BIOGRAPHY OF VENN EULER

Leonhard Euler
Swiss mathematician
Birth: April 15, 1707
Basel, Switzerland
Death: September 18, 1783
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Leonhard Euler (whose full name was Leonhard Paul Euler ) was born on April 15, 1707 in Basel, Switzerland. He died on
September 18, 1783 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. He lived in Russia most of his life. He was probably one of the greatest
mathematicians in history, comparable to Gauss, Newton or Archimedes.

He was a disciple of a great mathematician such as Jean Bernoulli, but he quickly surpassed his teacher's notable mathematical
talent. His professional career was limited to the Berlin and St. Petersburg Academies of Sciences, and most of his work was
published in the science annals of these institutions. He was a protégé of Frederick the Great, at whose court he participated in
metaphysical discussions with Voltaire, from which he usually retired enraged by his inability in Rhetoric, Metaphysics and Physics.

He lost the sight of one eye during an experiment in optics, and in 1766 the sight of the other, as an adult. He spent the last years
of his life blind, but continued working. He dictated many works to his eldest son.
He is possibly the most prolific mathematician in history. His publishing activity was incessant (an average of 800 pages of articles
per year in his period of greatest production, between 1727 and 1783), most of his complete work is unpublished. The work of
compiling and publishing his works in full began in 1911 and there is no indication that it will be completed. The initial project
planned to work on 887 titles in 72 volumes, but currently it is assumed that it will reach 200 easily. He is considered the human
being with the greatest number of works and articles in any field of knowledge, comparable only to Gauss.
He lived in Russia and Germany for most of his life and made important discoveries in areas as diverse as calculus and graph theory
. He also introduced much of modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for the area of mathematical analysis ,
such as the notion of mathematical function . []He is also known for his work in the fields of mechanics , optics and astronomy .
Euler has been one of the most prolific mathematicians, and it is estimated that his complete works collected together could
occupy between 60 and 80 volumes. [2] A statement attributed to Pierre Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on later
mathematicians: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is the teacher of us all."
In commemoration of him, Euler has appeared on the sixth series of the 10 Swiss franc banknotes, as well as on numerous Swiss,
German and Russian postal stamps . The asteroid (2002) Euler was named in his honor.

Contribution to mathematics and other scientific areas

Euler worked in virtually all areas of mathematics: geometry , calculus , trigonometry , algebra , number theory , as well as
continuum physics, lunar theory, and other areas of physics. He has been one of the most prolific mathematicians in history. His
publishing activity was incessant (an average of 800 pages of articles per year in his period of greatest production, between 1727
and 1783 ), and a good part of his complete work is unpublished. The work of compiling and completely publishing his works,
called Opera Omnia , began in 1911 and to date he has published 76 volumes. The initial project planned work on 887 titles in 72
volumes. He is considered the human being with the greatest number of works and articles in any field of knowledge, comparable
only to Gauss . If all his works, many of which are of fundamental importance, were printed, they would occupy between 60 and
80 volumes. Furthermore, and according to mathematician Hanspeter Kraft , president of the Euler Commission at the University
of Basel, no more than 10% of his writings have been studied. For all these reasons, Euler's name is associated with a large number
of mathematical questions.

mathematical notation
Euler introduced and popularized several conventions regarding notation in
mathematical writings in his numerous and widely used textbooks. Possibly most
notable was the introduction of the concept of mathematical function , being the
first to write f ( x ) to refer to the function f applied on the argument x . This new
form of notation offered more comfort compared to the rudimentary methods of
infinitesimal calculus existing to date, initiated by Newton and Leibniz , but
developed based on the mathematics of the latter.
He also introduced the modern notation of trigonometric functions , the letter e
as the base of the natural or natural logarithm (the number e is also known as
Euler's number), the Greek letter Σ as a symbol of summations and the letter i to
refer to to the imaginary unit . twenty The use of the Greek letter π to refer to the
ratio between the length of the circumference and the length of its diameter was
also popularized by Euler, although he was not the first to use that symbol.

