COMPUTER INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
Computer word is derived from Latin word “Computare” means to compute/calculate.

Computer is an electronic machine that receives data from a user (input), transform and

manipulate the data (processes) according to specified rules (process), produce results (output).

Additionally, data, instructions, and information are stored (storage) for future use.

FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms

DATA

The Unprocessed Facts Are Called Data. For example student name, roll No etc are

examples of data.

INFORMATION

The processed Facts/data Are Called information. Like 2+2=4 , here 4 is information.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be grouped into many categories in. Table 1 below classifies the main

types of computers according to their physical size, processing speed, cost, and number of users.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 1
A microcomputer, or personal computer (PC), might cost a few thousand dollars. It is a small

computer that can fit on a desktop and is appropriate for a single user. The next larger computer is

the minicomputer. A minicomputer might cost tens of thousands of dollars. It is about the size of

a refrigerator. Minicomputers often have several hundred users. Large businesses often have

mainframe computers. These machines are housed in large rooms or even entire building floors.

They cost up to several million dollars, and thousands of users can access the computer

simultaneously. In a networked environment, minicomputers and mainframes are both frequently

called servers. The largest and most expensive computer, the supercomputer, is often used in

research settings and other environments that require a computer with extraordinary computing

power.

Table 1: Types of Computers

Type Physical Size Processing Number of Users

Speed*

Microcomputer Fits in hand, on lap, or on Up to 400 One stand-alone

or desktop MIPS or many may
Personal access it through
Computer (PC) a network
Minicomputer Small cabinet; may fill a Up to 1000 Up to several
small room with MIPS hundred
accompanying
peripherals
Mainframe Computer requires a Up to Hundreds to
partial room; may occupy several thousands
several rooms with thousand
accompanying MIPS
peripherals
Supercomputer Entire room of equipment Up to Hundreds to
10,000 thousands
MIPS
*Processing speed is commonly measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
One instruction is a “basic task,” e.g., adding two 10-digit numbers or storing the result in
specific location.

HARDWARE

The term hardware refers to the tangible or physical parts of a computer system that we

can see and touch. A keyboard, disk drive, and monitor are examples of computer hardware.

Understanding the various physical components of a computer system will help you understand

how the system works as a whole. As described above, the general model of a computer consists

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 2
of an input system, storage system, process system, and output system.

INPUT DEVICES

An input system comprises one or more devices that the user employs to enter data or

instructions into the memory of the computer so that the CPU can subsequently process them.

Some of the more common devices are described next.

Keyboard. The keyboard is one of the most common input devices. In addition to keys

that represent letters, numbers, and special characters, keyboards often contain function keys, to

which the user can assign personalized commands, and special-purpose keys, such as the enter

key. Some keyboards contain a numeric keypad While most keyboards are connected to the

computer by cable, there are wireless keyboards that transmit input by means of infrared signals.

Mouse. Connected to many modern computers is a hand-sized input device called a

mouse or pointing device. A mechanical mouse contains a ball that rolls along a flat surface,

moving a cursor (pointer) on the computer screen. An optical mouse uses light signals to detect

the movement of the mouse and thereby move the pointer on the screen. By two buttons on top

of the mouse and a wheel, the user can select and manipulate objects represented on the screen as

icons. The mouse is a convenient and effective way to interact with the graphical user interfaces

(GUIs) that dominate the current computer environment.

Other examples of input devices.

o Touchpad/Trackpad.

o Trackball.

o Touch Screen.

o Light Pen.

o Graphics Tablet.

o Audio Input Devices like Microphone

o Video Input Devices like Digital Cameras.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 3
 STORAGE SYSTEM

Inputs are sent to either memory or storage, waiting subsequent processing by the

computer for further use. It includes Primary storage as RAM and Secondary storage as hard

disk.

Storage Units

Storage and memory are usually measured in bytes, which consist of 8 bits (binary digits

of 0 or 1). A single byte is used to encode a single character (letter or number). One thousand

bytes are a kilobyte (KB). One million bytes are a megabyte (MB). One billion bytes are a

gigabyte (GB). One trillion bytes are a terabyte (TB).

Hard disks are also magnetic-based storage media. Both the hard drive and the hard

disks are usually installed inside the computer. Portable external hard drives are connected to the

computer by a cable. Current hard disks typically have a capacity from 2 to 1000 GB. Hard disks

store data in form of tracks that are further divided into sectors. Hard drives have a faster data

access time than. Data access time is the time required to locate a piece of stored information in

storage.

