of 1.5 V each. Find the total (or effective) e.m.f when the
cells are connected in:
(a) Parallel.
Effective e.m.f = e.m.f of one cell = 1.5 V
(b) Series.
Effective e.m.f = 1.5 +1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 V
Example 5
Erick connected three identical bulbs as shown in figure 10.10.
Figure 10.10
Explain what happens to the bulbs B1, B2 and B3, indicating the path of current
when:
Page 164 of 210
(a) S1 is closed while S2 and S3 are open.
(b) S2 is closed while S1 and S3 are open
(c) S1 and S2 are closed while S3 is open.
(d) S1 and S3 are closed while S2 is open.
(e) S2 and S3 are closed while S1 is open.
Solution
(a) Bulb B2 lights because it is in a closed circuit, while B1 and B2 do not

light because they are in open circuits. The
path of current is;
O→P→R→S→U
(b) Bulbs B1 and B2 light because they are in a closed circuit.

The bulbs are less bright, since they are in series.
The path of current is;
O→P→R→S→T→U
(c) Bulbs B2 lights brightly. B1 does not light since it is short-circuited.
B3 is in an open circuit. The path of the current
is;
O→P→R→S→U
(d) B1 does not light (open circuit).
B2 and B3 are in a closed parallel circuit.

They light with the same brightness.
The path of the current is;

O → P → R→ S → U and
O→P→Q→R→S→U
The current through B2 is the same as current through B3.
Page 165 of 210

(e) The three bulbs light.

B1 is brighter than B2 and B3.
B2 and B3 share the current flowing through B1.
The path of the current is;
O→P→R→S→T→U
and
O→P→Q→R→S→T→U
Conductors and Insulators

Experiment 10.5. To investigate electrical conductivity
Apparatus
Bulb, a cell and cell holder, connecting wires, switch, two crocodile clips,
sampled materials.
Figure 10.11
Procedure
• Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 10.11.
• Connect the crocodile clips to the ends A and B.
• Bring ends A and B of the crocodile clips together and switch on the circuit.
The bulb should light, indicating that the circuit is ready for use.
• Fix the material under test between the two clips and switch on. Note the
brightness of the bulb.
• Repeat for other materials.
Page 166 of 210

Observation
(i) The bulb lights in some cases although with different amount of
brightness.
(ii) In other cases, the bulb does not light at all.
Explanation
 The materials which, when connected, the bulb lights are known as
conductors.
 Conductors contain a large number of free electrons which are responsible for the flow of
electricity.
 Examples are copper, silver and aluminium.
 Those materials which, when connected, the bulb does not light are
called insulators.
 Insulators do not allow electric charges to pass through them since they
do not have free electrons.
 Examples of insulators are plastic, rubber and dry wood.
 Conductors can either be good or poor. Examples of good conductors are

copper, silver and aluminium.
 An example of a poor conductor is graphite.
 Metals are in general good conductors of electricity. They have a large

number of free electrons moving randomly within them, as shown in
figure 10.12 (a).
 When a cell is connected across the ends of the conductor, the free
electrons move in the direction, as indicated in figure 10.12(b).
Page 167 of 210

Figure 10.12
 When electrons are made to drift in a given direction, current is said to
be flowing through the conductor. Conventionally, current is taken to
flow in the direction opposite to that of electron flow.
 There exists another group of materials whose electrical properties fall
between those of conductors and insulators. Such materials are called
semiconductors.
 Examples of semiconductors are silicon and germanium
 Some liquids like dilute sulphuric acid, sodium chloride solution and
potassium hydroxide are good conductors of electric charge. These
liquids are called electrolytes.
 Others like paraffin and cooking oil are poor conductors.
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
The main sources of electricity currently are the:
A. Chemical cells
B. Generators
C. Solar cells
A: CHEMICAL CELLS
 These produce an electromotive force as a result of a chemical reaction.
 There are two types of chemical cells:
1. Primary cells
2. Secondary cells
1. Primary Cells
 These cannot be renewed once the chemicals are exhausted.
 They include the:
(a) Simple cell
(b) Dry cell
(a) The Simple Cell
Page 168 of 210
 It consists of a copper plate and a zinc plate dipped in dilute sulphuric acid
contained in a glass beaker.
 The two plates are connected via a wire to which a bulb and a switch are
connected. (figure 10.13)
Figure 10.13
When the switch is closed, the following observations are made:
(i) The zinc plate slowly begins to dissolve in the dilute sulphuric acid.
(ii) The bulb lights dimly and soon goes off.
(iii) A layer of hydrogen gas bubbles form around the copper plate.
(iv) When potassium dichromate solution is added to the acid, the bulb lights again
and then goes off.
Note:
The Zinc plate is the negative plate while the copper plate is the positive plate.
Defects (Short Comings) of the Simple Cell