Analysis
The development of calculus was one of the major issues in 18th-century mathematical research, and the Bernoulli family had
been responsible for much of the progress made until then. Thanks to his influence, the study of calculus became one of the main
objects of Euler's work. Although some of his mathematical proofs are not acceptable by modern standards of mathematical rigor,
it is true that his ideas represented great advances in that field.
e is the only real number for the value a for which it is true that the value of the derivative of the function f ( x ) = a x (blue curve)
at the point x = 0 is exactly 1. In comparison, the 2 x (dashed line) and 4 x (dashed line) functions are shown, which are not tangent
to the slope 1 line (in red).

The number and

Euler defined the mathematical constant known as the number e as that real number such that the value of its derivative (the
slope of its tangent line) in the function f ( x ) = e x at the point x = 0 is exactly 1. The function e x is also called the exponential
function and its inverse function is the natural logarithm , also called natural logarithm or logarithm in base e .
The number e can be represented as a real number in several ways: as an infinite series , an infinite product , a continuous fraction
or as the limit of a sequence . Chief among these representations, particularly in basic calculus courses, is as the limit:

and also like the series:

Furthermore, Euler is well known for his analysis and frequent use of the power series , that is, the expression of functions as an
infinite sum of terms such as the following:

One of Euler's famous achievements was the discovery of the power series expansion of the arctangent function. His daring but,
by modern standards, technically incorrect use of power series allowed him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735 , which
showed that:

Geometric interpretation of Euler's formula .

Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytical proofs. He
discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power series, and
successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, greatly expanding the
scope of mathematical application of logarithms. 23 He also defined the exponential
function for complex numbers, and discovered its relationship to trigonometric functions . For any real number φ , Euler's formula
states that the complex exponential function can be established by the following formula:

Being a special case of the formula what is known as Euler's identity :

This formula was described by Richard Feynman as "the most notable formula in mathematics" because it relates the main
algebraic operations to the important constants 0, 1, e , i and π. 24 In 1988, readers of the journal Mathematical Intelligencer voted
the formula "the most beautiful mathematical formula in history." In total, Euler was responsible for the discovery of three of the
first five formulas in the survey result.
In addition to that, Euler elaborated the theory of transcendent functions (those not based on algebraic operations) by introducing
the gamma function , and introduced a new method for solving equations of the fourth degree . He also discovered a way to
calculate integrals with complex limits, in what would become modern complex analysis , and invented the calculus of variations ,
including within his study what would be called the Euler-Lagrange equations .
Euler was also a pioneer in the use of analytical methods to solve theoretical problems of a numerical nature. With this, Euler
united two separate branches of mathematics to create a new field of study, analytic number theory . To this end, Euler created
the theory of hypergeometric series , q series , trigonometric hyperbolic functions , and the analytic theory of continuous
fractions . For example, he showed that the number of prime numbers is infinite using the divergence of harmonic series , and he
used analytical methods to gain more information about how the prime numbers are distributed within the sequence of natural
numbers. Euler's work in this area would lead to the development of the prime number theorem .
number theory
Euler's interest in number theory came from the influence of Christian Goldbach , a friend of his during his stay at the Saint
Petersburg Academy. Much of Euler's early work in number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat . Euler developed
some of the ideas of this French mathematician but also discarded some of his conjectures.
Euler united the nature of the distribution of prime numbers with his ideas of mathematical analysis. He demonstrated the
divergence of the sum of the inverses of prime numbers and, in doing so, discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta
function and prime numbers. This is known as the Euler product for the Riemann zeta function .
Euler also proved Newton's identities , Fermat's little theorem , Fermat's theorem on the sum of two squares, and made important
contributions to Joseph-Louis de Lagrange 's four square theorem . He also defined the Euler function φ which, for every positive
integer, quantifies the number of positive integers less than or equal to any coprime with n. Later, using the properties of this
function, he generalized Fermat's little theorem to what is known as Euler's theorem .
He contributed significantly to the understanding of perfect numbers , a topic that fascinated mathematicians since the time of
Euclid , and advanced the research of what would later become the prime number theorem . The two concepts are considered
fundamental theorems of number theory, and their ideas paved the way for mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss .
In 1772, Euler showed that 2 31 - 1 = 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime number . This figure remained the largest known prime
number until 1867.

