Unit – 3:The Medium Access Control Sub layer

The Channel Allocation Problem, Static Channel Allocation, Assumptions for

Dynamic Channel Allocation, Multiple Access Protocols (Aloha, Carrier Sense
Multiple Access Protocols, Collision-Free Protocols, Limited Contention
Protocols, Wireless LAN Protocols).
Medium Access Control Sublayer (MAC sublayer)
The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It is
responsible for flow control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It
controls the transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends
data over the network interface card.
MAC Layer in the OSI Model
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking
framework that conceptualizes how communications should be done between
heterogeneous systems. The data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is
divided into two sublayers −
 The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
 The medium access control (MAC) sublayer
The following diagram depicts the position of the MAC layer −

Functions of MAC Layer

 It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper
layers of the OSI network.
 It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for
transmission via the physical medium.
 It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination
station, or groups of destination stations.
 It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is
to be transmitted. It determines the channel access methods for
transmission.
 It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case
of collisions.
 It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection
against transmission errors.
MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the
Data-Link Layer. MAC Address is worldwide unique since millions of network
devices exist and we need to uniquely identify each.

Format of MAC Address –

MAC Address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (6-Byte binary number), which
is mostly represented by Colon-Hexadecimal notation. The First 6-digits (say
00:40:96) of MAC Addressidentifies the manufacturer, called OUI
(Organizational Unique Identifier). IEEE Registration Authority Committee
assigns these MAC prefixes to its registered vendors.
Here are some OUI of well-known manufacturers : CC:46:D6
- Cisco
3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD - HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD
The rightmost six digits represent Network Interface Controller, which is
assigned by the manufacturer.
As discussed above, the MAC address is represented by Colon- Hexadecimal
notation. But this is just a conversion, not mandatory. MAC address can be
represented using any of the following formats:

Note: Colon-Hexadecimal notation is used by Linux OS and Period-separated

Hexadecimal notation is used by Cisco Systems.
How to find MAC address –
Command for UNIX/Linux - ifconfig -a
ip link list
ip address show

Command forWindows OS - ipconfig /all

MacOS - TCP/IP Control Panel
Note – LAN technologies like Token Ring, and Ethernet use MAC Addresses as
their Physical address but there are some networks (AppleTalk) that do not use
MAC addresses.
Types of MAC Address:
1. Unicast: A Unicast addressed frame is only sent out to the
interface leading to a specific NIC. If the LSB (least significant bit) of
the first octet of an address is set to zero, the frame is meant to reach
only one receiving NIC. MAC Address of source machine is always
Unicast.

2. Multicast: The multicast address allows the source to send a frame to a group
of devices. In Layer-2 (Ethernet) Multicast address, LSB (least significant bit) of
the first octet of an address is set to one. IEEE has allocated the address block 01-
80-C2-xx- xx-xx (01-80-C2-00-00-00 to 01-80-C2-FF-FF-FF) for group
addresses for use by standard protocols.

3. Broadcast: Similar to Network Layer, Broadcast is also possible on

the underlying layer( Data Link Layer). Ethernet frames with ones in all
bits of the destination address (FF-FF-FF- FF-FF-FF) are referred to as the
 broadcast addresses. Frames that are destined with MAC address FF-FF-
FF-FF-FF-FF will reach every computer belonging to that LAN segment.

What is MAC Cloning:

Some ISPs use MAC addresses in order to assign an IP address to the gateway
device. When a device connects to the ISP, the DHCP server records the MAC
address and then assigns an IP address. Now the system will be identified
through the MAC address. When the device gets disconnected, it loses the IP
address. If the user wants to reconnect, the DHCP server checks if the device is
connected before. If so, then the server tries to assign the same IP address (in
case the lease period has not expired). In case user changed the router, the user
has to inform the ISP about new MAC address because the new MAC address
is unknown to ISP, so the connection cannot be established.
Or the other option is Cloning, user can simply clone the registered MAC
address with ISP. Now router keeps reporting the old MAC addresses to ISP and
there will be no connection issue.
Characteristics of MAC address:
Media Access Control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to
most network adapters or network interface cards (NICs) by the manufacturer for
identification and used in the Media Access Control
protocol sub-layer. An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit binary
value expressed as
12 hexadecimal digits (4 bits per hexadecimal digit). MAC addresses are in a
flat structure and thus they are not routable on the Internet. Serial interfaces do
not use MAC addresses. It does NOT contain a network and host portion with the
address. It is used to deliver the frame to the destination device.
What is channel allocation in computer network?
When there are more than one user who desire to access a shared network
channel, an algorithm is deployed for channel allocation among the competing
users. The network channel may be a single cable or optical fiber connecting
multiple nodes, or a portion of the wireless spectrum. Channel allocation
algorithms allocate the wired channels and bandwidths to the users, who may be
base stations, access points or terminal equipment.
Channel Allocation Schemes
Channel Allocation may be done using two schemes −
 Static Channel Allocation
 Dynamic Channel Allocation
Static Channel Allocation
In static channel allocation scheme, a fixed portion of the frequency channel is
allotted to each user. For N competing users, the bandwidth is divided into N
channels using frequency division multiplexing (FDM), and each portion is
assigned to one user.
This scheme is also referred as fixed channel allocation or fixed channel
assignment.
In this allocation scheme, there is no interference between the users since each
user is assigned a fixed channel. However, it is not suitable in case of a large
number of users with variable bandwidth requirements.
Dynamic Channel Allocation
In dynamic channel allocation scheme, frequency bands are not permanently
assigned to the users. Instead channels are allotted to users dynamically as
needed, from a central pool. Theallocation is done considering a number of
parameters so that transmission interference is minimized.
This allocation scheme optimises bandwidth usage and results is faster
transmissions.
Dynamic channel allocation is further divided into centralised and distributed
allocation.
Assumptions for Dynamic Channel Allocation
Dynamic channel allocation are schemes for allotting shared network channels
to competing users in a dynamic manner as per their requirements. The users
may be base stations, access points or terminal equipment which are allotted
channels from a central pool. There are a number of methods for dynamic
channel allocation. The key assumptions of these methods are −
 Independent Traffic − It is assumed that the users are independent of
each other, i.e. each user has to send or receive data which is independent
of the data transmission of the other users in the network system. Each
user has a program for generating frames for transmission. Once the user
generates a frame for transmission, it is blocked until the frame has been
successfully transmitted.
 Single Channel − The algorithms assume that all contending stations
request for transmission via a single channel. All stations are considered to
be equally capable of transmission. However, the algorithm may assign
different priorities to them for contention.
 Detectable Collisions − If two frames from different stations are
simultaneously transmitted, the resulting signal is distorted, and a
collision is said to occur. If a collision occurs, all stations should be able to
detect the collision. The frames lost due to collisions are retransmitted.
 Continuous Time or Slotted Time − Depending upon the allocation
scheme, time may be considered as continuous or slotted. In continuous
time, frame transmission can start at any instant. In slotted time, time is
divided into discrete slots. If a slot does not contain any frame, it is called
an idle slot; if it contains a single frame, then the transmission is
successful; if it contains more than one frames, then a collision is said to
occur.
 Carrier Sense or No Carrier Sense − The stations may or may not be
capable of detecting whether the channel is in use before sending the
frames. In algorithms which are based upon carrier sense, a station sends
frame only when it senses that the channel is not busy. On the other
hand, in algorithms based upon no carrier sense, the stationstransmit a
frame when it is available and later are informed whether successful
transmission had occurred or not.
What are five key assumptions in dynamic channel allocation?
Putting the available bandwidth in operation of the cellular telephone system to
efficient use is an important problem to be considered for providing good service to
the largest number of customers possible. The problem has gained a critical
status owing to the rapid growth of the cellular telephones users.
- A communication channel is nothing but a band of frequencies which a number
of users can use simultaneously if they are residing far apart from each other.
- There is a minimum distance at which no interference occurs between the users
and it is known as the channel reuse constraint.
- A cellular telephone system divides the service area in to a number of regions
commonly known as the cells.
- Each of the cells has its own base station for handling the calls concerned with
that cell.
- The bandwidth of the communication channel is partitioned in to many
channels permanently.
- The cells are then allocated these channels in such a way that the channel reuse
constraint is not violated by the calls.
- There are a number of ways for allocating the channels.
- Few of them are better than the others when it comes to reliably making channels
available to all the cells.
-
Multiple access protocol- ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is used in a computer network to transmit the data between
two devices or nodes. It divides the layer into parts such as data link control and
the multiple access resolution/protocol. The upper layer has the responsibility
to flow control and the error control in the data link layer, andhence it is termed
as logical of data link control. Whereas the lower sub-layer is used to handle
and reduce the collision or multiple access on a channel. Hence it is termed as
media access control or the multiple access resolutions.
Data Link Control
A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting data over a dedicated
link using various techniques such as framing, error control and flow control of
data packets in the computer network. What is a multiple access protocol?
When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets,
the data link control is enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no
dedicated path to communicate or transfer the data between two devices. In that
case, multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously transmits the data
over the channel. It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple
access protocol is required to reduce the collision and avoid crosstalk between
the channels.
For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher
asks a question, all the students (small channels) in the class start answering the
question at the same time (transferring the data simultaneously). All the students
respond at the same time due to which data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is
the responsibility of a teacher (multiple access protocol) to manage the students
and make them one answer.
Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the