(i) Polarisation
 This is the accumulation of hydrogen gas bubbles around the copper plate.
 The hydrogen gas layer weakens the current for two reasons:
(I) Insulates the copper plate and hence increases its internal resistance.
(II) Sets up a “back electromotive force (e.m.f)” in the cell that opposes the e.m.f.
due to the copper and zinc cell.
Page 169 of 210

Remedy
 The potassium dichromate solution acts as a depolarizer.
 Some of its oxygen atoms combine with the hydrogen atoms to produce water.
 This boosts the flow of current again but the acid gets more diluted by the
water.
(ii) Local Action
This refers to the dissolving of zinc plate in the acid caused by the presence of
impurities such as iron and carbon in the zinc.
Remedy
Using pure zinc for the zinc plate or coating the zinc plate with mercury
(amalgamation).
Note:
 Mercury dissolves pure zinc out of the zinc plate and forms a bright coating of
zinc amalgam all over the surface.
 The amalgam covers up the impurities and prevents them from coming into
contact with the acid.
(b) The Dry Leclanche Cell

 This type of cell is referred to as dry cell because it has no liquid.
 Figure 10.14 shows the main parts of a dry cell.
Page 170 of 210

Figure 10.14
Defects of the Dry Cell

(i) Polarisation
 The mixture of powdered carbon and Manganese (IV) oxide or Manganese (II)
dioxide act as the depolaliser.
 The hydrogen gas produced is oxidized to water, making the cell become
wetter as it is used.
 The zinc case (negative electrode) gets „eaten‟ away by the ammonium chloride
and changes to zinc chloride.
(ii) Local Action
 Owing to local action which cannot be entirely prevented, the dry cell slowly
deteriorates when not in use.
Uses of the Dry Cells
They are used in torches, calculators, remote controls, radios, among others.
Disadvantage of the Dry Cells

They cannot be renewed once the chemical action stops.
Maintenance of the Dry Cells

(i) Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell within a short time.
(ii) Shorting its terminals should be avoided.
(iii) The cells must be stored in dry places.
2. Secondary Cells.
 These can be renewed by recharging.
 Examples of secondary cells are the lead-acid accumulator and the nickel-
alkaline cell.
 Secondary cells are also called storage cells because they can store electrical
energy as chemical energy.
(a) Lead-acid Accumulator
 This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost effective of the secondary cells.
 A 12 V lead-acid accumulator has six cells connected in series.
 Each cell has several plates made in the form of a lattice grid, the positive
plates carrying lead (IV) oxide and the negative plates having spongy lead.
Page 171 of 210

 The plates are very close to one another and are prevented from getting into
contact (short circuiting) by having insulating sheets separating them.
 The cells are put in sulphuric acid in a mechanically strong, acid-proof and with
insulating properties container.
 Each of the six cells has a cap at the top.
 When the accumulator is in use, it is said to be discharging (giving out
electrical energy).
 During the charging and discharging processes, oxygen and hydrogen gases are
formed as summarized in table 10.2.
Table 10.2
Charging Discharging
Positive oxygen hydrogen gas

Plate gas
(Anode)
Negative Hydrogen oxygen gas
Plate gas
(Cathode)
Note:
 A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is dangerously explosive.
 Therefore during the charging process, the caps of the cells should be opened
to allow the oxygen gas and the hydrogen gas to escape from the accumulator.
Capacity of Lead-acid Accumulator

 This refers to the amount of electric current that can be drawn from the
accumulator in a given time.
 It is the total amount of charge, Q = I x t, Q = It.
 It is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).
Example 6
A battery is rated at 30 Ah. Find how long it will take to operate if it steadily supplies
current of 3 A.
Solution
Q = It, 30 = 3 x t
Page 172 of 210
t = 10 h
Maintenance of Accumulators
1. The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly and maintained above the
plates.
Note:
(a) Topping up should be done using distilled water and not the acid.
(b) Acid can only be used in cases where there has been spillage.
2. The accumulator should be charged when:
(a) the e.m.f. of the cell drops below 1.8 V. (b) (b)
the relative density of the acid falls below 1.12.
Note:
The relative density of the acid is measured using an instrument called a hydrometer.
3. Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a long period of time.
Reason:
It causes the plates to swell and buckle causing the active material to become
loosened and falls to the bottom as sludge.
4. The accumulator should not be left in a discharged condition for a long period of
time.
Reason:
The lead (II) sulphate deposits on the plates, harden up and cannot be converted back
to lead (II) oxide and lead. This is called sulphation.
5.‟ Shorting‟ or overcharging the accumulator should be avoided.

