Hydrology Notes - Finals

HYDROLOGY is a resource of immense magnitude, itis not
evenly available and is exhaustible.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE • The term "ground water reservoir" is widely

The water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is a and loosely used to denote places where
continuous process by which water is ground water is accumulated under
purified by evaporation and transported conditions that make it suitable for
from the earth's surface (including the development and use.
oceans) to the atmosphere and back to the • There is no standard or generally accepted
land and oceans. definition of the term.
GROUND WATER • "Ground water basin, " "aquifer, " "water-
• Ground water comprises the subsurface bearing zone"(or formation), "ground water
water that occurs within the saturated zone district, " and "ground water area"
of the earth's surface, or within the part of
the earth's crust where all openings are AQUIFER
filled with water. • An aquifer is the saturated, permeable,
geological formation or group of formations
• It is distinguished from water on and above which contains, transmits, and yields
the earth's crust, and from water occurring significant quantity of water.
below the ground surface but above the
saturated zone (or occurring within the • The flow in the aquifer is mainly horizontal,
unsaturated zone). and the source of water is mainly through
infiltration.
• The volume of water stored in the rocks of

the world's land areas may be on the order
of 8 billion km3, of which half is at depths
less than 800 m. AQUIFERS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS: ucs
• This volume is about 35 times the • confined aquifer
combined storage of all the world's rivers,
fresh water lakes, reservoirs, and in land • semi-confined aquifer, and
seas, and is about one-third the volume of • unconfined aquifer.
water stored in arctic and Antarctic ice
fields, in the glaciers of Greenland and great
mountain systems of the world.
• Despite its magnitude, most ground water
is not visible because it is stored below the
earth's surface;
• However, a small percentage of this
underground supply is visible as naturally-
discharging springs, or as streams and
rivers which are sustained by ground water
when direct runoff from precipitation ceases.
• This lack of visibility tends to promote
some mysticism about ground water and a
disregard for the need to protect it from
pollution. • Ground water is not mystic, and
it does need protection. While ground water
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➢ CONFINED AQUIFER the aquifer, which is due to the
difference of piezometric heads in
the aquifer and the aquitard.
• In other words, the aquitard is not
fully impervious, i.e., it is semi-
impervious
➢ UNCONFINED AQUIFER
• A confined aquifer or artesian

aquifer is underlain and overlain by
impermeable layer, so that water is
under pressure like conduit flow.
• The piezometric surface is above
the confining layer.
• Groundwater in a confined aquifer
• Unconfined or water table aquifer is
is under pressure and will rise up
one in which the groundwater has a
inside a borehole drilled into the
free surface open to the
aquifer.
atmosphere.
• The level to which the water rises
• The upper surface zone is called
are called the potentiometric
groundwater table or water table
surface. An artesian flow is where
water flows out of the borehole
under natural pressure. DARCY’S LAW
• In the year 1856, Henry Darcy, a

French hydraulic engineer,
conducted the experiments in
vertical homogeneous sand filter.
• He was investigating the flow of
water through sand. In his
experimental setup, Darcy had used
a vertical cylinder. But the Darcy’s
➢ SEMI-CONFINED AQUIFER law can be understood by using an
inclined cylinder.
• In a leaky or a semi-confined
aquifer, there is a leakage from
overlain or underlain aquitard into
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𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 2. Sue, the owner of Joe’s 24-Hour Gas,
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑲( ) has discovered that her underground
∆𝒍
∆𝒉 storage tank is leaking fuel. She calls in a
𝒗 = −𝑲( ) hydrogeologist to find out how long it might
∆𝒍
𝒗 = 𝑲𝒊 take for the fuel contamination to reach the
nearest stream. They discover that the well
𝑸 = 𝑲𝒊𝑨 at Joe’s has a water level that is 37 m above
sea level and the elevation of the stream is
Where: 21 m above sea level. The sandy sediment
• K = hydraulic conductivity in this area has a permeability of 0.0002m/s.
Determine how long it might take for
• i = hydraulic gradient
contaminated groundwater to flow the 80 m
• h = hydraulic head
to the stream.
• Due to the irregular pore geometry, the i = (h1 h2) / L

actual velocity of flow varies from point to v = ki
point. solve t by, V= d/t
• So, the term “pore velocity” is defined as

the actual velocity of water in the porous
medium, and it is expressed as:
𝒗
𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕 =
𝒏
Where:
• vact actual velocity of flow
• n = volumetric porosity
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. Groundwater flows through an aquifer
with a cross-sectional area of 1.0 x 10 4 m 2
and a length of 1500 m. Hydraulic heads
are 300 m and 250 m at the groundwater
entry and exit points in the aquifer,
respectively. Groundwater discharges into a
stream at the rate of 1500 m3/day.
a) What is the hydraulic conductivity of the
aquifer? i = (h1 - h2)/L
b) If the porosity of the material is 0.3, what
is the pore velocity of water?
solve V, Q = vA, kiA
Vact = V/n
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HYDROGRAPH FACTORS AFFECTING UNIT
rh
• Hydrographs are charts that display the HYDROGRAPH SHAPE
change of a hydrologic variable over time. The factors affecting the shape of unit
hydrograph are:
• Hydrographs can be made for streams,
lakes, water wells, springs and other bodies • the rainfall distribution over the catchment;
of water. and
• the hysiographic elements of the
catchment, viz., shape, slope, vegetation,
soil type, etc.
UNIT HYDROGRAPH
• Unit hydrograph is a direct runoff
hydrograph resulting from one unit (one inch
or one cm) of constant intensity uniform
rainfall occurring over the entire watershed.
• The concept of unit hydrograph is based
on linear systems theory and follow the
principles of superposition and
proportionality.
• The role of unit hydrograph in hydrology is
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A to provide an estimate of direct runoff
HYDROPGRAPH? hydrograph resulting from given excess
• Design of structures require information rainfall hyetograph. • In order to use unit
about extreme magnitudes of floods. e.g., hydrograph as a tool for predicting direct
determining the height of a dam, spillway runoff hydrograph, we first need to derive a
design, design of bridge culverts, sizing the unit hydrograph for a given watershed.
capacity of outlet works, etc.
• For example, if one inch of excess rainfall
• A hydrograph gives the temporal variation produces a direct runoff peak of 100 cfs
of flow at the outlet of the catchment or then two inches of excess rainfall with
basin. produce a direct runoff of 2 x 100 = 200 cfs.
• The runoff is generally measured at a Similarly, if one inch of rainfall is followed by
gauging site located at two inches of rainfall, the hydrographs from
both rainfall pulses are simply added after
• the outlet of a catchment. accounting for the necessary time lag.
JLF

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HYDROLOGY is a resource of immense magnitude, itis not

evenly available and is exhaustible.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE • The term "ground water reservoir" is widely

• The volume of water stored in the rocks of

• A confined aquifer or artesian

• In the year 1856, Henry Darcy, a

• Due to the irregular pore geometry, the i = (h1 h2) / L

• So, the term “pore velocity” is defined as

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