Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

The National Engineering University

Alangilan Campus

College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ENGG 416 – Research Methods

Self Assessment Task No. 2

Submitted by:

Fernando, Mikaella Allysa C.

21-03000

ME-3107

Submitted to:

Engr. Mary Joan Leacille Ilao

Instructor

October 4, 2023
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SEASHELL PROCESSING MACHINE FOR

USE AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT FOR CEMENT

1. Conceptualize a research problem using Force Field Analysis (Gap analysis)

 Figure 1.1. Force Field Analysis (Gap Analysis)

2. From the conceptualized researched problem. Develop the following:

“DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SEASHELL PROCESSING MACHINE FOR

USE AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT FOR CEMENT”

a. Rationale of the Study

The population of people around the world is increasing rapidly,

with over 8 billion people, an increase of 0.88% from 2022, according to

the Worldometer. As the population increases, the demand for structures

increases. Concrete is a mixture of cement and other materials, but over

the years, the domestic demand for cement has been insufficient. The

Philippines needs to supply 35 million metric tons (MMT) but is only able

to produce 24 to 26 MMT. Increasing demand for cement means

increasing production, thus increasing the environmental effects.

In the production and hydration of cement, about 900 kilograms

(kg) of carbon dioxide per 1000 kg of cement are emitted. According to the

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2023), cement plants are

a source of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and carbon monoxide, which

have both environmental and health effects and issues. Some

environmental effects include acid rain, global warming, visual impairment,

and effects on breathing. Another environmental problem in the

Philippines is the seashell waste from restaurants, farms, and other

establishments.
 Creating a machine that uses seashells as a partial replacement for

cement as an output that can lessen the environmental effects is one of

the alternatives to solving the problem. Seashell is a natural material that

can be seen in coastal regions. It has tough exoskeletons that have

calcium carbonate and a little protein. Seashell is suitable as an

alternative or partial replacement for cement in concrete mixtures since it

has a high calcium carbonate content. Using seashells as a partial

replacement for cement enables renewable resources to be utilized. This

study aims to fill the following research gaps:

1. Develop a machine capable and suitable for making cement out of

ground seashells.

2. Develop a machine that produces a consistent quality of seashell

cement by using the standardized type of seashells.

3. Develop a machine that incorporates environmental features and

worker safety.

b. Objectives of the Study

General Objectives:

● To design and develop a machine that can process a ground seashell

efficiently into cement with some additives like gypsum and water since

there are limited machines that can process seashells making it a partial

replacement for cement.

● To promote seashells as an alternative to the traditional building material,

 cement.

Specific Objectives:

● To determine the right temperature, time of mixing and cooking the

materials, and pressure to be used in the process.

● To determine the right proportion of the ground seashell to other materials

or additives.

● To ensure that the machine to be designed and developed can process

ground seashells that are almost alike or surpass the traditional cement.

● To ensure the right quality control for the consistent quality of the product.

● To ensure that there are safety features in the machine.

● To utilize the machine’s efficiency to reduce the possible operational costs.

c. Conceptualized Framework

This study aimed to design and develop a machine that processes

seashells as a partial replacement for cement. The types of seashells are

considered for the study. The parameters such as the time, pressure, and

temperature are also considered by the researcher.

In order to obtain the general and specific objectives of this study, a

conceptual framework was developed. There are three stages which are

the input, process, and output. The input consists of the variables that are

the causes of the phenomenon. In this framework, the input consists of the

material consistency depending on the type of seashells and the

parameters, the ratio of the seashells with the additives, environmental

impact, and the availability of quality control. These are put in the input

stage since these variables need to be considered that can affect or give

problems to the study.

The second stage is the process which is the method where the

variables are synthesized. This includes the gathering of data about the

processing parameters and variables of the seashell through statistical

analysis, performing material testing, conducting field testing for gathering

data like the cost of the output, and designing and developing a seashell

processing machine.

The final stage is the output which is the result or outcome of the

variables. This includes the machine that processes a seashell that can be

a partial replacement to cement, prototype, and design that produces

consistent output, environmental impact assessment, and safety and

quality control compliance. These variables give answers and solutions to

the variables in the input stage.

The aforementioned variables should be considered in the study to

observe the causes and effects that can occur. A diagram is shown below,

Figure 2.1, for this conceptual framework.

