UNIT Nº I: LOGIC AS

SCIENCE
Unit objective:
V Apply natural logic in solving problems in
everyday life.
V Determine the scientific nature of logic.
V Define logic as the science of the laws of thought.

Aim:
{ Apply natural logic in solving life's problems

1.1 NATURAL LOGIC.

> It is an aptitude or capacity to reason correctly or
incorrectly and is characteristic of human beings, that
is, one is born with it and it is exercised through
experience, in solving life's problems.
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everyday.
> It is the capacity that results in abilities,
skills.

Some logical activities in life

everyday
Examples:
a) If it is cloudy, then it will rain. Yo
b) If it rains and it is sunny, then the rainbow
appears.
c) If I am sick, then I go to the doctor.
d) It has rained every Sunday, so there will be
no soccer game this Sunday

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 Interpreting SAYINGS is an activity
logic too, some examples are:
1) " EYE LOVE IS BORN".

a) Message: the good appearance of things

motivates the desire to possess them.
b) Description: “the good presence of things.”
It refers to the use of the senses and specifically
that of sight. That is why many stores arrange and
organize their displays well.
c) The consequence: “love is born”, indicates the
interest that it generates
in people for what is
pleasant and known.
2) “A GIVEN HORSE DOESN'T SEE A FANG.”
(A GIFT HORSE IS NOT LOOKING FOR A SIDE)

a) Message: the things we receive as gifts cannot

be defected.
b) Description: “given horse” what is received for
something.
c) The consequence: “you can't see a fang” no
matter how low quality it is, it is received with
value and appreciation.
 More examples:
“One forewarned is worth two.”
3)
"On the occasion while the sun shines". “Go
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for wool and come out shorn.”
5)
"Not the whole mountain is
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oregano". “Gifts break rocks.”
7)
8) “He who goes wrong ends
badly.”
9) “He who goes howling with wolves
learns.”
10) "God helps he who rises
early".
 V Applying natural logic, solve the
following exercises
1. Of four track runners, it is known that C has arrived
immediately behind B, and D has arrived
between A and C.
Could you calculate the order of arrival?
Solution:
2.In the following table, place the numbers from 1
to 9, without repeating any and with the condition
that the sum of any row, column or diagonal is 15.
Also determine how many solutions
to 2 9 4
Solution: )
7 5 3
6 1 8
b)
9

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3.Find the word hidden in the circle. There is no
indication of reading direction or what the first
letter is.
Solution: The missing letter is R, and it is read counterclockwise starting
from the letter S
SALT
 1.2 Definition of logic as a science.
Aim:
Adequately define Logic, knowing its history and analyzing the factors of
thought.

Logic comes from the Greek word “ logos ”

which means thought.

V Science or treatise on thought.

V Science that studies the formal aspect of thought.
You are interested in the form or structure of thought and not the
content. Example:
Logic's task is to build formal languages that contain
clarity, precision and univocality.
Example: Mars is a planet.
subject: Mars
Predicate: what is said about the
subject, it is a planet.
Copula: link between subject and predicate, it is

Example:
The blackboard is green: affirmative
judgment
The blackboard is not
green: negative judgment JI
In symbols : S is P and S is not
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P, respectively

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 V A more complete definition of Logic is:

Science of laws and forms of thought, which gives

standards for scientific research and provides us with a
criterion of truth.
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LOGIC
Theoretical Discipline: Researches, develops and
establishes methods to study correct
thinking.

Practical Discipline: Technique for

interpreting correct or incorrect reasoning

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 Other definitions
V Logic is the science of demonstration, since it
is only concerned with formulating rules to
achieve truths through demonstration.
• Logic is the part that teaches the method to
reach the truth.
v Logic is the science of the necessary laws of
understanding and reason.
V Logic is the science of the pure idea, of the idea
in the abstract element of thought

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 1.3 HISTORY
TRADITIONAL LOGIC
{ Aristotle (384-322 BC): as a systematic discipline
traditional logic). Study the forms of judgments (A, E,
I, O).
MODERN LOGIC.
V Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Novum Organum, logic
traditional
{ 19th – 20th century, modern logic (symbolic logic, logic
mathematics, logistics)

Personal assignment: research further into the history of

logic. The bibliography to consult can be:
Leiva Chacón, Danilo Antonio. Notions of Mathematical Logic: First Steps.
1st edition. El Salvador, UFG Editores, 2006. ISBN 99923-47-07-4 (TEXT)
Gustavo Escobar Valenzuela. Logic,
notions and applications. 2nd.

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edition. mcgraw-hill, mexico 2004 .

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 1.4 Thought factors
They are the elements that concur (participate) in the very
phenomenon of thought.

A. Thinking subject: Produces or generates thought, it is not

studied by Logic but by other sciences, such as:
Anthropology, History, Anatomy, etc.

B. Psychic Activity: Psychological process that accompanies the

activity of thinking, perceptions, images, feelings,
experiences, etc. This activity is studied by Psychology.
(Limited)
Thinking: Psychic activity.
Thought: It is the result of thinking .

