AUTONOMOUS POPULAR UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF PUEBLA

MASTER'S DEGREE IN MATHEMATICS APPLIED TO EDUCATION

DIFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Mr. of the subject Israel Sánchez Linares
GABRIEL LERMA CRUZ
ZENON ABEL BRETON RENDON
August 29, 2011

INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS TIME LINE

Scientific analysis assures us that all theories of mathematics are not, in essence, but the result of
abstract models constructed according to certain experimental facts that, expressed in the language
of said science, are then developed based on pure reasoning and give origin of new ideas, when
these new mathematical concepts are used and applied to physics and another branch of science.
This allows new models to be established to accurately explain the facts investigated, then
mathematics is refined and acquires greater interpretation and, above all, precision.
We know that the truth forces us to change and look for new algorithms, which will further
develop mathematical thinking.
Historically and scientifically, it is assured that one of the most transcendent, elegant, important
and beautiful mathematical models that the creation of man has produced is the differential and
integral calculus, which is also known as INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.
The advent of this branch of mathematics, which today we designate as MATHEMATICAL
ANALYSIS , has a history that describes observation, reasoning and measurement. The essence of
the Infinitesimal Method consists of the idea of the “STEP TO THE LIMIT ”, a product of the
conception of “indefinite succession”.
To get an idea of these concepts, we consider it convenient to study this story in three parts:

1. The Precursors
2. The Founders
3. The Continuers.

PRECURSORS OF THE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS

NAME DEVELOPED ACTIVITY.

Eudoxus of Cnidus Theory of proportions.

Greek Exhaustion Method (exhausting)
408-355 BC c.

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Archimedes.- Greek Develop and perfect the Exhaution Method
287-212 BC. c. It links it to a new postulate: “Postulate of continuity”

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Creator of the Method, which contains the idea of the integral

Nicholas Oresme He established certain considerations about “Infinity” Introduction of zero.

French
1313-1382
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Álvaro To He performed the calculation of the first convergent series (series in which
Approx. 15 more 09 the general term tends to zero)
Cavalieri 1598- 1647 Dedicated to trigonometry and logarithms.
He contributed to the application of calculus in areas and volumes relying
on “indivisibles” (certain algorithms that led him to establish an
integration process)
He published in 1635 “GEOMETRÍA INDIVISIBILIBUS
CONTINUORUM NOVA QUADAM RATIONEM PROMOTA”
(continuous indivisible geometry and new law of relationship)
Cavalieri's theorem.
Evangelist In his posthumous book, “Geometric Exercises” published in 1647, he
Italian Torricelli 1564- highlights infinitesimal methods.
1642

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German Kepler 1571- His mathematical work “NOVA ESTEREOMETRIA DILORIUM
1630 VINARIORUM” (new stereometry of wine barrels), a classic theorem of
the capacity of wine barrels, uses infinitesimal methods applied to
I s5 to J commercial problems.
Through its 2nd. Planetary Law, which explains how the areas swept by
90a T7av748a the vector rays are linked to the times and speeds
Blaise Pascal In 1640 he wrote “ESSAY POUR LES CONIQUES” (Essay on conics)
He used methods very close to infinitesimal calculus
French
1623-
1662 9

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Pierre Fermat.He wrote in 1637, but published in 1679 “AD LOCOS PLANOS ET
SOLIDOS ISAGOGE” (introduction to geometric places, solid planes).
French Co-author of Analytical Geometry, which undoubtedly led him to the
infinitesimal method, as is the case of the “Trigonometric Slope of the
1601- Tangent”
In 1638 he discovered a method to find maximums and minimums
1665 ,9

Dutch Huygens The first Treatise on the Calculus of Probability is owed to this scientist;
Christian work that opens a new chapter of differential geometry.
1629-1695 Considered the Dutch Newton.

John wallis He considered the figures of conic sections, not as a section of the cone.
English But as a version of curves considered in Cartesian and 2nd degree
1616-1703 coordinates.
He perfected the method of indivisibles and the calculation of “Pi” as it is

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known today.

Builder of St Paul's Cathedral and other churches in London

Christopher Wren Solved problems related to the cycloid
English 1632-1723 He was the first to prove the existence of infinite generators.
9 Rectilinear lines in the Hyperboloid of a sheet.
4 w. Newton's teacher for a short time at Cambridge.

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Isaac Barrow English He gave importance to the classical methods consisting of the
1630-1677 determination of the tangents to plane curves through the so-called
“Differential Triangle”, whose sides are formed by the differentials dx, dy
and the elementary arc ds.
He was Newton's teacher, friend and protector.