 Figure 2.1. Force Field Analysis (Gap Analysis)

d. Definition of Terms

The following are the words that are commonly used and will be

encountered in this study:

Cement is used in this study as the material that will be replaced by the

seashell. Cement is one of the materials used to create concrete.

Coastal regions are the boundary between the ocean and the land where
 the seashells can be found.

Concrete is a material that is made by mixing binding materials,

aggregates, water, and admixtures.

Gypsum is a sulfate mineral and is used in this study as one of the

materials that is mixed with seashell ashes.

Plaster of Paris is a fine white powder that is considered a quick-setting

gypsum.

Seashell is described in this study as a hard exoskeleton that has high

calcium carbonate and can be a partial replacement for cement.

3. Prepare a topic outline and prepare the following:

Topic Outline

I. Conceptual Literature Review

A. Seashell

a. Types of Seashells Usually Used as Partial

Replacement for Cement

B. Cement

a. Cement Specifications

b. Physical Compositions of Cement

II. Research Literature Review

A. Demand for Cement in the Industry of the Philippines

B. Seashell Ashes as a Replacement for Cement and

Additional Mineral Filler

 C. Machine Using Seashells

D. Seashell as Partial Replacement to Cement

E. Seashells as a Substitute for Concrete

III. Synthesis

a. Conceptual literature review

I. Seashell

Seashells can be univalved, bivalved, or a series of plates.

Univalved or snails, bivalves or clams, and a series of plates or

chitons. are hard exoskeletons that have high calcium carbonate

content and some have aragonite or conchiolin. These can be seen

in the coastal regions or on the front beach, especially on a low

tide. These are sometimes used for decorations because of their

uniqueness and beauty. Conchology is the term for the collection of

seashells. Seashells continue to grow and through this, the age can

be determined by the experts or scientists. The texture of the

seashells also varies. Some seashells are smooth and polished

while some are rugged. The shapes and colors of the seashells

also have different variations. Some seashells are big, some are

small.

The colors of seashells can be a stark white to different

vibrant colors and patterns. Intricate arrangements of spines, folia,

ribs, cords, and grooves are used for ornamentations of seashells.

Some of the seashells use this for protection, added strength, and

assist in burrowing or digging a hole in the ground. Seashells have

been collected by people for a long period of time for different

purposes. They usually live for a long time and scientists use them

to identify the changes in the oceans.

The chemical composition of seashells is the one that

determines their density, color, and strength. It will describe and

determine the chemical and physical properties of the material. The

seashells are composed of the following chemical compositions:

silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO),

magnesium oxide (MgO), sodium oxide (Na2O), potassium oxide

(K2O), water (H2O), and loss in ignition.

Oxide Percentage (%)

SiO2 1.60

Al2O3 0.92

CaO 51.56

MgO 1.43

Na2O 0.08

K2O 0.06

H2O 0.31

LOI 41.84
Table 3.1. Chemical Compositions of Seashell. Source from

Mechanical Properties of Seashell Concrete by Olivia, Mifshella,

Darmayanti (2015).
1. Types of Seashells Usually Used as Partial Replacement for

Cement

Cockle Shells

Cockle shells, Cerastoderma edule, are edible clams

that have high calcium carbonate and aragonite polymorphic

forms. Aragonite is one of the naturally occurring polymorphs

of calcium carbonate. The usage of cockle shells lessened

its environmental impact since these took a long time to

decay.

Figure 3.1.1. Cockle Shells

https://www.livestrong.com/article/462564-the-nutritional-info

rmation-for-cockles/

Clam Shells

Clamshells can be seen beneath the seafloor to hide

from the predators and manage to go there using one foot.

They open their shells a little to maneuver using their feet.

These are also called 'quahogs' and have two siphons, one

for filtering algae and the other for spitting the algae. The

clams can also live for centuries. Its age can be determined

by counting the spiral lines on it.

Figure 3.1.2. Clam Shells

https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.scalesandshells.com/bl

og/clams%3fformat=amp

Oyster Shell

Oyster shell, with a scientific name Ostreidae, is a

bivalve that many people are fond of eating. The average

lifespan of oysters is up to 20 years. Oysters vary in size

from about 3 inches to 14 inches. The oysters are commonly

found in beds or reefs in the ocean and can produce pearls.