different process as:

A. Random Access Protocol
In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel. In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on
another station nor any station control another station. Depending on the
channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However, if
more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be acollision
or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or
changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end.
Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting
frames on the channel.
o Aloha
o CSMA
o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA
ALOHA Random Access Protocol
It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a
shared medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data
across a network simultaneously when a data frameset is available for
transmission.
Aloha Rules
1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.
2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the
transmission of data through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no
collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random
amount of time.

Pure Aloha
Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without
checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur,
and the data frame can be lost. When any station transmits the data frame to a
channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not
acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the station waits for a
random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may
assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame
until all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.
 1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.Maximum throughput occurs when

As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared
channel and transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations
send their frames at the same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2,
are successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the same time, other frames
are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel
simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will suffer damage. If the new
frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last bit of the second
frame. Both frames are completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the
data frame.
Slotted Aloha
The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure
Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared
channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station
wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at the
beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot. And if
the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have
to wait until the beginning of the slot for the next time. However, the possibility
of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or
more station time slot.
1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is
37%.The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the
slotted Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.
2. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the
traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the
channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait
until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on
a transmission medium.
CSMA Access Modes
1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first
sense the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data.
Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and
broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting
the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time
(not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the
frames.
P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non- persistent modes.
The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the
channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not
transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the
framewith the next time slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the

station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found
that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the
data.
CSMA/ CD
It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network
protocol to transmit data frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium
access control layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before
broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check
whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully received,
the station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the
station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data
transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a
FDMA
It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the
available bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send data through a
different frequency to the subchannel. Each station is reserved with a particular
band to prevent the crosstalk between the channels and interferences of stations.
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It allows
the same frequency bandwidth to be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid

collisions in the shared channel, it divides the channel into different frequency
slots that allocate stations to transmit the data frames. The same
frequency bandwidth into the shared channel by dividing the signal into various
time slots to transmit it. However, TDMA has an overhead of synchronization
that specifies each station's time slot by adding synchronization bits to each slot.

CDMA
The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method. In
CDMA, all stations can simultaneously send the dataover the same channel. It
means that it allows each station to transmit the data frames with full frequency
on the shared channel at all times. It does not require the division of bandwidth
on a shared channel based on time slots. If multiple stations send data to a
channel simultaneously, their data frames are separated by a unique code
sequence. Each station has a different unique code for transmitting the data over
a shared channel. For example, there are multiple users in a room that are
continuously speaking. Data is received by the users if only two- person interact
with each other using the same language. Similarly, in the network, if different
stations communicate with each other simultaneously with different code
language.
Multiple access protocols are a set of protocols operating in the Medium Access
Control sublayer (MAC sublayer) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
These protocols allow a number of nodes or users to access a shared network
channel. Several data streams originating from several nodes are transferred
through the multi-point transmission channel.
The objectives of multiple access protocols are optimization of transmission
time, minimization of collisions and avoidance of crosstalks.

Categories of Multiple Access Protocols

Multiple access protocols can be broadly classified into three categories - random
access protocols, controlled access protocols and channelization protocols.

