RESPIRATION

Respiration is the process by which energy is released from food in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) within cells with or without the use of oxygen. The energy released is
needed to drive various life processes of the organism or cell. In the absence of oxygen
anaerobic respiration occurs and in the presence of oxygen aerobic respiration occurs.
Respiration consists of three main processes:

1. External respiration (breathing or gaseous exchange): It is the mechanism by which

oxygen from the environment is taken into the cell/organism and removal of carbon
dioxide from the cells to the environment.
2. Transport: it involves the carriage of oxygen to the cells and tissues and carbon
dioxide from cells and tissues
3. Internal respiration/cellular respiration/ tissue respiration: it involves the oxidation
of glucose which takes place within living cells with the release of energy from
glucose

STRUCTURE OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAMMALS

The respiratory system of mammals consists of:

• Air conduction tubes (respiratory tract) which is made up of the nasal cavities, the
pharynx (throat), the larynx (voice box), the trachea (wind pipe), the bronchi and the
bronchiole in order of occurrence
• The lungs, the main respiratory organ which is the lungs
• Alveoli, the functional units of the lungs along which gaseous exchange occurs
 FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT

1. Nasal cavity: air enters the body through the nasal cavity. Dust particles in the air
are trapped by hairs in nostrils called cilia. The air is warmed and moistened by heat
and vapour from blood vessels that line the membranes of the nostrils. In between
the cilia are specialised cells called goblet cells that secrete sticky fluid called mucus,
which trap dust and germ in the inhaled air.

The nasal cavity is responsible for warming moistening and the filtering of inhaled air

2. The pharynx is the junction that links the larynx and the oesophagus and is found at
the back of the mouth.

The pharynx allows for the passage of inhaled air into the larynx

NB: Air from the pharynx enters the larynx through an opening called glottis. The glottis
also serves as an entrance through which swallowed food passes to the oesophagus.
During swallowing the glottis is closed by a flap of tissue called epiglottis to prevent
swallowed food or water from entering the larynx and to ensure that it enters the
oesophagus

3. The larynx (voice box): is a cavity above the trachea that contains the vocal cords.

The larynx serves as a passage of air into the trachea and is also responsible for the
production of sound

4. The trachea (wind pipe): It is a long tube that is strengthened by a cartilaginous

structure to keep it open and prevent it from collapsing. It also contains cilia and
goblet cells which together filters inhaled air that passes through the trachea. The
trachea branches into two tubes called bronchi with each bronchus leading to one of
the two lungs present in the body. The bronchus branches into several smaller tubes
called bronchioles. Each bronchiole end in small air sac like structures called alveoli.
Each alveolus is ball-like in shape and surrounded by a network of blood capillaries.
The alveoli serve as respiratory surfaces for gaseous exchange in mammals.
5. The lung is situated in the thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity is formed by the rib
bones that are linked to the vertebral column at the back and the sternum in front. It
is bounded at the bottom by a muscular sheet called diaphragm. The diaphragm
separates the thorax from the abdomen. The thoracic cavity protects the lungs and
the heart and participates in breathing. The lungs are separated from the thorax by
two sheets of tissues called pleural membranes. The pleural membrane produces
fluid called pleural fluid that lubricates the lungs and reduces friction between the
lungs and the thorax during breathing movements
 RESPIRATORY SURFACES OR ORGANS

Respiratory surface is the site in a respiratory organ where gaseous exchange takes place.

ADAPTATIONS OF MAMMALIAN RESPIRATORY SURFACES FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE

1. Alveoli are numerous and present a large surface area for maximum gaseous
exchange
2. Alveoli are one cell thick to facilitate diffusion
3. Alveoli are highly vascularised (surrounded by network of blood capillaries) for
oxygen absorption
4. They have moist surface for dissolving gases

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS (ALVEOLI)

Inhaled air in the lungs (alveoli) has a higher concentration of oxygen than the oxygen
content in the blood of the surrounding capillaries. This creates an oxygen concentration
gradient between the alveoli and the blood. Oxygen diffuses from the lungs along the
concentration gradient across the thin walls of the alveoli into the blood. The oxygen binds
to haemoglobin in the blood to form oxyhaemoglobin.