PROCESSING SYSTEM

Once data has been input into the computer and stored, the computer must be able to

retrieve and manipulate it in useful ways. This task is handled by the hardware that makes up the

central processing system, which includes the primary memory, the central processing unit

(CPU), expansion cards, ports, buses, and connectors. The various parts of the computer system

are connected through a printed circuit board called the system board or motherboard. The

system board contains the primary memory, the CPU, the system clock, expansion slots, and

expansion ports.

MEMORY. Instructions and data needed for immediate processing are usually placed in

memory. A computer has two types of memory: volatile and nonvolatile. They are used for the

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 4
long- and short-term retention of information, respectively. RAM and cache are examples of

volatile memory—the primary memory. ROM and CMOS are examples of nonvolatile memory.

Random-access memory (RAM) temporarily holds data, the operating system

(instructions that control the computer’s operation), and application software (instructions that

manipulate data). The operating system resides in RAM only while the computer is turned on.

The application software remains in RAM only while it is being used.

When new application software is retrieved from secondary storage, it is loaded into

RAM, replacing the application software that was previously residing there. Most current

computers have enough RAM to run several applications simultaneously, a process called

multitasking. Data and instructions about to be processed are in RAM, as are the output of the

processes. Recall that the data and instructions in working memory (i.e., RAM) are electronically

stored, as opposed to being magnetically or optically stored. Thus, when the computer is shut

down, all instructions and data in RAM are lost because the flow of electricity ceases. In RAM,

any address can be randomly accessed at any time; hence the name random-access memory.

RAM is of two types. 1. SRAM 2. DRAM

SRAM stands for static RAM. It provides faster access to data and it is not needed to be

refreshed frequently to retain its contents. Cache memory is its example. It is costly.

DRAM stands for dynamic memory. It is slower as compared to SRAM. It is refreshed

frequently to retain its contents. It is less costly. RAM is its example.

Cache memory is very fast memory. It is used to store frequently used instructions.

Computers that have cache memory process data faster than computers without it because data

travels faster from cache to the CPU than from RAM to the CPU. Some cache is built directly in

the processor chip, while other cache is in a chip external to the processor chip.

Read-only memory (ROM) chip contains instructions that the computer uses to

operate/check various aspects of the hardware. Unlike RAM, the information stored in the ROM

chip is not lost when the computer is turned off. However, this information is written in the

factory and cannot be altered by the user. ROM, for example, contains the instructions the

computer follows to load the operating system when it is turned on every time. Its instructions are

often called firmware.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science
Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 5
 Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), like ROM, is also nonvolatile

memory. Unlike ROM, the user can change CMOS. It is powered up by a small cell or battery.

For example, CMOS contains date and time information that the user can update or other

information.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU). The CPU is called the brain of computer. It

consists of two components—an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) and a control unit. The ALU is

furthered divided into AU and LU. AU performs arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division), while comparisons (greater than, less than, and equal to), and

logical operations (and, or, and not) are performed by LU. All transformations of "meaningless"

data into "useful" information ultimately are the result of these three functions.

The control unit retrieves instructions and data from primary memory and determines

which instructions the ALU will carry out.

Register. The CPU also contains registers, which are temporary holding areas small but

fast where data resides before an instruction is executed. Information is also kept during

processing in registers. A register can be special purpose or general purpose, means it can store

data, instructions or addresses.

Instruction Processing Cycle. The processing cycle consists of two subsidiary cycles

called the Instruction cycle and the Execution cycle, each performing two processes, for a total of

four stages. The ALU, primary memory, and the control unit are involved in these cycles. In the

Instruction cycle, the control unit first (1) fetches—instructions from the registers, where the data

to be processed is also being kept. The control unit next (2) decodes the instruction and sends it to

the ALU, the thinking part of the processor. Now the Execution cycle begins. The ALU (3)

executes the instructions by performing an arithmetic, comparison, or logical operation on the

data in the registers. The result is then (4) stored or written to the registers where it will

eventually be displayed and saved in memory or storage.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 6
 OUTPUT SYSTEM

Output system provides an interface through which computers and humans can interact

with one another. Output devices are used to display input data that has been processed by the

computer into useful output information. Through its output system, the computer presents the

data it contains in a form that the user can understand. The presentation is typically in one of four

forms: graphics (e.g., charts and photographs), text (e.g., words and numbers), video (e.g.,

photographic images in motion), or audio (e.g., music and speech). Probably the most common

output devices are monitors for producing temporary displays (soft copies) and printers for

producing paper copies of documents (hard copies).