Random Access Protocols

Random access protocols assign uniform priority to all connected nodes. Any
node can send data if the transmission channel is idle. No fixed time or fixed
sequence is given for data transmission.
The four random access protocols are−
 ALOHA
 Carrier sense multiple access (CMSA)
 Carrier sense multiple accesswith collision detection
(CMSA/CD)
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CMSA/CA)
Controlled Access Protocols
Controlled access protocols allow only one node to send data at a given
time.Before initiating transmission, a node seeks information from other nodes to
determine which station has the right to send. This avoids collision of messages
on the shared channel.
The station can be assigned the right to send by the following three methods−
 Reservation
 Polling
 Token Passing
Channelization
Channelization are a set of methods by which the available bandwidth is divided
among the different nodes for simultaneous data transfer.
The three channelization methods are−
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Random Access Protocols - ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA and CSMA/CD

Random Access Protocols is a Multiple access protocol that is divided into four
categories which are ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, and CSMA/CA. In this article,
we will cover all of these Random Access Protocols in detail.
Have you ever been to a railway station? And noticed the ticket counter over there?
Above are the scenarios for approaching a ticket counter. Which one do you
think is more productive? The ordered one, right? And we all know the reason
why. Just to get things working and avoid problems we have some rules or
protocols, like "please stand inthe queue", "do not push each other", "wait for
your turn", etc. in the same way computer network channels also have protocols
like
multiple access protocols, random access protocols, etc.
Let's say you are talking to your friend using a mobile phone. This means there
is a link established between you and him. But the point to be remembered is that
the communication channel between you and him (the sender & the receiver or
vice-versa) is not always a dedicated link, which means the channels are not only
providing service to you at that time but to others as well. This means multiple
users might be communicating through the same channel.

How is that possible? The reason behind this is the multiple access protocols. If
you refer to the OSI model you will come across the data link layer. Now divide
the layers into 2 parts, the upper part of the layer will take care of the data link
control, and the lower half will be taking care in resolving the access to the
shared media, as shown in the above diagram.
The following diagram classifies the multiple-access protocol. In this article, we
are going to cover Random Access Protocol.
Random Access Protocols
Once again, let's use the example of mobile phone communication. Whenever
you call someone, a connection between you and the desired person is
established, also anyonecan call anyone. So here we have all the users (stations)
at an equal priority, where any station can send data depending on medium's state
whether it is idle or busy, meaning that if you friend is talking to someone else
through the mobile phone, then its status is busy and you cannot establish a
connection and since all the users are assigned equal priority you can not
disconnect your friend's ongoing call and connect yours.
The random access protocols consist of the following characteristics:
1. There is no time restriction for sending the data (you can talk to your
friend without a time restriction).
2. There is a fixed sequence of stations which are transmitting the data.
As in the above diagram you might have observed that the random-access
protocol is further divided into four categories, which are:
1. ALOHA
2. CSMA
3. CSMA/CD
4. CSMA/CA
Let's cover each one of them, one by one.
ALOHA Random Access Protocol
The ALOHA protocol or also known as the ALOHA method is a simple
communication scheme in which every transmitting station or source in a
network will send the data whenever a frame is available for transmission. If we
succeed and the frame reaches its destination, then the next frame is lined-up for
transmission. But remember, if the data frame is not received by the receiver
(maybe due to collision) then the frame is sent again until it successfully reaches
the receiver's end.
Whenever we talk about a wireless broadcast system or a half- duplex two-way
link, the ALOHA method works efficiently. But as the network becomes more
and more complex e.g. the ethernet. Now here in the ethernet, the system
involves multiple sources and destinations which share a common data path or
channel, then the conflict occurs because data-frames collide, and the
information is lost. Following is the flow chart of Pure ALOHA.

So, to minimize these collisions and to optimize network efficiency as well as to

increase the number of subscribers that can use a given network, the slotted
ALOHA was developed. This system consists of the signals termed as beacons
which are sent at precise time intervals and inform each source when the channel
is clear to send the frame.
Now, as we came to know about ALOHA's 2 types i.e. Pure & Slotted ALOHA,
the following is the difference between both.
PURE ALOHA SLOTTED ALOHA
Data transmission Stations can here, any random station
transmit the data can transmit the data at
randomly i.e. any number the beginning of any
of stations can transmit random time slot
data at
any time.