There is a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood than in the alveoli which
create a carbon dioxide concentration gradient between the blood and the alveoli. The
result in carbon dioxide diffusing from the blood into the alveoli and it is eventually exhaled
out of the lungs
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Movement in the thorax and the accompanied changes in volume and air pressure of the
lungs, which results in gaseous exchange (breathing). The movement of the thorax is
brought about by the regular contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and internal and
external intercostal muscles, these results in alternative increase and decrease in the
volume of the chest cavity. Breathing consists of two kinds of processes described as
inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation)

BREATHING IN (INSPIRATION OR INHALATION)

This involves the contraction of the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. This
resulting in the flattening of the diaphragm to move downwards. The internal intercostal
muscles also relax. These muscular movements cause the rib-cage to move upward and
outward, increasing the volume of the thorax (chest region) and decreasing the air pressure
around the lungs. Atmospheric pressure which is now higher than the air pressure around
the lungs forces air from the atmosphere into the lungs through the respiratory tract

BREATHING OUT (EXPIRATION OR EXHALATION)

This involves the relaxation of the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. These
results in the diaphragm curving in to become dome shaped. The internal intercostal muscle
also contracts. These muscular movements causes the rib-cage to move inward and
downward, decreasing the volume in the thorax (chest region) and increasing the air
pressure around the lungs above atmospheric pressure. This results in air being forced out
of the lungs

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREATHING AND BEATHING OUT

BREATHING IN BREATHING OUT

External intercostal muscle contracts External intercostal muscle relax
Air pressure around the lungs decrease Air pressure around the lungs increase
Internal intercostal muscle relax Internal intercostal muscle contract
Diaphragm contracts and flattened Diaphragm relax and becomes dome shaped
Rib-cage move upward and outward Rib-cage moves downward and inward
Volumes of thorax increases Volume of thorax decreases
 WAYS IN WHICH RESPIRARTORY SYSTEM OF HUMANS ENSURES THAT INHALED AIR IS
PURIFIED

• Hairs at the entrance of nasal cavities and in the respiratory tract to filter the
incoming air to trap particles or pathogens
• Sticky mucus to trap bacteria and particles
• Sensory cells in the nostril ensures sneezing which forcefully ejects foreign particles

NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING

Breathing is controlled involuntarily by the medulla oblongata of the brain. The main factor
that stimulates breathing is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood vessels. When
concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood rises (during increased physical activity such as
exercise), receptors in the aorta and the carotid arteries are stimulated to send impulses to
the medulla. The medulla then sends other impulses to the intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm to increase breathing movements, causing the carbon dioxide to be removed
faster. A decrease in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood normalizes the breathing
rate

TERMS TO DESCRIBE THE TOTAL VOLUME OF AIR ASSOCIATED WITH THE VOLUME OF THE
LUNGS DURING BREATHING

• Total lung capacity: it is the volume of air contained in the lungs at the lungs at the
end of a maximum inspiration. It is also equal to vital capacity plus residual volume
• Tidal volume: it is the volume of inhaled or exhaled air at each normal breath
• Vital capacity: it is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs
after a maximum inhalation
 • Residual volume: the volume of air remaining in the lungs after forced breathing
out. This volume of air prevents the lungs from collapsing. The lungs are never
completely empty of air

CELLULAR (TISSUE OR INTERNAL) RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration is a series of enzyme catalysed reactions in which organic molecule

(glucose) is oxidized to release energy as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule. Cellular
respiration can take place in the presence or absence of oxygen. The ATP is used for the
following:

1. To carry out life activities such as movement

2. For cellular division
3. For synthesis of protein, cellulose etc
4. To produce heat in warm blooded organisms
5. Transmission of nerve impulses

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

It is the complete oxidation of glucose with the release of large amount of energy in form of
ATP molecules in the presence of oxygen. It produces carbon dioxide and water as by
products and it involves all the three main stages of respiration namely glycolysis, the krebs’
cycle and the electron transport chain. 36 to 38 molecules of ATP molecules are released
per molecule of glucose oxidized.