The common color of oyster shells is whitish-gray. The

ground oyster contains pozzolanic chemical compounds that

consist of lime, alumina, and silicon compounds which

makes it suitable as a raw material for making cement and

concrete.

Figure 3.1.3. Oyster Shells

https://simplyoysters.com/oyster-shells

Periwinkle

Periwinkle has a scientific name of Littorina Littorrea,

and its shell can grow up to 3 centimeters (cm) long. They

have tentacles on their head that they use to taste and see.

Periwinkle can breathe underwater but they cannot swim.

They move using their feet that can be seen outside the

shell. They eat algae using their radula or a tongue-like

structure that has thousands of tiny teeth on it.

 Figure 3.1.4. Periwinkle Shells

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/periwinkles-fast-facts.htm

Snail Shell

Snail shells are considered waste from restaurants

and are thrown in empty lands. The cement has a pozzolanic

nature that the snail shell also possesses. This pozzolanic

nature has high durability which results in lengthened life of

the concrete and less maintenance.

Figure 3.1.5. Snail Shell

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Snail-Shells-Locally-sour

ced_fig1_341180442
 Green Mussel Shell

Green mussel (Perna Viridis) shell locally known as

tahong has also high calcium that enables it to be one of the

raw materials of biomaterials. They are often seen in coastal

areas, mangroves, and river mouths. They grow about 8 cm

in length at maximum.

Figure 3.1.6. Green Mussel Shell

www.bugwood.org Copyright: CC BY-NC 3.0

II. Cement

Cement is a hydraulic binder that is used in the process of

making concrete. Cement is a fine powdery substance that is

composed of limestone, sand or clay, bauxite, and iron ore. Cement

paste or cement mixed with water hardens when it sets which is the

reason why the building materials are bound. Centuries ago,

human civilization used volcanic ashes, crushed pottery, burnt

gypsum, and hydrated lime as their cement to build concrete.

James Parker was the first person who patented Roman cement in

the 18th century. Later on, in the 1850s, Roman Cement was
replaced by Portland cement, and the foundation for the chemical

composition was released by Frenchman Louis Vicat in the 19th

century. Egor Cheliev was the one who published the uses and

advantages and the process of making cement in Russia. William

Aspdin, son of Joseph Aspdin who introduced the Portland cement

in England’s market, developed the modern Portland cement. Isaac

Charles Johnson is considered the Father of Portland Cement due

to his contribution to the process of developing meso-Portland

cement in the kiln.

1. Cement’s Standard Specifications

There are eight (8) specifications of cement according

to the ASTM Standard Specification for Portland Cement

(ASTM C150) which are as follows:

Under the Standard Performance Specification for

Hydraulic Cement (ASTM C1157), the specifications of

Portland cement can also be:

a. Type I

This is also known as “ordinary Portland

cement” which is the standard product that is widely

used that has no restriction on the proportions of the

major oxides ( CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3).

b. Type II
 This is also called the modern-heat cement.

There is a limitation on composition in Type II and

because of that, the resistance to sulfate attack is

only moderate.

c. Type III

Using the Type I clinker, high-early-strength

Portland cement is produced more finely and/or by

changing its composition.

d. Type IV

This type is produced in limited places only.

This type is the low-heat Portland cement or for the

low heat of hydration.

e. Type V

This type is used when the desired outcome

has high sulfate resistance that has appropriate limits

on composition.

Under the Standard Performance Specification for

Hydraulic Cement (ASTM C1157), the specifications of

Portland cement can also be:

Type GU General Use

Type HE High Early Strength

Type MS Moderate Sulfate Resistance

TypeHS High Sulfate Resistance

Type MH Moderate Heat of Hydration

Type LH Low Heat of Hydration

Figure 3.2.2. Standard Specifications for Cement. Source from American

Concrete Institute from

https://concrete.org/tools/frequentlyaskedquestions.aspx?faqid=672

2. Physical Properties of Cement

A good cement can be determined by its physical

properties. A good cement can be determined through its

fineness, sound, consistency, strength, setting time, heat of

hydration, loss of ignition, bulk density, and specific gravity.

The fineness of a good cement will be achieved when the

clinker is ground. In determining the soundness of a good

cement, it should not shrink upon hardening and its volume

should retain.