Time status Here, the time is Here, the time is discrete

continuous and is not unlike pure ALOHA and
globally is also
synchronized with any globally synchronized
other station.
Vulnerable time 2*Frame Frame transmission
transmission time time
Probability of G*e-2G G*e-G
successful transmission where, G = no. of stations
of a
willing to transmit data
data packet
Maximum efficiency 18.4% 36.8%

Collision status It does not reduce the Here, it reduces the total
total number of collisions number of collisions to
to half
half and doubles the
efficiency of pure
ALOHA

CSMA Random Access Protocol

CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access. Till now we have understood
that when 2 or more stations start sending data, then a collision occurs, so
this CSMA method was developed to decrease the chances of collisions when 2 or
more stations start sending their signals over the data link layer. But how do they
do it? The CSMA makes each station to first check the medium (whether it is
busy or not) before sending any data packet.
Here, Vulnerable time = Propagation Time

But, what to do if the channels are busy? Now, here the persistence methods can
be applied to help the station act when the channel is busy or idle.
The CSMA has 4 access modes:
o 1-persistent mode: In this, first the node checks the channel, if the
channel is idle then the node or station transmits data, otherwise it keeps
on waiting and whenever the channel is idle, the stations transmit the
data-frame.
o Non-persistent mode: In this, the station checks the channel similarly as
1-persistent mode, but the only difference is that when the channel is busy
it checks it again after a random amount of time, unlike the 1- persistent
where the stations keep on checking continuously.
o P-persistent mode: In this, the station checks the channel
 and if found idle then it transmits the data frame with the probability of P
and if the data is not transmitted (1-P) then the station waits for a random
amount of time and again transmits the data with the probability P and this
cycle goes on continuously until the data-frame is successfully sent.
o O-persistent: In this, the transmission occurs based on the superiority of
stations which is decided beforehand and transmission occurs in that order.
If the channel is idle, then the station waits for its turn to send the data-
frame.
Throughput & Efficiency of CSMA:
It is comparatively much greater than the throughput of pure and slotted
ALOHA. Here, for the 1-persistent mode, the throughput is 50% when G=1
and for Non-persistent mode, the throughput can reach up to 90%.
CSMA/CD Random Access Protocol
CSMA/CD means CSMA with Collision Detection.
In this, whenever station transmits data-frame it then monitors the channel or the
medium to acknowledge the state of the transmission i.e. successfully transmitted
or failed. If the transmission succeeds, then it prepares for the next frame
otherwise it resends the previously failed data-frame. The point to remember here
is, that the frame transmission time should be at least twice the maximum
propagation time, which can be deduced when the distance between the two
stations involved in a collision is maximum.
CSMA/CA Random Access Protocol
CSMA/CA means CSMA with collision avoidance.
To detect the possible collisions, the sender receives the acknowledgement and if
there is only one acknowledgment present (it's own) then this means that the data-
frame has been sent successfully. But, if there are 2 or more acknowledgment
signals then this indicates that the collision has occurred.
This method avoids collisions by:
o Interframe space: in this case, assume that your station waits for the
channel to become idle and found that the channel is idle, then it will not
send the data-frame immediately (in order to avoid collision due to
propagation delay) it rather waits for some time called interframe space or
IFS, and after this time the station again checks the medium for being idle.
But it should be kept in mind that the IFS duration depends on the
priority of the station.
o Contention Window: here, the time is divided into slots. Say, if the
sender is ready for transmission of the data, it then chooses a random
number of slots as waiting time
 which doubles every time whenever the channel is busy. But, if the
channel is not idle at that moment, then it does not restart the entire
process but restarts the timer when the channel is found idle again.
o Acknowledgment: as we discussed above that the sender station will re-
transmits the data if acknowledgment is not received before the timer
expires.
Collision-Free Protocols in Computer Network
Almost collisions can be avoided in CSMA/CD.they can still occur during the
contention period.the collision during contention period adversely affects the
system performance, this happens when the cable is long and length of packet are
short. This problem becomes serious as fiber optics network come into use. Here
we shall discuss some protocols that resolve the collision during the contention
period.
 Bit-map Protocol
 Binary Countdown
 Limited Contention Protocols
 The Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
Pure and slotted Aloha, CSMA and CSMA/CD are Contention based
Protocols:
 Try-if collide-Retry
 No guarantee of performance
 What happen if the network load is high?
Collision Free Protocols:
 Pay constant overhead to achieve performance guarantee
 Good when network load is high
1. Bit-map Protocol:
Bit map protocol is collision free Protocol in In bitmap protocol method, each
contention period consists of exactly N slots. if any station has to send frame, then
it transmits a 1 bit in the respective slot. For example if station 2 has a frame
to send, it transmits a 1 bit during the second slot.
In general Station 1 Announce the fact that it has a frame questions by inserting a
1 bit into slot 1. In this way, each station has complete knowledge of which
station wishes to transmit. There will never be any collisions because everyone
agrees on who goes next. Protocols like this in which the desire to transmit is
broadcasting for the actual transmission are called Reservation Protocols.