C6H12O6 +6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O + 2880kJ energy

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

It is the incomplete oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol or lactic acid with the
release of low amount of energy in the absence of oxygen

C6H12O6 →6CO2 +2CH3CH2OH +210kJ energy (in plants)

(Alcohol)
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + 150 kJ energy (in animals)
(lactic acid)

NB: Lactate fermentation may also occur in some microorganisms such as bacteria

IMPORTANCE OF ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION IN INDUSTRY

1. Used in baking industry to cause flour to rise due to production of carbon dioxide
and alcohol when yeast respire
2. Yeast cells are added to sugar solution to respire anaerobically producing alcohol in
distilleries
 3. Microorganisms in corn dough respire anaerobically to produced alcohol to give
taste to kenkey
4. Used in the production of antibiotics
5. Used in waste management

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Uses oxygen Little or no oxygen is used
More energy is produced (38 ATP) Less energy is produced (2 ATP)
Water is produced as end product Alcohol or lactic acid is produced as end
product
Takes place in mitochondrion Takes place in cytoplasm

Cellular respiration is made of three stages namely: glycolysis, krebs’ cycle and the electron
transport chain

GLYCOLYSIS

Glycolysis is a series of enzyme catalysed reactions in the cytoplasm which involves a step
wise breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid accompanied by the release of 4 ATP molecules
and the formation of NADH molecule. The 6-carbon glucose molecule is oxidized in step
wise manner to give the following:
• Electron as H+ ions
• 4 ATP molecules
• Two molecules of a 3-carbon compound called pyruvic acid

THE MAIN STAGES OF GLYCOLYSIS

1. Phosphorylation reaction: Glucose receives a phosphate group from ATP to form

glucose-6- phosphate in order to make glucose reactive and it is catalysed by the
enzyme hexokinase
2. Molecular rearrangement: glucose-6-phosphate undergoes a molecular
rearrangement to form fructose-6-phophate and this is catalysed by the enzyme
phosphohexoseisomerase
3. Phosphorylation reaction: fructose-6-phophate is further activated by the donation
of a second phosphate group (by ATP molecule) to form 6-carbon fructose
diphosphospahte and it is catalysed by the enzyme called phosphofructokinase
4. Fructose diphosphate splits into two different molecules of 3-carbon compounds
which are isomers. One is converted into the other giving two molecules of
glyceradehyde-3-phosphate
5. Each molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate undergoes a series of reactions to
form pyruvic acid (pyruvate). This means that two molecules of pyruvic acid are
 produced for each molecule of glucose that goes through glycolysis. The process is a
dehydrogenation reaction in which two hydrogen atoms a removed from
glyceraldehyde-3-phospahte and transferred to NAD+ to form 2NADH and 2H+. 4
phosphate groups are donated to ADP to form 4 ATP molecules

KREBS’ CYCLE (CITRIC ACID CYCLE OR TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE)

Krebs’ cycle is the series of reaction that takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and results
in the complete oxidation of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water with release of a large
amount of energy to complete aerobic respiration.

THE MAIN STAGES OF KREBS’ CYCLE

1. Pyruvic acid has one carbon atom removed as carbon dioxide forming a 2-carbon
compound called acetyl group
2. The acetyl group formed then combines with co-enzyme A to form acetyl co-enzyme
A (Acetyl –CoA)
3. Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-carbon compound called oxaloacetic acid (OAA) to
form a 6-carbon called citric acid or citrate.
4. Citrate is oxidized and decarboxylated to form a 5-carbon compound called α –
ketoglutarate
5. The ketoglutarate is also oxidized and decarboxylated to form a 4-carbon compound
called succinate
6. Succinate is oxidized through a number of intermediate products ( fumaric acid and
malic acid) to regenerate the 4-carbon oxaloacetic acid
7. In the course of the reaction, electrons are released as H+ ions, which are accepted
by NAD and FAD to from NADH and FADH2, one molecule of ATP is produced and
carbon dioxide is also evolved in the process
8. The NADH and the FADH2, produced enter the electron transport chain where they
are oxidized to synthesis ATP molecules

THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

It is a series of electron carrier molecules that line the inner membrane of the
mitochondria and which transfers electrons needed to release the energy needed for
the synthesis of ATP molecule

MAIN STAGES OF THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

1. NADH and FADH2 molecules generated in the kreb’s cycle and glycolysis release their
electrons to the first electron molecule
2. The electrons are transferred from one carrier molecule to the other in the chain
3. The transfer of electrons (H+ ions) is accompanied by the release of energy that is
utilised for the synthesis of ATP
4. Oxygen, the last in the chain, accepts the electrons as H+ ions and reduces to water
 ENERGY ACCOUNT OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