Note:
 „Shorting‟ means connecting a wire directly across the terminals.
 It causes the plates to swell and buckle causing the active material to become
loosened and falls to the bottom as sludge.
6. The terminals should always be kept clean and greased to prevent them from
rusting.
Page 173 of 210
7. The accumulator should not be directly placed on the ground during storage. It
should be rested on some insulator like a wooden block.
(b) Alkaline Accumulators

 The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution, such as potassium hydroxide.
 The common types are nickel-cadnium and nickel-iron accumulators.
 Figure 10.15 shows a nickel-iron accumulator with iron as the negative

electrode and nickel hydroxide as the positive electrode.
Figure 10.15
Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead-acid Accumulators

1. Large currents can be drawn from them.
2. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a very long period of time before the
cells are damaged.
3. They require very little attention to maintain.
4. They are lighter (more portable) than the lead-acid accumulators.
Disadvantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead-acid Accumulators

1. They are more expensive than the lead-acid accumulators.
2. They have a lower e.m.f. per cell than the lead-acid accumulators.
Uses of Alkaline Accumulators

They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where large currents might be needed
for emergencies.
B: GENERATORS
These include:
(a) Water- driven (hydro) generators
(b) Steam-driven (geothermal) generators
Page 174 of 210

(c) Wind-driven generators
(d) Diesel or petrol-driven generators
C: SOLAR ELECTRICAL ENERGY
 Solar electrical energy is gaining prominence as a substitute for hydro-

electrical and diesel generated power energies which are increasingly
becoming limited as the global climate change takes toll.
 Solar cells convert energy from the sun into electricity.
 The main component of a solar electrical system is the solar panel
consisting of solar cells
Advantage of solar electrical energy
Solar energy is preferable since it is clean and renewable.
Some uses of solar electrical energy

Solar cells are used in:
(i) Solar calculators
(ii) Mobile phones
(iii) Solar powered cars
(iv) Powering of space stations
Note:
Other sources of electricity include:
(i) Thermocouples
(ii) Some crystals when under pressure (piezo electric effect)
Page 175 of 210

Chapter 1
Measurement (I)
Introduction
 Up to 1960, scientists were using different units of measurement
depending on the immediate environment.
 There was need to harmonise the units of measurement.
 Consenquently, scientists agreed on one international system of units to
be used, called the Systeme Internationale d’Unites
(InternationaleSystem of Units), shortened to SI units, in all languages.
 This system has seven basic physical quantities and units.
(i) Basic Physical Quantities

 These quantities cannot be obtained from any other physical quantities.
 Table 2.1 shows the seven basic physical quantities and units
Basic physical SI unit Symbol

quantity of units
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
temperature
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance Mole mol
Table 2.1:
(i) Derived Quantities

 These are quantities that are obtained by either multiplication or division
of basic physical quantities.
 Examples include, area, volume and density.
Page 176 of 210
Note:
This chapter will deal with the measurements of length, mass, time and their
derived physical quantities
A: LENGTH
 Length is a measure of distance between two points.
 Examples of length include breadth, width, height, radius, depth and
diameter.
 The SI unit of length is the metre (m).
 Other units of area include
 the millimeter (mm), centimetre (cm) and kilometer (km).

Conversion of Units of Length
1kilometre (km) = 1000 m
1Hectometre (Hm) = 100 m
1Decametre (Dm) = 10 m
10 decimetres (dm) = 1m
100 centimetres (cm) = 1m
1000 millimetres (mm) = 1 m 1000000 micrometers (µ) = 1 m
Measurement of Length
 Length can be determined by estimation or accurately by using a
measuring instrument.
 There are various instruments for measuring length.
 The choice of the instrument is determined by:
(i) the level of the accuracy desired,
(ii) the size of the object to be measured.
 Some instruments used to measure length are:
(a) meter rule
(b) half-meter rule
(c) tape-measure.
(d) vernier callipers
(e) micrometer screw gauge
Page 177 of 210

Note:
The vernier calipers and the micrometer screw gauge will be discussed under the topic
Measurement (II) in the form 2 physics syllabus.
1. Metre Rule
 For day-to-day work in Physics, metre rules and half-metre rules are
used.
 They are graduated in centimetres and millimetres.
How to use a Metre Rule
The following procedure should always be followed when using a metre
rule:
(i) Place the metre rule in contact with the object.
(ii) Place the end of the object against the zero mark on the scale.
(iii) Position your eye perpendicularly above the scale, as shown in figure 2.1
(a).
Fig. 2.1: (a) Accurate use of a meter rule
Page 178 of 210