There are two tests that can ensure the soundness of

the cement since the unsoundness of cement may take a

few years before it appears. These two tests are the Le

Chatelier Test and the Autoclave Test. Le Chatelier Test uses

Le Chatelier Apparatus. The lime is used to test the

expansion of the cement. In this test, the cement paste with

normal consistency is submerged in water for 24 hours at

20+1°C and is placed between glass slides. It is taken out

then the distance between the indicators is measured then it

is brought to boil the water for about 25-30 minutes and

boiled for an hour. The device is then cooled, the distance

between indicator points is measured and the distance

should not exceed 10 mm. The Autoclave Test uses a

high-pressure steam vessel where the cement paste is

placed. It was kept in the autoclave for 3 hours and was

slowly brought to 2.03 MPa. The length of the specimen is

measured in the Autoclave Test and is expressed in

percentage. In the Autoclave Test, the maximum autoclave

expansion of a good cement is 0.80%

The consistency of cement is measured through the

Vicat Test. The Vicat Test uses the Vicat Apparatus to put

the cement paste (normal consistency). The device’s plunger

is lowered so it can make contact or touch the cement’s top

surface. The consistency of the cement is important because

the depth of penetration of the plunger depends on it. The

plunger should penetrate 10±1 mm to have a normal

consistency.

The strength of cement is measured or tested by its

compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength.

Compressive strength is the most common test among the

three where a test specimen is applied to a compress until

its failure. The tensile strength is not commonly used now

since it does not have any useful information but was used

during the early years. The flexural strength uses a

40x40x160 mm cement mortar beam which in the center

point is loaded, again, until failure.

In the process of making cement, the cement will set

and will harden when the water is added. The setting time of

cement, when water is added, will vary depending on the

fineness of the cement, the ratio of water and cement,

chemical content, and its admixtures. There should be two

sets of setting times for cement. The first one is the initial set

which occurs within 30-45 minutes when the cement paste

starts to stiffen and the second set or the final set is when

the cement hardens below 10 hours.

When adding water to cement, there is a reaction

called hydration which generates heat that can affect the

cement’s quality. When the generated heat is high, it can

cause undesired stress. The loss of ignition is the loss of

weight when heated. The longer the storage, the more

chance it may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation. The

density of cement should be 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot

(lb/in3). The specific gravity of Portland cement is 3.15 and

other cement has 2.90.

b. Research Literature Review

Demand for Cement in the Industry of the Philippines

The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) enforced the

anti-dumping duty on December 6, 2021, for imports from Vietnam.

According to the LawPhil Project, the Anti-Dumping Act of 1999 stated that

“It is hereby declared the policy of the State to protect domestic

enterprises against unfair foreign competition and trade practices.

Towards this end, substantive and procedural remedies available to

domestic enterprises shall be strengthened and made responsive to

recent developments in world trade.” The DTI implemented the following

rates for the cement: Type 1, 2.7% to 31.9% of the export price, and for

Type 1P, 3.8% to 29.2% of the export price. According to DTI, for every

40-kilo bag of cement for the import cost, the change in rate will add about

P2.01 to P25.08. According to Oplas (2022) in BusinessWorld, the

production of cement is insufficient to supply the demand for up to 35

million metric tons (MMT) since the Philippines’ domestic production is

only about 24 to 26 MMT.

Seashell Ashes as a Replacement for Cement and Additional Mineral

Filler

The study conducted by Wang et al. (2019) is titled

Characterization on the Recycling Waste Seashells with Portland Cement

Towards Sustainable Cementitious Materials. In this study, seashell ashes

were studied as a replacement for cement and additional mineral filler.

According to this study, the workability of the fresh mixture will improve

using the seashell waste powder. The amount of cement that can be

replaced by seashell powder is reduced by 7%, 20%, 33%, and 50% of

the fresh mixtures are 5%, 10%, 20%, and 40%. In this study, it is also

stated that the seashell powder can reduce the heat of hydration because

of lessened cement content. The water content should also be reduced in

proportion to fully utilized seashell powder or ash when replacing cement.

When the seashell ashes were used as an additional filler, the mechanical

strength of the hardened cement was improved. The seashell ash

improved the workability, mechanical strength, and hydration processes

than the limestone powder.