SITE IN CELL NUMBER OF ATP NUMBER OF NUMBER OF ATP

MOLECULES USED FADH2/NADH MOLECULES
PRODUCED GENERATED
Glycolysis (occurs in 2 ATP molecules as 2 NADH molecules 4 ATP molecules are
the cytoplasm and used in the process are produced generated
produces two
pyruvic acid
molecules for every
glucose molecule)
Krebs’ cycle (occurs No ATP molecule is 6 NADH and 2 2 ATP molecules are
in the used FADH2 are produced generated
mitochondrion and
two pyric acids are
used to produce two
acetyl CoA which
react with
oxaloaceteate to
produce citrate)
Electron transport No ATP molecule is No NADH or FADH2 34 ATP molecules
chain (occurs in the used is produced are produced
mitochondrion)
total 2 ATP molecules are 10 NADH and 2 40 ATP molecules
used FADH2 are are produced
produced
NB: Each NADH molecule yields 3 ATP molecules in the electron transport chain and
each FADH2 molecule yields 2 ATP molecules in the electron transport chain. Sometimes
it is considered that, transport of the cytoplasmic 2NADH produced from glycolysis
across the membrane of the mitochondrion takes place at the expense of extra 2 ATP
molecules. Hence the total ATP molecule input in the whole process is 4 and the total
ATP molecule output in the whole process is 36.

In the absence of oxygen in animals, the pyruvic acid would be converted to lactic acid
and in plants it is converted to alcohol

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Takes place in all living cells Takes only in cells with chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide are by products Oxygen is the by product
Takes place at all time of the day, in the Takes place in the presence of light
presence or absence of light especially during day time
Energy is released during the process Energy is consumed during the process
Glucose and oxygen are the reactant Water and carbon dioxide are the reactant

RESPIRATION QUOTIENT

It refers to the ratio of the amount of carbon dioxide produced to the amount of oxygen
consumed when one mole of glucose is oxidized in a given period of time
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 6
RQ= =6=1
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

Or RQ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT VALUE

1. It enables one to identify the kind of food substrate which is being oxidized in
respiration. Eg. RQ value of 1, 0.7, and 0.9 corresponds to complete oxidation of
carbohydrate, fat and protein respectively
2. RQ value indicates the type of metabolism or oxidation that has taken place in an
organism. Whether aerobic or anaerobic. For anaerobic respiration of carbohydrate
RQ is greater than or equal 1. For aerobic respiration of carbohydrate RQ is equal to
1. This is because when a respiring tissue runs out of oxygen, it resorts to anaerobic
respiration
3. High RQ value thus RQ greater than 1 is indicative of the fact that carbohydrate is
being converted into fat.
4. Low RQ value thus RQ less than 1 or equal to zero may mean carbon dioxide
produced from metabolism was used and not and not evolved. Example use of
carbon dioxide produced as by product for respiration for photosynthesis in plants
 BASAL METABOLIC RATE

It is the rate at which metabolic activities of an organism occur to release a minimum energy
to sustain life of the organism when the organism is at rest or sleeping. It can also occur
during hibernation or aestivation. Minimum energy is released because no carbohydrate is
taken during the period, fat reserves are mobilized for cellular respiration.

TRANSPROT OF CARBON (IV) OXIDE

Carbon (IV) oxide entering the blood from the tissues first combines with water forming
carbonic acid (H2CO3). This acid reacts with potassium and sodium ions to form
Bicarbonates. In the alveolar capillaries, due to low carbon (IV) oxide tension in the alveolar,
the bicarbonates decompose liberating carbon (IV) oxide.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
Is a lifesaving technique applied to persons who nearly get down, electrocuted or choked
by poisonous fumes. It is also referred to as resuscitation. Artificial means of respiration is
applied to restore breathing when the natural respiratory mechanism has failed. There are
two kinds of methods namely:
1. Holger- Nielson method
2. Mouth to mouth method
Holger – Nielson: method is used for victims who get drowned in water. Victim is place face
down with his head turned to one side and resting on his hand. The operator kneels in front
of the victims back just below the shoulder blade. The operator lean forward and pressing
downwards on the victim’s chest to expel any water trapped in the lungs. Operator then
squats back on his heels and at the same time pulls the victim just above the elbow. This
helps to expand the lungs.
Mouth to mouth: known as kiss of life is an efficient for victims of electrocution or gas
poisoning. Victim is placed on his back and the operator kneels at the side of the victim’s
head. With one hand placed below the neck so as to tilt the victims head backwards while
with the other hand, he punches the victim’s nose tightly. The operator then takes a deep
breath, fits his mouth completely over the victim’s mouth through the nasal passage into
the lungs. The victim’s chest will rise as the lungs expand outwards. When the victim
exhales, the entire procedure is repeated until spontaneous natural breathing returns.