Fig. 2.1: (b) Inaccurate positioning of the eye
 Figure 2.2 shows other ways of inaccurate use of the metre rule.
 In figure 2.2 (a), the arrangement will not give a fair result because, the
rule is not in contact with the object.
 In figure 2.2 (b) the object is not aligned to the zero mark on the scale.
Fig. 2.2: (a) Rule not in contact
(b) Rule not aligned

 Figure 2.2 shows the inaccurate use of the rule. The arrangement will not
give an accurate result because:
(i) the rule is not in contact with the object.
(ii) the object is not aligned with the zero mark on the scale.
(iii) the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale.
Note:
When the eye is not perpendicular to the scale, there is an error due to parallax.
Reading a metre rule
 Consider the reading shown by the arrow in figure 2.3 (rule not to scale).
Page 179 of 210

Fig: 2.3: The reading on a metre rule
 The reading is more than 1.6 cm but less than 1.7 cm.
 The second decimal place is approximated. It is 1.67 cm. It could even be
1.66 cm.
 The second decimal place cannot be accurately determined.
 However, it is important to note that the readings from a metre rule may
be written up to the second decimal place of a centimetre.
Note:
 A reading like 3.675 cm cannot be taken by a metre rule.
However, if the readings 5.6 cm and 6 cm are taken with a metre rule,
then they should be written as 5.60 cm and 6.00 cm respectively.
Example 1
What are the readings indicated by arrows P1, P2 and P3 on the metre rule in
figure 2.4? (Diagram not to scale)
Solution
P1 = 69.50 cm
P2 = 71.00 cm
P3 = 71.50 cm
Note:
Care should be taken to avoid damage to the ends of metre rules as most of
them do not have the short ungraduated portion at the ends to cater for wear.
2. Tape-Measure
Page 180 of 210

 There are several types of tape-measures, for example, tailor‟s,

carpenter‟s and surveyor‟s types.
 The choice of a tape-measure is determined by the nature of the distance

to be measured.
 For example, to measure the length and breadth of a plot of land, or the
distance covered by a discus or javelin throw, a surveyor‟s tape-
measure would be the most convenient.
Note:
Always ensure that the tape-measure is taut when measuring.
Measurement of Curved Length

 Curved lengths such as roads and railway lines on a map or dimensions of
some containers can be measured using a thread.
 The thread is placed along the required lengths and the length is then
found by placing the thread on a millimetre scale.
 For curved surfaces such as a cylinder, a thread is closely wrapped
around the surface a number of times.
Experiment 2.1: To measure the circumference of a cylinder using a thread
Apparatus
A cylinder, a thread, a metre rule.
Fig. 2.5: Estimating the circumference of a cylinder
Procedure
Page 181 of 210
- Closely wrap a thin thread 10 times around a cylinder, as shown in figure 2.5.
- Mark with ink the beginning and end of the turns.
- Remove the thread.
- Measure the length between the ink marks and call it a1.
- Repeat three times recording the readings as a2 and a3 to ensure accuracy of
your measurement.
Results Analysis
(i) Find the average length a:
(ii) Divide the average length by 10 to find the length of one turn. This gives
the circumference of the cylinder.
Thus;
Circumference of the cylinder
Note:
The diameter of the cylinder is obtained by using the formula;
Circumference = πD (where D is the diameter)
But D = 2r, where r is the radius.
Page 182 of 210

Estimation of Length
• One may wish to know which of the several objects is the largest.
• This could be established by comparing the sizes of the objects directly.
• At times, it is better to compare them with that of a chosen basic length
called a standard length.
Experiment 2.2: To estimate the height of a tree
Apparatus
A rod about 2 m long, a tape-measure.
(a) A rod and its shadow
(b) A tree and its shadow

Fig. 2.6: Estimation of height using shadow
Procedure
- Hold the rod upright and measure its length using the tape-measure.
- Measure the length of its shadow, see figure 2.6 (a).
- Measure the length of the shadow of a tree in the school compound as in
figure 2.6 (b)
Page 183 of 210

Results
The height of the tree is estimated from the relation:
Consider a certain experiment in which the following measurements were

recorded:
Height of the rod = 180 cm
Length of the shadow of the rod = 116 cm
Length of the shadow of the tree = 840 cm
Height of the tree would be given by:
Example 2
Atieno found that the width of her desk was approximately 10 palm-lengths. If
her palm was 15.0 cm long, what was the width of her desk in centimetres?
Solution
1 palm-length is 15.0 cm long.
Therefore, 10 palm-lengths
= (15.0 × 10) cm
= 150.0 cm
Page 184 of 210

B: AREA
• Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a given surface on a plane.
• It is a derived quantity of length.
• The SI unit of area is the square metre, written as m2.
• Other units of area include the square millimeter (mm2), square
centimetre (cm2) and square kilometer (km2).
Conversion of units of area