▪ Monitors

▪ Printers

▪ Plotters

▪ Speakers

▪ Projectors

SOFTWARE

A computer system needs more than the hardware described above in order to function.

The hardware by itself, even when powered-up, is incapable of producing useful output. It must

be instructed how to direct its operations in order to transform input into output of value to the

user. This is the role of software; i.e., to provide the detailed instructions that control the operation

of a computer system. Just as hardware comprises the tangible side of the computer, so software

is the intangible side of the computer. If the CPU is the physical brain of the computer, then

software is its mind.

Software instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine

language, and executed by the computer. Between the user and the hardware (specifically, the

memory), generally stand two layers of software: system software and application software.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 7
 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software directly controls the computer’s hardware. System software manages

the computer’s resources, enables the various components of the computer to communicate, runs

application software, and makes the hardware respond to the user’s needs. When the system

software operates efficiently, the difficult operations of controlling the hardware are transparent

to the user. System software includes four main types:

• The operating system provides an interface between the computer hardware and the user

or the application software.

• Language translators convert application programs and any other software programs into

the machine language.

• Network and communications software operates the communications hardware in a

computer so that it can transmit and receive information from other computers.

• Utility programs perform various specialized "housekeeping" tasks, such as file

management, virus protection, disk management, program installation and

uninstallation, file and disk back up, disk formatting, and providing screen saver

programs.

To make computer systems easy to use, the interface (link) between the user and the

hardware has become simpler and more intuitive. Particularly important for the development of

“user-friendly” computers is the graphical user interface (GUI). The GUI allows the user to

interact with the computer through icons (graphic symbols) on the screen. These icons can

represent a variety of things, including computer disks, folders, documents, and software

programs. The user instructs the computer to perform particular tasks by pointing to and

manipulating the appropriate icons with a mouse. Operating systems not GUI-capable, e.g.,

UNIX, require the user to input commands by typing in words or pressing specially defined keys.

This set-up is called a command-line interface (CLI).

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software enables the user to direct the computer’s processing system in the

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 8
tasks of manipulating and transforming input data into useful output information. Furthermore,

it allows the user to alter the information generated by the processing system; e.g., how the

information is presented. This is the type of software with which most users interact. It is the

usual interface between user and computer. Rarely do users directly manipulate systems

software, especially the operating systems software.

Application software can be written for a specific user’s application (custom software),

or it can be mass-produced for general use (commercial or packaged software). Naturally,

custom software is usually far more expensive than commercial software. An accounting package

written for a specific company might cost many thousands of dollars, whereas a commercial

accounting package might cost only a few hundred dollars at a retail store. The advantage of

custom software is that it is tailored to the user’s specific needs and can be seamlessly integrated

into the user’s existing software. Not only is commercial software less costly, it is also available

immediately, and the package can be evaluated before being purchased.

Application software comes in an incredible variety. It is available for business, personal,

educational, communication, and graphic design purposes—to name the more usual categories.

There is almost certainly a software package somewhere available to suit any need. If not, there

are programmers ready to be hired to build it. For our purposes, we will limit our discussion to

the four types of application software most likely to be useful to accounting and business

students: word processing, spreadsheet, database, and presentation graphics. These four applications

are frequently sold together in a single software package. Three of the most popular packages are

Corel WordPerfect Suite, Microsoft Office 2016, and Lotus SmartSuite. In addition to the four

"standard" applications, these packages usually include email, Internet, video processing, and

desktop publishing applications.

Word processing programs allow the user to quickly and easily create and revise texts on

the computer screen. By using word processing applications, the user can format documents with

ease, changing font size, margins, color, etc. Different types of documents—e.g., letters, memos,

and reports—are often preformatted in the application. PC-based word processing software is so

capable and inexpensive that, in most businesses, it has become the usual tool for creating

documents, even when more powerful mainframes and minicomputers are available.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 9
 Presentation graphics software enable users to design professional-quality presentations

for business and educational purposes. The presentations usually consist of formatted slides for

projecting onto a screen from a computer projector or overhead projector, or for display on a

large monitor. These presentations may also be used for online meetings and Web broadcasts.

The slides can be designed to include backgrounds, graphic images, charts, clipart, shading,

animation, and audio effects—and, of course, text, which can sometimes get lost in all of the

embellishments.

Gohar Hussain-Lecturer Computer Science

Kh.Fareed Govt. P/G College, Rahim Yar Khan. Page 10