Subject objective
Object
ive thinking
thinkin 1
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C. Object (content). It is what is thought, it is also called
ontological factor (relative to the objects or entities of
thought) and this is not studied by Logic.

D. Language (expression of thought). It is oral, physical

or written, it is also called linguistic factor, this is not
studied by Logic but by Grammar, Semantics, etc.

A Form or structure of thought. Structures that adopt

N thoughts independent of the contents to which
they refer; This is studied by logic, these are: the
concept, the judgment and the reasoning.

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 1.5 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
(EPISTEMOLOGY)

OBJECTIVE: Analyze the different philosophical currents and their

relationship with Logic.

GREEK Items:
epistemology •Subject.
Gnosis:
(theory of Knowledge •Object.
Knowledge) Logos: study •Relationship
between them

Gnoseology or theory of knowledge studies the why of things

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 What does knowledge consist of?
To answer this, there are aspects to consider:
1. Possibility of knowledge:
a. Dogmatism . It establishes that consciousness is
capable of knowing reality as it is without restriction.
Find absolute truths. The promoters are: Plato,
Aristotle, Descartes, Leibniz, Wolf, etc.
b. Skepticism . It establishes that knowledge is not
possible due to subjective, environmental limitations,
etc. The beginning is doubt in the search for truth.
Some followers: ٠ Pyrrho of Elis (Greek) ٠
Michael de Montaigne and David
Hume

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c. Subjectivism . He states that knowledge is only possible in a
limited way (Oswald Spengler, Europe), it is limited or
depends on the time and the environment. It also depends on
the subject you know.
d. Pragmatism . It agrees with dogmatism only that it
establishes that what is true is only what is USEFUL. In
addition to being useful, it is also beneficial. Some analysts
are:
William James and John Dewey (USA)
Friedrich Nietzsche.(Germany)
e. Criticism . Intermediate between dogmatism and skepticism.
It was founded by Emmanuel Kant (German). You cannot
know the thing in itself; just the phenomenon.
Examines the claims of the human form (a priori knowledge).
He is reflective and critical, he orders and knows.
Personal task: investigate more deeply about philosophical currents
and how they understand knowledge. The bibliography to consult
can be:
• Leiva Chacón, Danilo Antonio. Notions of Mathematical Logic: First Steps. 1st
edition. El Salvador, UFG Editores, 2006. ISBN 99923-47-07-4 (TEXT)
• Gustavo Escobar Valenzuela. Logic, notions and applications. 2nd. Edition. McGraw
-Hill, Mexico 2004.
"88 18

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 2. Origin of knowledge
Reason
Knowledge Experience
a) Rationalism. All authentic knowledge is based on reason. According
to rationalism, knowledge is valid when it is universal and
necessary.
b) It refers to the mental systems that explain the sciences in
logical terms; It is the sum of the sensible with the concepts
(reality). Use of reason or mental faculties. Discernment.
Precursors:
Ancient M odern
٠ Parmenides of Elea (Greek) ٠Descartes, Spinoza,
٠ Plato and his teacher Socrates (Greeks) Leibniz (mathematicians)
 b) Empiricism. It is based on experience through the senses.
And he affirms that the origins of knowledge are
found in experience.

PRECURSORS:
Sophists: Callicles and Ancient
Pythagoras 1 Philosophers:
Epicureans and Stoics J
Locke and David Hume modern
John Stuart Mill (high
representative)

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 3. The problem of the essence of
knowledge.

> Where does knowledge lie?

to. The
realism . Reality is independent of consciousness. It is the
conformity of the judgment with reality.

The knowledge we acquire about things involves the

cooperation of the senses and intelligence. (Saint Anselm of
Canterbury 1033 - 1109)

to. Idealism . Contrary to Realism: there are no real things

independently of the consciousness that knows, one of the
initiators was George Berkeley (Irish philosopher). Idealism
seeks to reduce the world to an activity of the spirit: it
identifies the real with the rational. The existence of things
consists of the perception we have of them.

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4. The problem of the forms of knowledge.
What are you wondering:
{ In what ways do we know?
{ How many forms of knowledge can we distinguish?
There are two forms of knowledge.
a. Discursive knowledge: it is the best known or common form,
it is acquired MEDIATELY through logical operations (in
stages). It is characteristic of the sciences.

Example: logical reasoning, which, to reach a conclusion,

requires going through certain premises (judgments or
propositions)
Premise 1 (P1) “All cats are mammals”
Premise 2 (P2) “Tom is a cat.”
Conclusion C “Therefore. “Tom is a mammal”

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b. Intuitive knowledge : provides knowledge of things by
IMMEDIATE apprehension of the objects of knowledge.