For analyzing the performance of this protocol, We will measure time in units of the
contention bits slot, with a data frame consisting of d time units. Under low load
conditions, the bitmap will simply be repeated over and over, for lack of data
frames.All the stations have something to send all the time at high load, the N
bit contention period is prorated over N frames, yielding an overhead of only 1 bit
per frame.
Generally, high numbered stations have to wait for half a scan before starting
to transmit low numbered stations have to wait for half a scan(N/2 bit slots)
before starting to transmit, low numbered stations have to wait on an average
1.5 N slots.
2. Binary Countdown:
Binary countdown protocol is used to overcome the overhead 1 bit per binary
station. In binary countdown, binary station addresses are used. A station
wanting to use the channel broadcast its address as binary bit string starting with
the high order bit. All addresses are assumed of the same length. Here, we will
see the example to illustrate the working of the binary countdown.
In this method, different station addresses are ORed together who decide the
priority of transmitting. If these stations 0001, 1001, 1100, 1011 all are trying to
seize the channel for transmission. All the station at first broadcast their most
significant address bit that is 0, 1, 1, 1 respectively. The most significant bits are
ORed together. Station 0001 see the 1MSB in another station addresses and
knows that a higher numbered station is competing for the channel, so it gives up
for the current round.
Other three stations 1001, 1100, 1011 continue. The next bit is 1 at station 1100,
swiss station 1011 and 1001 give up. Then station 110 starts transmitting a
frame, after which another bidding cycle starts.

Limited Contention Protocols:

 Collision based protocols (pure and slotted ALOHA,
CSMA/CD) are good when the network load is low.
 Collision free protocols (bitmap, binary Countdown) are good
when load is high.
 How about combining their advantages
1. Behave like the ALOHA scheme under light load
2. Behave like the bitmap scheme under heavy load.
Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol:
  partition the group of station and limit the
contention for each slot.
 Under light load, everyone can try for each slot like
aloha
 Under heavy load, only a group can try for each slot
 How do we do it:
1. treat every stations as the leaf of a binary tree
2. first slot (after successful
transmission), all stations
can try to get the slot(under the root node).
3. if no conflict, fine
4. in case of conflict, only nodes under a subtree
get to try for the next one. (depth first search)
For Example:

 Slot-0: C*, E*, F*, H* (all nodes under node 0 can

try which are going to send), conflict
 Slot-1: C* (all nodes under node 1can try}, C sends
 Slot-2: E*, F*, H*(all nodes under node 2 can try},
conflict
 Slot-3: E*, F* (all nodes under node 5 can try to
send), conflict
 Slot-4: E* (all nodes under E can try), E sends
 Slot-5: F* (all nodes under F can try), F sends
 Slot-6: H* (all nodes under node 6 can try to send), H
sends.
Collision-Free Protocols
In computer networks, when more than one station tries to transmit
simultaneously via a shared channel, the transmitted data is garbled. This event
is called collision. The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of the OSI model is
responsible for handling collision of frames. Collision – free protocols are
devised so that collisions do not occur. Protocols like CSMA/CD and
CSMA/CA nullifies the possibility of collisions once the transmission channel is
acquired by any station. However, collision can still occur during the contention
period if more than one stations starts to transmit at the same time. Collision –
free protocols resolves collision in the contention period and so the possibilities
of collisions are eliminated.
Types of Collision – free Protocols
Bit – map Protocol
In bit map protocol, the contention period is divided into N slots, where N is the total
number of stations sharing the channel. If a station has a frame to send, it sets the
corresponding bit in the slot. So, before transmission, each station knows
whether the other stations want to transmit. Collisions are avoided by mutual
agreement among the contending stations on who gets the channel.
Binary Countdown
This protocol overcomes the overhead of 1 bit per station of the bit – map
protocol. Here, binary addresses of equal lengths are assigned to each station. For
example, if there are 6 stations, they may be assigned the binary addresses
001, 010, 011, 100,
101 and 110. All stations wanting to communicate broadcast their addresses.
The station with higher address gets the higher priority for transmitting.
Limited Contention Protocols
These protocols combines the advantages of collision based protocols and
collision free protocols. Under light load, they behave like ALOHA scheme.
Under heavy load, they behave like bitmap protocols.
Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
In adaptive tree walk protocol, the stations or nodes are arranged in the form of a
binary tree as follows -
 Initially all nodes (A, B ……. G, H) are permitted to compete for the channel.
If a node is successful in acquiring the channel, it transmits its frame. In case
of collision, the nodes are divided into two groups (A, B, C, D in one group
and E, F, G, H in another group). Nodes belonging to only one of them is
permitted for competing. This process continues until successful transmission
occurs.
Wireless LAN Protocols
Wireless LANs refer to LANs (Local Area Networks) that use high frequency
radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices. It can be conceived as a
set of laptops and other wireless devices communicating by radio signals. Users
connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.
Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.
Configuration of Wireless LANs
Each station in a Wireless LAN has a wireless network interface controller. A
station can be of two categories −
 Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access points. The
APs are wired together using fiber or copper wires, through the
distribution system.
 Client − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smart phones etc.
They are around tens of metres within the range of an AP.