Graph theory and geometry

Main article: Königsberg bridge problem

Map of the city of Königsberg, in Euler's time, showing highlighted in

green the place where the seven bridges were located.
In 1736 , Euler solved the problem known as the Königsberg bridge
problem . The city of Königsberg, in East Prussia (now Kaliningrad , in
Russia), was located on the Pregel River, and included two large
islands that were connected to each other and to the two banks of the
river by seven bridges. The problem was to decide if it was possible to
follow a path that crossed all the bridges only once and ended by
reaching the starting point. There is not, and Euler managed to prove
it mathematically by showing that there was no Eulerian cycle because
the number of bridges in more than two blocks was odd.
This solution is considered the first theorem of graph theory and
planar graphs . Euler also introduced the concept known as the Euler characteristic of space, and a formula that related the
number of sides, vertices, and faces of a convex polygon to this constant. Euler's theorem of polyhedra , which basically consists of
finding a relationship between the number of faces, edges and vertices in polyhedra. He used this idea to demonstrate that there
were no regular polyhedra other than the Platonic solids known until then. The study and generalization of this formula, especially
by Cauchy and L'Huillier , marked the origin of topology .
Within the field of analytical geometry , he also discovered that three of the notable points of a triangle — barycenter ,
orthocenter and circumcenter — could obey the same equation, that is, the same line. The line that contains the centroid,
orthocenter and circumcenter is called " Euler's Line " in his honor.

Applied mathematics
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in solving real-world problems through mathematical analysis, in what is known as
applied mathematics , and in describing numerous applications of Bernoulli numbers , Fourier series , Venn diagrams , Euler's
number , the constants e and π , continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz 's differential calculus with Newton's
Fluxion Method, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. Euler already used the Fourier
series before Fourier himself discovered them and the Lagrange equations of variational calculus, the Euler-Lagrange equations .
He made great strides in improving numerical approximations for solving integrals, inventing what are known as Euler
approximations. The most notable of these approaches are Euler's method for solving ordinary differential equations , and the
Euler-Maclaurin formula . This method consists of increasing the independent variable step by step and finding the following
image with the derivative . He also facilitated the use of differential equations , and in particular by introducing the Euler–
Mascheroni constant :
On the other hand, one of Euler's most striking interests was the application of mathematical ideas to music . In 1739 he wrote his
work Tentamen novae theoriae musicae , hoping to incorporate the use of mathematics into musical theory . This part of his work,
however, did not attract much public attention, and came to be described as too mathematical for musicians and too musical for
mathematicians.

Physics and astronomy

Euler helped develop the Elastic Curve equation, which became a mainstay of engineering . Apart from successfully applying his
analytical tools to the problems of classical mechanics , Euler also applied them to the problems of the movements of the celestial
bodies. His work in astronomy was recognized by several French Academy Awards throughout his career, and his contributions in
that field include issues such as determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, increasing
understanding. of the nature of the former, or the calculation of solar parallax . His calculations also contributed to the
development of more accurate longitude tables for navigation. He also published works on the movement of the moon .
Furthermore, Euler made important contributions in the area of optics . He did not agree with Newton's theories on light,
developed in his work Opticks , and which were the prevailing theory at the time. His work on optics developed in the 1740s
helped the new movement that proposed a theory of light in wave form, proposed by Christiaan Huygens , become the hegemonic
theory. The new theory would maintain that status until the development of the quantum theory of light .
In the field of mechanics , Euler, in his treatise of 1739 , explicitly introduced the concepts of particle and point mass and vector
notation to represent velocity and acceleration , which would lay the foundations for the entire study of mechanics until Lagrange.
. In the field of rigid solid mechanics he defined the so-called "three Euler angles to describe the position" and published the main
theorem of motion, according to which there is always an instantaneous axis of rotation, and the solution of free motion (he
managed to solve angles as a function of time).
In hydrodynamics he studied the flow of an ideal incompressible fluid, detailing the Euler equations of Hydrodynamics.
More than a hundred years ahead of Maxwell, he foresaw the phenomenon of radiation pressure , fundamental to the unified
theory of electromagnetism . In Euler's hundreds of works there are references to problems and questions that were
tremendously advanced for his time, which were not within the reach of the science of his time .

Logic
In the field of logic, Euler is credited with using closed curves to illustrate syllogistic reasoning (1768). These types of
representations are called Euler diagrams .

Architecture and engineering

In this field, Euler developed the law that bears his name on the buckling of vertical supports and generated a new branch of
engineering with his work on the critical load of columns.