10 000 cm2 = 1 m2
1 000 000 mm2 = 1m2
1 000 000 m2 = 1 km2
1 000 000 m2 = 1 km2
Example 3
Express each of the following in cm2:
(a) 7.5 m2
(b) 4.2 m2
(c) 0.09 m2
(d) 0.0000007 km2
Solution
(a) 1 m = 100 cm
1 m2 = 1 m × 1m
= 100 cm × 100 cm
= 10 000 cm2
7.5 × 10 000 cm2 = 75 000 cm2
(b) 4.2 m2 = 4.2 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 42 000 cm2
Page 185 of 210
(c) 0.09 m2 = 0.09 × 100 × 1

00 cm2
= 900 cm2
(d) 0.0000007 km2 = 0.0000007 × 1 000 × 1 000 × 100 × 100 cm2

= 7 000 cm2
Example 4
Express the following areas in m2:
(a) 9 000 cm2
(b) 0.05 cm2
Page 186 of 210

Measurement of Area
(a) Area of regularly-shaped objects

The area of regularly-shaped surfaces such as rectangles, triangles and circles
can be obtained by applying appropriate formulae.
Table 2.3 shows some regular shapes and their corresponding formulae for area.
Table 2.3: Shapes and their areas
Shape Area
Page 187 of 210

(b) Area of irregularly-shaped surfaces

An estimate of the area of an irregular shape can be made by dividing it up into
squares, each of area 1 cm2.
Figure 2.8 shows an irregular shape drawn on a squared paper. By counting
the number of small squares, the area can be estimated.
Example 5
Estimate the area of the irregular surface shown in figure 2.8 by counting the
small squares.
Solution
The number of complete squares = 39
Number of incomplete squares = 30
These are equal to = 15 complete squares

Therefore, the number of complete squares = 39 + 15 = 54
Hence, the estimated area of the surface

= 54 × 1 cm2
= 54 cm2
Fig. 2.8: Estimating area of irregular shapes
Page 188 of 210

Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter.
The SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3). However, sub-multiples of m3,
for example, cm3 and mm3, are commonly used since the m3 is very large.
1 m3 = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
= 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm
= 1 000 000 cm3
Other units like litres (l) and millilitres (ml) are also used.
1 ml = 1 cm3
1 000 ml = 1 litre
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
Example 6
Express each of the following volumes in cm3:
(a) 27 mm3
(b) 0.0005 m3
Solution
Page 189 of 210

Example 7
Express each of the following volumes in m3 .
(a) 9 000 cm3
(b) 27 cm3
Solution
Volume of Regularly-Shaped Solids

The volume of regularly-shaped solids can be obtained by applying the
appropriate formula. Table 2.4 shows some regular objects and their
corresponding formulae for volume.
Example 8
A block of glass is 5.0 cm long, 4.0 cm thick and 2.5 cm high. Calculate its
volume.
Solution
Volume of the glass block = area of cross-section × height
= 5.0 × 4.0 × 2.5
= 50.0 cm3
Page 190 of 210

Example 9
Find the volume of cylindrical tin of radius 7.0 cm and height 3.0 cm.
Solution
Volume of the tin = area of cross-section × height
Example 10
Find the volume of a triangular prism shown in table 2.4 if b = 6.0 cm, h = 5.0
cm and l = 12.0 cm.
Solution
Volume = area of cross-section × height
Example 11
Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 3.0 cm.
Solution
Example 12
A sphere of diameter 6.0 cm is moulded into a thin uniform wire of diameter 0.2
mm. Calculate the length of the wire in
Page 191 of 210

Solution
The volume of the sphere and the wire are equal.
Example 13
The volume of mercury thread in a capillary tube is 1 cm3. If the length of the
mercury thread is 1 m, calculate the radius of the bore of the capillary tube.
Solution
Volume of mercury = πr2h
Page 192 of 210

Measurement of Volume of Liquids

Liquids have no definite shape, but assume the shape of the containers in which
they are put.
One of the methods which can be used to measure the volume of a liquid is
to pour the liquid into a container with a uniform cross-section, as shown in
figure 2.9.
Fig. 2.9: A container with a regular base
The height of the liquid, h, is measured. The volume of the liquid is then
obtained by applying the formula;
V = area of cross-section × height
V = Ah, where A = l × b and h is the height. Therefore, V = l bh
Page 193 of 210

In practice, it is convenient to make measuring vessels in cylindrical form,

marked in such a way that volumes can be read off directly.
Measuring devices which are marked off like this are called measuring
cylinders. They are used to measure the volumes of liquids.
Measuring cylinders are made of glass or transparent plastic and graduated
in cm3 or ml. Measuring flasks, pipettes, burettes and beakers [figure 2.11 (a),
(b), (c), (d) and (e)] can also be used to measure volumes of liquids. Measuring
flasks and pipettes are used to transfer known volumes of liquids. The burette
delivers volumes of up to 50 cm3.
Fig. 2.11: Instruments for measuring volumes of liquids
Page 194 of 210