FOUNDERS OF THE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS

Isaac Newton
NAME DEVELOPED ACTIVITY.
English 1642-1727 Highly favored by the Saxon concept, presenting him as the sole inventor
of Infinitesimal Analysis.
He is a natural philosopher, he is a physicist, or rather a “mechanic”
His “Theory of Fluxions” (derivatives) is closely linked to the work of
John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and the geometric methods of Descartes and
Fermat, where infinite series and tangents are analyzed. The infinitesimals
proposed by Newton are called “moments.” of fluxions”, the idea of
fluxion comes from flow or speed, that is why in the
 interpretation of the Derivative the MECHANICAL interpretation is
invoked, as is the GEOMETRIC interpretation.
In 1671, Newton developed a Method that he published under the name
“METHODUS FLUXIONUM ET SERIERUM INFINITORUM”
(Method of fluxions and infinite series), a compilation of previous works
that included: application of infinite series to the resolution of algebraic
and differential equations , calculation of maximums and minimums,
method of new integrations by substitution, transformation of integrals
applied to various curves
In 1687 he presented his so-called “Ultimate Ratios” of Vanishing
Quantities, (the rate of increase that has vanished) this is the concept of
limit.
In 1687, in his famous “Principia”, Newton puts forward notions of
infinitesimal calculus.
In 1693 Newton published “DE CUADRATURA CURVARUM”
(Treatise on the Quadrature of Curves), where he reaffirmed his method.
Gotfried Wilhelm
Leibniz. Independently of Newton, he simply established the algorithms of a new
German calculus, that is, Infinitesimal Analysis between 1673 and 1676, under the
1646-1716 personal influence of Huygens.
His thinking is more logical and mathematical.
Less artificial and empirical than Newton
Its symbolism is more practical and functional than Newton's.
He wanted to develop mathematics through philosophy.
,$ His mathematical legacy is based on the French mathematicians he did not
Fl - ' . know, who are Pascal, Descartes and Fermat.
A first publication of the Leibnizian form of the Infinitesimal Calculus was
in 1684. “ACTA ERUDICTORUM” (Acta Eruditas), with a subtitle that
read A New Method for Maxima and Minima, and also for Tangents that is
not obstructed by fractional or irrational quantities)
In this work are the forms and symbols that would be imposed in the
notation, such as: dx, dy, ds, etc., as well as the rules of differentiation
such as d(xy) = xdy + ydx, and: d (x /y) = (ydx –xdy) /yz 1684.- Leibniz's
first writing on differential calculus
1686.- Leibniz's first writing on integral calculus.

The creation of Infinitesimal Analysis, which Newton called the Theory of Fluxions, and Leibniz
titled it Differential and Integral Calculus, aroused a bitter controversy that had a divorce between
mathematicians and scientists of the British island and those of the scientific community of the
European continent, controversy long and sterile about the priority in the discovery of the methods
of this new branch of mathematics.
Newton and Leibniz did approach and found well-distinguished forms of reasoning, which led
them to different results, but essentially led them to the same interpretation.
The discovery of calculus had a special characteristic not only in mathematical thought, but in
thought and science in general; While Newton guarded his discovery on the island with great zeal
without propagating it to his countrymen, men of science, Leibniz's Differential and Integral
Calculus became known throughout Europe, since scholars were able to apply it, hence these were
the successors:
 CONTINUATIONS OF THE INFINITESIMAL ANALYSIS

NAME DEVELOPED ACTIVITY.

Swiss-Jewish scientists living in Basel, Switzerland, applied Leibniz's
knowledge.
In 1701, the Bernoulli brothers dealt with the problem of isoperimeters.
In 1701 Jacobo (1) Bernoulli in his work “ANALYSIS MAGNI
PROBLEMI” (Problems of magno analysis) studies the shapes of those
curves of maximums and minimums, traceable by a differential equation
MM.34 Jacob 1654-1705
Johannes Bernoulli (1667-1748) wrote a letter dated 1615, addressed to
Swiss Leibniz, communicating his success in applying the new calculus to
surfaces enclosed under curves, which are represented by integrals.
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Bernoulli family
Daniel
1700-1782 Dutch-Swiss

Guillaume Francois This Frenchman can be considered the author of the first systematic
Antoine L'Hopital treatise on Differential and Integral Calculus, entitled “ANALYSE DES
French 1661-1704 INFINIMENT PETITS POUR INTELLIGENCE DES LIGNES
COURBES” (Analysis of infinitely small parts by curves) which appeared
Ec2985 Ey3g in 1696.
5ekA The L'Hopital Rule formula appears to find limits

Gabriel Manfredi. In 1707 he published “CONSTRUCTIONES EAQUATIONUM

Italian, 1681-1711 DIFFERENTIANUM DIFFERENCIALES” (On the construction of
differential equations), stating the method of integrating differential
equations with two variables.

John Keil. In 1710 he published “DE LEGIBUS VIRIUM CENTRIPETARUM”, (Of

Scottish, 1671-1721 the laws of centripetal variation.), where he maintains Newton's priority in
the discovery of infinitesimal calculus.