Machine Using Seashells

In the study by De Guzman et al. (2018), conducted at the

Batangas State University, entitled Design and Development of Chalk

Making Machine Using Seashells, the researchers used cockle shells that

have high calcium carbonate and were crushed manually. These were put

in the feeder and the grinding speed was tested. After grinding the cockle

ashes were placed in the aluminum funnel and strainer to sift and make

sure that these were ground in the desired sizes. In the agitator mixer, the

cockle ashes were placed together with the plaster of Paris and water.
They tested four mixture proportions that are 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, and

80:20. The first one is 50% of the ground cockle seashell and 50% of

Plaster of Paris. The second one is 60% of the ground cockle seashells

and 40% of Plaster of Paris. The third one is 70% of ground cockle

seashells and 30% of Plaster of Paris. The last one is 80% ground cockle

seashells and 20% Plaster of Paris.

Seashell Ash as a Partial Replacement for Cement

In building a structure, concrete is one of the most important

materials that will be used. To make concrete, cement, fine and coarse

aggregate, water, chemical, and mineral admixtures are needed.

According to the study of Mohammad et al. (2017), the Development of

Seashell Ash as a Partial Replacement for Cement produces almost the

same size or even finer than traditional cement. Seashell ash as a partial

replacement for cement will produce better output than traditional cement

based on its specific gravity, strength, and chemical composition. Written

in their study, when mussel shells when replaced with coarse aggregate in

concrete, their tensile strength will increase by 5%. The oyster shell when

used in cement-based brick, the compressive strength will increase by

15% and the cockle shells when replaced with the coarse aggregate in

concrete, the compressive strength will increase by 20%.

Seashells as a Substitute for Concrete

It was noted in the work of Mutusva, T. (2015), that implementing

seashells in the concrete mix can be used to produce lightweight concrete

with high strength and lesser density. The primary objective of this

research endeavor is to comprehensively examine the potential benefits

and implications of incorporating seashells into the process of concrete

production with the overarching aim of enhancing the overall strength

characteristics of the resultant concrete material. To achieve this objective,

an extensive array of experiments and tests were meticulously conducted,

encompassing assessments of compressive strength, flexural strength,

and split tensile strength. These evaluations were systematically carried

out using various combinations of seashell proportions, which served as

partial replacements for traditional coarse aggregate components.

Additionally, the study scrutinized the effects of different curing periods,

including durations of 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days, to gain valuable

insights into the time-dependent behavior of the seashell-infused concrete

specimens. Furthermore, a critical aspect of this investigation involved the

determination of the optimal percentages at which seashell replacements

should be introduced in order to achieve specific target strengths, thus

contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the concrete mix

design process in the presence of seashells as a key component.

Consequently, the findings revealed a low density caused by an increase

in the amount of seashells and a high strength value obtained for 20%

replacement. It was found that adding seashells to the concrete mix can

result in strong, lightweight concrete.

c. Synthesis

The conceptual and research literature cited in this research is

used by the researcher as a supplement that can help in attaining

knowledge and information about seashells as a partial replacement for

cement and other topics related to it. The conceptual literature discussed

the seashell and the types that are usually used in making a partial

replacement for cement and the cement and its specification and physical

properties. The research literature review gave information about the

demand for cement in the Philippines, seashell ashes as a replacement

for cement and additional mineral filler, machines using seashells,

seashell ash as a replacement for cement, and seashells as a substitute

for concrete.

The similarity of the study of Wang et al. (2019) to this study is that

both study’s scope is using the seashell ashes as a partial replacement for

cement. Their study also tackled the seashell as an additional filler. This

study will exceed the scope of their study since this will also tackle the

machine that will create the ground seashells into a partial replacement for

cement.

The study by De Guzman et al. (2018) which is the Design and

Development of Chalk Making Machine Using Seashells talks about the

processes of making chalk out of seashells and other additives. The

process starts from crushing the cockle seashell to molding the raw
material to make chalk. This study will have a similar process just like their

study except for the molding since the last step of making cement is

burning or cooking it with the additives.

The study by Mohammad et al. (2017) tackled the different types of

seashells that acted as a partial replacement for cement. The study of

Mohammad et al. (2017) helped this study with the information on what

seashells are suitable as a partial replacement for cement and how much

percentage the seashells will change to the physical properties of the

cement.

The study by Mutusva (2015) discussed the seashells as a

substitute for concrete. The study also discussed the physical properties

of the seashell. The study resulted in the conclusion that having seashells

in the concrete will result in lightweight and strong concrete.

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https://concrete.org/tools/frequentlyaskedquestions.aspx?faqid=672

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