Rational Reason

Guys
of Emotional Feeling
intuition Volitional Willpower

Example:
■ Rational intuition. To grasp the essence.
Emotional intuition. Capture the values
Volitional Intuition. Know the problems that exist

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Types of Knowledge Objects that
intuition body accept Examples
Rational The reason Essences Understand the essence of a
triangle as a closed 3-sided
figure
Emotional He Values Capturing the value of a brave
feeling action: Pedro helps his friend fall
from the stands
Volitional The will Existential Mike understands or senses that
the meaning of his existence lies
in personal improvement
Reflections:
• Plato: ideas are intuited by reason.
• Saint Augustine: eternal truth, God himself, is given through
emotional intuition.
• Henri Bergson (1859-1941): intuition is the most accurate knowledge
to reach the essence of things. 24
 > FORMAL TRUTH AND MATERIAL TRUTH.

. Logic (thought): It only deals with the forms or structures of

thought, which give formal validity to knowledge; He is not
interested in the content.

e The theory of Gnoseological knowledge (knowledge): the

relationship between the subject who knows and the object to
be known. You are interested in the content or the way in
which these (subjects-objects) agree or do not agree with the
thought.

In conclusion we can say that:

Logic: it is the formal truth and

The theory of knowledge: material truth.
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 Exampl
e: P1. “All students can sing.”
Premises
P2. “Jorge is a student.”

ons C. Therefore, “Jorge can sing.”

We know that not all students can sing, therefore, from a

material or real point of view, this reasoning does not
 Awareness,
Summary of the theory of knowledge
reality
There is no
knowledge• Dogmatism. ------•
Knowledge
limited 1. Possibility of • Skepticism »
knowledge As
dogmatism• Subjectivism
Between
• Pragmatism ,
dogmatism and
skepticism
• Criticism. _______.
It comes from the
reason
He
2. Origin of Experience for Rationalism ----------•
THEORY knowledge senses <
OF THE
He
KNOWLEDGE Empiricism --------•

Reality
3 . The essence The realism independent of the
awareness
of
knowledge There is no reality
Idealism unconscient
Comes from
logical operations
4. Forms of Rational (Reason).
knowledge Emotional (feeling).
Volitional (will) 2 . 7
 1.6 LOGIC AND OTHER SCIENCES
For Aristotle: Logic is an instrument for the sciences.
The sciences use the general structures and functions of thought
for investigative work, some relationships are the following: •

Definitions.

• Classifications.
• Divisions.
• Affirmation relationships.
• Denial relationships.
• Inclusion relationships.
• Exclusion relations.
• Conditionality relationships.
• Unconditional relationships.
• Demonstration relations, etc.

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 The related sciences

The sciences presented below are

those that are generally confused with Logic,
because their object of study is
quite similar to Logic

a) The Psychology:
“Logical Psychologism” makes logic depend on
psychology. Theodor Lipps says: knowing occurs in the
psyche and thinking is a psychological fact.
Logic is related to Psychology because thought is generated
in the brain and different parts intervene with their specific
functions.

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b) The grammar:
The correct use of words and
their meaning allows science to better
study scientific methods.
Logic is related to Grammar
because it indicates the ways in which
thought is expressed: written, oral and
physical.
Grammaticism makes Logic depend on
Grammar.
Grammar studies words and their linguistic structure.
Thought is closely linked to language.

There are several words to

designate or indicate the same
concept.

Concepts are logical meanings with permanent content.

Example:
Concept: A piece of furniture with a base that serves as
support.
Term : Mesa (Spanish), Table (English), Tavola (Italian)
(word) 31
c) The math:

Logic: Studies thoughts as objects.

Mathematics: abstract relationships regardless
of any reference to the thing or object.
Mathematicism makes Logic depend on
mathematics.
Logic provides the methods to Mathematics.
Mathematics provides how to relate and operate
propositions in symbolic form to Logic.

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 1.7 Laws of thought (supreme
logical principles)

They are principles or axioms: They do not require

demonstration.
1. The principle of identity (Aristotle).
“Every object is identical to itself”, “A is A” (A=A)..
We can say that a thing changes constantly,
however it is still that same object, otherwise we
could say that that object has changed.
For it to be strictly logical, it must refer to concepts,
judgments and reasoning .

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2. The principle of non-contradiction (Aristotle).
“It is impossible for something to be and not to be at the
same time and in the same sense”
“It is impossible for A to be B and not be B at the same
time” An object or being cannot be two things at the
same time.
It is not possible for an object to be a book and not be,
at the same time, a book
Example:
On the logical level: two mutually contradictory
judgments cannot both be true.
“All men are mortal” (True)
“Some men are not mortal ” (False)
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3. The principle of the excluded third (Aristotle).

“Everything has to be or not to be”, “A is B” or “A

is not B”, excludes a third possibility,
A thing is only true or false.

4. The principle of sufficient reason

(William Leibniz, German).
“Every object must have a sufficient reason to
explain it.
(Nothing exists without a determining cause or reason)
(Everything has a reason for being).

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•to

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> Examples:

V “The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
legs for some reason.”
The reason is given in the proof of the Pythagorean theorem.

“Planets move in elliptical orbits for a reason.”

The reason appears when we turn to the law of universal gravitation.

V “The war in El Salvador occurred for some reason.”

The reason arises when we study its antecedents and consequences.

{ “He has to go to college for some reason.”

The reason lies in the need to graduate to obtain a better job.