Nicolas Fatio de Member of the Royal Society.

Duilier. Initiator of the controversy between Newton and Leibniz, due to an excess
English, 1664-1753 of academic jealousy and a British obsession
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Brook Taylor. English In 1615 he published “METHODUS INCREMENTORUM DIRECTA ET
1685-1731 UNIVERSA”, (Methods of direct and universal increase
He proposes the Taylor Series, deduced with the help of Newton's
interpolation method.

Francois Nigale In 1717 he published “Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences,”

French, 1698-1746 where he included his “rule for forming differences and for adding given
series.”
Colin MaClaurin. He began in 1720 until 1742, a “TREATISE ON FLUXIONES”, (Treaty

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Scottish, 1698-1746 on Fluxions), with a broad explanation of maximums and minimums, in
addition to including the rule to find the multiple points of the curves.
It exposes the formula for the series development of the functions called
after, MaClaurin Series.

Abraham de Moivre Introduces the study of Recurring Series

French, 1667-1754 He is responsible for the rule that bears his name, for the potentiation of
complex numbers.

George eley 5- In 1734, in “THE ANALIST”, he criticized the infinitesimal concepts of

Berk 1753 the time.
Irish, 168

Edmund Halley A friend and benefactor of Newton, he paid for the printing of the first 250
or 300 copies of “PHILOSOPHIAE NATURALIS PRINCIPIA
MATHEMATICA,” and he was a skillful applyer of infinitesimal calculus.

English, 1656-1742 0

Leonhard Euler Swiss, He is the first to organize and order Infinitesimal Analysis. Considered the
1707-1783 most prolific of all mathematicians.
All books continue to carry the order that Euler implemented. He wrote
many books dedicated to mathematical analysis.
Mathematicians Alexis Claude Clauriaut, (1713-1765)
french Jean Baptiste Le Rond D'Lambert, (1717-1783)
Century XVIII Joseph Louis Lagrange, (1736-1813), author of “MECANIQUE
ANALYTIQUE” work treated with infinitesimal analysis.
Simón Laplace, (1749-1827), his work “MECANIQUE CELESTE” to
which he also applies differential and integral calculus.
Joseph Fourier, (1768-1830), establishes the integral with notation
Lagrangian Limits in “LA THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DE LA CHALEUR”, in the
Analytical theory of Heat in 1822

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D'Lambert
M 1 Fourier

CONTINUATIONS OF CALCULATION IN THE 19TH AND 20TH

CENTURIES.

Kart Friedrich Called the Prince of Mathematics

Gauss He gave support and refinement to the Infinitesimal Calculus, applying it
German, 1777-1855 to countless problems, and with new procedures.

Agustin louis He managed to establish the concept of LIMIT adopted as the foundation
Cauchy of the Infinitesimal Calculus, in addition to the integral theory and
French, 1789-1857 functions in a single variable.
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Bernhard Bolzano Establishes the theory of real functions in calculus. The definition of
CONTINUITY.
Czech, 1781-1848 A

william Rowan He establishes equations that lead him to the principle that bears his name,
hamilton which is an elegant application of infinitesimal analysis to Classical
Irish, 1805- 1865 Mechanics.
To put Gustaf He left interesting works on the theory of SERIES and integral calculus
Lejeume Dirichlet
German, 1805-1859
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Joules Wilhel He carried out work on the THEORY OF algebraic NUMBERS and
Richard Dedekind irrational functions for infinitesimal analysis.
German, 1831-1916

He managed to establish the calculation applied to functions.

George Cantor He and Poincaré solidify the topology of functions initiated by Euler

German, 1845-1918 (e
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Jules Henri Poincaré Study automorphic functions
French 1854-1912 Together with Cantor they solidify the Topology.

Kart Wilhelm He created new foundations for the Theory of Functions

Weierstrass Solved the inverse problem of ABEL'S INTEGRAL.
German, 1815.1897 His great contribution is the ARITHMETHIZATION OF THE
INFINITESIMAL ANALYSIS.

Niels Henrik Abel Mastering genius of calculation.

Norwegian, 1802-1829 The ABELIAN INTEGRALS are due to him.

He achieved the clarification of the Definite Integral and a type of non-

Euclidean geometry, which served as the basis for Albert Einstein to
develop the General Theory of Relativity.
Bernhar Rieman

German 1826- 1866 4

The Infinitesimal Calculus is very advanced, thanks to the great contributions that different
thinkers made or have made throughout history, with the period of greatest development being the
years from 1650 to 1680.
There is still much to discover, that someone will continue to search in the rich mine that
represents one of the most glorious and formidable mental constructions made by man.

Bibliography:
History of Mathematics, J Rey Pastor and José Babini, Edit. Gedisa, Barcelona, 1986.

This compilation was made by Zenón Abel Bretón Rendón

August 29, 2011