Note:
(i) The scale of the burette begins from zero at the top and increases
downwards to the maximum value. For example, a reading of 31.0 ml on the
burette means that the volume of the liquid poured from the burette is 31.0 ml
and the volume left in the burette is (50 – 31) ml, i.e., 19.0 ml.
(ii) While using the measuring vessels shown in figure 2.11, the reading of
volume is taken with the eye positioned level with the bottom of the
meniscus, see figure 2.12. In the figure, the volume of the liquid is 24.0
cm3.
Fig. 2.12: Reading the measuring cylinder
Measuring the Volume of an Irregularly-Shaped Solid

Volumes of irregular solids are measured using the displacement method. The
method works with solids that are not soluble in water, do not absorb water, do
not react with water or sink in water.
Experiment 2.5: To determine the volume of an irregularly-shaped object
(a) Using a measuring cylinder
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder, stone, thread and Eureka can.
Page 195 of 210

Fig. 2.13: Volume of irregular shapes
Procedure
- Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water. Note the volume V1 of the water,
see figure 2.13 (a).
- Tie a stone (that can be fitted into the measuring cylinder) with a thread and
lower it gently into the cylinder until it is wholly submerged. Ensure that
there are no air bubbles surrounding the stone.
- Record the new volume V2.
Result
The volume of the stone
V = V2 – V1.
Page 196 of 210

(b) Using a Eureka can

A Eureka or displacement can is a container with a spout from the side. It
is used to measure volumes by displacement method. It is also known as an
overflow can.
Fig. 2.14: Use of Eureka can for measuring volume
Procedure
- Fill the Eureka can with water until it flows out of the spout, see figure 2.14
(a). Once the flow has stopped, place a measuring cylinder under the spout of
the can.
- Tie the solid whose volume you want to determine with a thread and lower it
gently into the can until it is completely submerged.
Result
The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder is the volume of the
object.
Experiment 2.6: To determine the volume of an object that floats on water
using the displacement can
Apparatus
Eureka can, measuring cylinder, floating object and a sinker (small metal block).
When finding the volume of an object that floats on water, e.g., a cork,
another object that sinks in water is attached to it so that both are totally
submerged. This object is known as a sinker.
- Fill the Eureka can with water and allow excess water to flow out through the
spout, see figure 2.15 (a).
Page 197 of 210
- After it has ceased to flow, place a measuring cylinder under the spout.
- Lower the sinker, tied with a thread, gently into the can.
- Measure the volume V1 of the water that overflows into the measuring
cylinder.
- Remove the sinker and tie it to the cork, see figure 2.15 (b).
Fig. 2.15: Volume of an object that floats on water
- Fill the Eureka can again and allow excess water to flow out.
- When water ceases to flow from the spout, place a clean dry measuring
cylinder under the spout.
- Lower the sinker and cork tied together into the Eureka can gently.
- Measure the volume V2 that overflows into the measuring cylinder.
Results
The water collected in the measuring cylinder is the volume of sinker and cork.
Call it V2.
Therefore, the volume of the cork V = V2 – V1.
Page 198 of 210

Mass
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter in it. Matter is anything that
occupies space. The mass of an object depends on its size and the number of
particles it contains.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol kg). A kilogram is the mass of
a piece of metal (platinum-iridium) kept at Sevres, near Paris, in France at the
International Office of Weights and Measurements.
The commonly used sub-multiples and multiples of the kilogram are given in the
table below.
The mass of an object is the same everywhere because the number of particles in
an object remains constant. An object will have the same mass on the earth as on
the moon. For example, an astronaut who has a mass of 90 kg on earth will have
the same mass on the moon.
Measurement of Mass
There are two common balances for measuring mass, namely, the electrical and
the mechanical types.
Figure 2.16 (a) shows the top pan balance (electrical type). The object
whose mass is to be measured is placed on the pan. The mass of the object is
read on the display. This type of a balance is very accurate.
Fig. 2.16: Types of balances
Page 199 of 210

Figure 2.16 (b) shows a simple form of a beam balance (mechanical type).
The object whose mass is to be measured is balanced against a known standard
mass on an equal arm lever as shown. The beam balances when the mass of the
object is equal to the known standard mass.
Figure 2.16 (c) shows a lever balance in which a combination of levers
moves the pointer around a scale when the mass is placed on the pan.
Density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Its symbol is rho(ρ) and
its SI unit is kilogram per cubic metre (kgm–3).
Another commonly used unit is gram per cubic centimetre (gcm –3). From
the definition, the density of a substance is given by;
Example 14
The density of water is 1 gcm–3. Express this density in kgm–3.
Solution
Page 200 of 210