Types of WLAN Protocols

IEEE 802.11 or WiFi has a number of variations, the main among which are −
 802.11a Protocol− This protocol supports very high transmission speeds
of 54Mbps. It has a high frequency of 5GHz range, due to which signals
have difficulty in penetrating walls and other obstructions. It employs
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
 802.11b Protocol − This protocol operates within the frequency range of
2.4GHz and supports 11Mbps speed. It facilitates path sharing and is less
vulnerable to obstructions. It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) with Ethernet protocol.
 802.11g Protocol − This protocol combines the features of 802.11a and
802.11b protocols. It supports both the frequency ranges 5GHz (as in
802.11a standard) and 2.4GHz (as in 802.11b standard). Owing to its dual
features, 802.11g is backward compatible with 802.11b devices. 802.11g
provides high speeds, varying signal range, and resilience to obstruction.
However, it is more expensive for implementation.
 802.11n Protocol − Popularly known as Wireless N, this is an upgraded
version of 802.11g. It provides very high bandwidth up to 600Mbps and
 provides signal coverage. It uses Multiple Input/Multiple Output (MIMO),
having multiple antennas at both the transmitter end and receiver ends. In
case of signal obstructions, alternative routes are used. However, the
implementation is highly expensive.
Advantages of WLANs
 Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without
further restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers
can be placed anywhere (also non- visible, e.g., within devices, in walls
etc.).
 Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication
without previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
 Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small
devices which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only
restrict users but also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
 Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes,
flood etc. whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually
break down completely in disasters.
 Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on
average lower than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional
wired LAN, for two reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the
wireless network via an access point for the first user, adding additional
users to a network will not increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN
eliminates the direct costs of cabling and the labor associated with
installing and repairing it.
 Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.
Disadvantages of WLANs
 Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than
wired networks. The main reason for this is thelower bandwidth due to
limitations is radio transmission, higher error rates due to interference and
higher delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction and detection
mechanisms.
 Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many
companies have come up with proprietary solutions offering
standardization functionality plus many enhanced features. Most
components today adhere to the basic standards IEEE 802.11a or 802.11b.
 Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate
the operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
 Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so,
national and international frequency regulations have to be considered.
 Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically
power consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power.
Whereas the LAN design should take this into account and implement
special power saving modes and power management functions.
 License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special
license to be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a
license free band, such as the
2.4 GHz ISM band.
 Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio
transmission, many other electrical devices can interfere with them (such
as vacuum cleaner, train engines, hair dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN
transceivers cannot be adjusted for perfect transmission is a standard office
or production environment.
History:
A professor at University of Hawaii who’s name was Norman Abramson,
developed the world’s first wireless computer communication network. In 1979,
Gfeller and u.Bapst published a paper in the IEE proceedings reporting an
experimental wireless local area network using diffused infrared
communications. The first of the IEEE workshops on Wireless LAN was held in
1991.
Characteristics :
 Seamless operation.
 Low power for battery use.
 Simple management, easy to use for everyone.
 Protection of investment in wired networks.
 Robust transmission technology
Advantages :
 Installation speed and simplicity.
 Installation flexibility.
 Reduced cost of ownership.
 Reliability.
 Mobility.
 Robustness.
Disadvantages :
 Slower bandwidth.
 Security for wireless LAN’s is the prime concern.
 Less capacity.
 Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
 Wireless devices emit low levels of RF which can be harmful to our
health.