Example 15
The density of a material is 22.5 gcm–3. Express this in SI units.
Solution
1 gcm–3 = 1 000 kgm–3
22.5 gcm–3 = 22.5 × 1 000 kgm–3
= 22 500 kgm–3
Example 16
A block of glass of mass 187.5 g is 5.0 cm long, 2.0 cm thick and 7.5 cm high.
Calculate the density of the glass in kgm–3.
Solution
Example 17
The density of mercury is 13.6 gcm–3. Find the volume of 2 720 g of mercury in
m3.
Solution
Page 201 of 210

Example 18
The mass of 25 cm3 of ivory was found to be 0.045 kg. Calculate the density of
ivory (in SI units) giving your answer in Kg/m3.
Solution
Example 19
The density of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.8 gcm–3. Calculate the volume of
3.1 kg of the acid.
Solution
Density = 1.8 gcm–3
Mass = 3 100 g
Measurement of Density
To Measure the Density of a Solid

The mass and the volume of the object is found by the method described above.
The density of the object is then calculated from the formula:
Page 202 of 210

Experiment 2.7: To find the density of a liquid

Apparatus
Clean dry beaker, balance, measuring cylinder, a burette or a pipette.
Procedure
- Find the mass m1 of a clean dry beaker using a balance.
- Measure a known volume V of the liquid using either a measuring cylinder, a
burette or a pipette.
- Transfer the liquid into the beaker.
- Find the mass m2 of the beaker with the liquid.
Result
Mass of the liquid = m2 – m1
Example 20
A rectangular tank measures 12.5 m long, 10.0 m wide and 2.0 m high. Calculate
the mass of water in the tank when it is full. Density of water is 1 000 kgm–3.
(Assume the measurements are internal)
Solution
Volume of water in tank = 12.5×10×2
= 250 m3
Mass = density × volume
= 1 000 × 250
= 250 000 kg
Page 203 of 210

Density Bottle
A density bottle is a small glass bottle fitted with glass stopper which has a hole
through which excess liquid can flow out.
Normally, the density bottle has its capacity indicated on the side.
Fig. 2.17: A density bottle
Experiment 2.8: To find the density of a liquid using a density bottle

Measure the mass m1 of a clean dry density bottle with its stopper.
Fill the bottle with liquid and replace the stopper. Dry the bottle on the outside
(excess liquid overflows through the hole in the stopper).
Measure the mass m2 of the bottle plus the liquid.
If the capacity of the bottle is V, then;
Precautions
(i) The bottle is held by the neck when wiping it dry. This is because when
held in the hands, it may expand due to body warmth.
(ii) The outside of the bottle must be wiped carefully.
(iii) It must be ensured that there are no air bubbles when the bottle is filled
with liquid.
Experiment 2.9: To measure the density of a solid using a density bottle
This method is used for solids in form of grains, beads or turnings.
Apparatus
Density bottle and lead shot, beam balance.
Page 204 of 210

Procedure
- Measure the mass m1 of a clean dry empty density bottle, see figure 2.18 (a).
- Fill the bottle partly with lead shot and measure the mass m2.
- Fill up the bottle with water up to the neck and measure its mass m3, see
figure 2.18 (c).
- Empty the bottle and rinse it.
- Fill it with water and replace the stopper. Wipe the outside dry and measure
the mass m4 of the bottle filled with water, see figure 2.18 (d).
Fig. 2.18: Use of density bottle

Results
Mass of water = (m4 – m1) g
Volume of water = m4 – m1 (since density of water is 1 gcm–3)

Therefore, volume of bottle
= (m4 – m1) cm3
Mass of lead shot = (m2 –m1) g
Mass of water present when bottle is filled with lead shot and water = (m3 – m2)
g
Volume of water = (m3 – m2) cm3
Volume of lead shot
= (m4 – m1) – (m3 – m2)
Page 205 of 210

Therefore, density of lead shot
It should be noted that this method is unsuitable for solids which are either
soluble in water or react with it.
Example 21
The mass of a density bottle is 20 g when empty and 45 g when full of water.
When full of mercury, its mass is 360 g. Calculate the density of mercury.
Solution
Mass of water = 45 – 20
= 25 g
Volume of water = 25 cm3 (density of water is 1 gcm–3)
Therefore, volume of bottle = 25 cm3
Mass of mercury = 360 – 20
= 340 g
Volume of mercury = 25cm3 (volume of the density bottle)
= 13.6 gcm–3
= 13 600 kgm–3
Example 22
The mass of an empty density bottle is 20 g. Its mass when filled with water is
40.0 g and 50.0 g when filled with liquid X. Calculate the density of liquid X if
the density of water is 1 000 kgm–3.
Page 206 of 210

Solution
Densities of Mixtures
A mixture is obtained by putting together two or more substances such that they
do not react with one another. The density of the mixture lies between the
densities of its constituent substances and depends on their proportions. It is
assumed that the volume of the mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes of the
individual constituents.
Density of the mixture
Page 207 of 210

Example 23
100 cm3 of fresh water of density 1 000 kgm–3 is mixed with 100 cm3 of sea
water of density 1 030 kgm–3. Calculate the density of the mixture.
Solution
Mass of fresh water = density × volume
Mass of sea water
Mass of the mixture = mass of fresh water + mass of sea water

= (0.1 + 0.103) kg
= 0.203 kg
Volume of mixture = volume of fresh water + volume of sea water
= 100 cm3 + 100 cm3
= 200 cm3
Therefore, density of mixture
Page 208 of 210

Example 24
Bronze is made by mixing molten copper and tin. If 100 kg of the mixture
contains 80% by mass of copper and 20% by mass of tin, calculate the density of
bronze. (Density of copper is 8 900 kgm–3 and density of tin 7 000 kgm–3)
Solution
Page 209 of 210

Time
Time is a measure of duration of an event. Some ancient time-measuring
instruments were the sundial and the hourglass.
In modern measurement of time, it has been found necessary to obtain
reference of time from an atomic clock.
The SI unit to time is second(s). Multiple and sub-multiple units of the
second are shown in table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Multiple and sub-multiple units of the second
Time Symbol Equivalent Seconds

Microsecond μs 0.000001
Millisecond ms 0.001
Minute min 60
Hour hr 3 600
Day day 86 400
Week wk 604 800
Measurement of Time
In laboratories, intervals of time are measured using either a stopwatch or
stop- clock, depending on the accuracy required.
Modern stopwatches are digital. They are preferred due to their ease of
handling and reading. Stop-clocks are used when high precision is not
required.
Page 210 of 210

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SUMMARIZED PHYSICS NOTES FORM 1

Relationship between Physics, other Subjects and Technology

Physics and Religion

Physics and History

Physics and Geography

Physics and Home Science

Physics and Biology

 Similarly, the knowledge of levers helps to explain locomotion in

Physics and Mathematics

Physics and Technology

 Information technology has reduced the world to a global village

Career Opportunities in Physics

38. Bachelor of Technology (Production Engineering).

48. Bachelor of Home Economics (Food, Nutrition and

First Aid Measures

If the poison is corrosive to the skin, the victim‟s clothing should

Definition and SI unit of Force

 Forces, therefore, have size (magnitude).

 A force is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction in

7. Cohesive and adhesive forces.

10. Electric force.

11. Nuclear force.

12. Electrostatic force.

 When an object is thrown up from or near the earth‟s surface, it

 An object near or on the surface of the moon also experiences the

 Each planet exerts its own gravitational pull on an object on it.

 Some materials can withstand greater tension than others.

 Steel can withstand very high tension and is difficult to break.

 Similarly, nylon can withstand more tension than cotton.

 Tension is as a result of two opposing forces applied, one at each

 Stretch resulting from tension is made using bows and catapults.

 Some forces compress bodies and are called compressive forces.

 This is an upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid

 An object in a vacuum will not experience upthrust.

 The weight of an immersed object is smaller than its weight in air.

Up thrust = weight in air – weight in the fluid

4. Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

Clean glass slide, waxed glass slide, dropper, water.

(ii) Larger mercury drops form oval balls.

 A meniscus is formed at top of water level.

 The water curves upwards from the reading level (a concave

 Different liquids rise by different heights, depending on the diameter

 A plastic pen or ruler rubbed on dry hair or fur picks up small

Beaker, steel needle or razor blade, water, kerosene or soap solution.

 Put a few drops of kerosene or soap solution on the surface of the

 The steel needle or the razor blade floats because it is supported

Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

 A molecule, say C, deep in the liquid is surrounded by molecules

Glass funnel, soap or detergent solution.

 Take a glass funnel and dip it in liquid soap or detergent solution.

 Observe what happens.

 The soap bubble behaves as if its surface is tightly stretched.

Experiment 3.5: To study the behaviour of soap films

Copper wire, thread, soap solution and needle.

 Make a rectangular loop of copper wire.

 Tie a thread loosely across it [figure 3.9 (a)].

Note the new shape of the thread.

Surface Tension of Different Liquids

 The movement gradually weakens and ultimately ceases. This

 The camphor has the same effect as that of soap.