Unit 11 System Control

Objectives
To
• Understand the reasons for system control, basic control
principles, and elements of a control system;
• Be able to explain common control processes in HVAC
operations;
• Appreciate the importance of the integration of building
systems and operation for quality services and low running
costs;
• Understand the process of decision making at initial design
stage;
• Understand the concept of a mixed mode system;
• Comment on the advantages and disadvantages of a mixed
mode design compared to natural ventilation and total air
conditioning.

Main contents
Control principles
The needs for control
Control theory and algorithm
Control element
Mix mode ventilation
Design principle
Operation control
Example
Mix mode control

Other readings
CIBSE Mixed Mode Ventilation, AM13 2000
CIBSE Guide H: Building control systems
Max-Fordham: April 2004, Renewable Energy Systems Head Office
and Visitors’ Facilities - Final and Publishable Technical Report.

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11.1 Introduction
It has been a battle to maintain quality indoor conditions and keep
costs low at the same time. This is even so when cutting down
energy consumption and carbon emissions have become a
paramount concern for the construction industry. This unit is an
introduction to building system control, a rather large field of its own
that covers multiple disciplines such as building design, system
automation, electric and electronic engineering, and artificial
intelligence.

Studies and cases have shown that maintaining indoor comfort

levels and convenience with minimal energy consumption can be
achieved by

• Attention to building design, such as orientation, shape &

glazing to optimise the availability of passive solar heating &
natural daylight
• High standards of fabric insulation and air-tightness.
• Use of high efficiency plants, including boilers, heat emitters,
chillers, and heat exchangers and lighter devices that are
carefully designed, sized and matched to the building
requirements
• Maximum use of day lighting, natural ventilation, passive
cooling, solar heating to minimise the need for artificial
cooling, lighting, ventilation, and heating.
• Minimise energy demand by avoiding over-design which leads
to high air charge rates. Use ‘passive’ before ‘active’ solutions
by giving preference to natural ventilation
• Advanced monitoring & effective controls through good
zoning, time control, and variable supply to minimise waste.

These suggest that the efforts should be to integrates building,

system and operation

Minimise energy demand by avoiding over-design which leads to

high air change rates use ‘passive’ before ‘active’ solutions by giving
preference to natural ventilation

11.2 System control

11.2.1 Need for control

Most automatic system needs control mechanism. It is to

• Stablise the operation of the whole systems, including

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– all modules in the system, such as heating, ventilation,

air condition, solar shading, fire/smoke detecting and
so on
– the building, such as indoor air quality, thermal comfort,
lighting level and so on
• Monitor constantly the performance of all these system
elements and detect/diagnose faults or malfunctions promptly
• Minimise labor cost and safety risk.
• Optimise operation efficiency and energy conservation

11.2.2 Basic control unit

Control can be done either mechanically or electromagnetically.

Figure 11.1 shows a cistern water charging system. The control
objective is to maintain a full tank of water. Two control variables are
involved, the first one, the water level, is “monitored” by a float and
use for “decision making”, as it is a quantitative variable to measure
the quantity of water. The other variable being controlled is the
recharging water flow rate: when the tank is full and the water level
reaches defined level, the float rises to push close the valve for the
water inlet.

water
water inlet valve
supply
pipe
float
water
water

full tank recharging

Figure 11.1 A simplest mechanical control example: a toil cistern.

Most automatic systems use electric and electronic devices, and the
monitored and processed are electronic signals. Sensors convert
variables into signals, and actuators transfer control signals into
mechanical actions. The brain of the system is a micro processor
that is programmable. Fig 11.6 is an automatic solar shading device
for an office building. A clock sets the system to work for all occupied
hours during working days. The sun tracker detects the presence
and position of the sun. A mini weather station records weather data.
All the signals are processed by a pre-programmed micro processor.
It controls a step motor that turn the louvres into the best position
that miximises solar shading and minimises view blocking.

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shadin
weather
g
sensors sun
tracker
view

switches view

clock
step
motor
Micro processor & control

Figure 11.2 A solar shading lourves system.

Therefore a control system is a device or set of devices used to

monitor, manage, command, or regulate the functions of other
devices or systems and it consists of

• Sensors, which monitor and recording the variable to be

controlled. The water level in the example of water cistern.

• Control unit, which processes the signals received by the

sensors, determines the actions to take accordingly, such as
the level bar in the cistern, transferring the water level to the
act of stopping or opening the water valve.

• Actuators, the devices that carry out the designated tasks.

The valve in the cistern.

• Connections that link all three parts together, such as wires, or

wireless, or other mechanical systems

11.2.3 Basic control theory – logic control

All the control systems discussed, including the one in the

introduction have a typical logic or feedback control.
In the example, a thermostat is a simple negative-feedback control:
when the temperature, the "variable" monitored by a sensor goes
below a set point (SP), the heater, as an actuator, is switched on to
heat the room and raise the temperature.
The sensors are the device that measures the physical variables of
the controlled environment, such as room temperature, pressure,
species concentration, lighting intensity, humidity, flow velocity, and
so on, whist the actuators can be switches, valves, pumps, fans and
other equipments that can affect the variables being monitored and
controlled.

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As the central part, the control unit is often a micro processor, which
can be programmed. It collects signals from sensors and carries out
data analysis and makes decisions for actuators to perform one or a
series of specific tasks. The program is written according to an
algorithm to realise a control.
The actuators may comprise of a few devices in sequence to perform
the specific task. In the central heating system, it consists of a boiler,
a pump, valves, radiators. Together they perform the heating task.
This will be discussed in detail in the next section.

controller

Sensors
- Temperature Actuators:
- Pressure monitoring plants
- Switches
- Photocells - Pumps
- Radiation - Fans
- Gas sensors - Motors
- Moisture sensors controlled environment
- Dampers
- MC Codes - Lourves
- readers - Blinds
- Image analysers - Sprinklers
(AI) - Alarms

Figure 11.3 A control system

system Control Variable Control unit Actuator Variable altered
objective monitored
cistern maintain Water level level mechanism valve Water flow out of the
water valve
volume
central room Room thermostat Heating switch or hot Heat output
heating temperature temperature water pump+ boiler
switch
shading solar Sun presence Micro processor Step motor Louver angle
device shading & position

11.2.4 Basic control theory – sequential control

This is very simple one: controlled by a timer. Sequential tasks are

carried out as a series of a specified time, each for a specified
duration. A typical such control is a washing machine. It can set to
start at a specific time; a series of tasks, such as feeding detergent,
washing, rinsing and so on. Each of them is carried out for a preset
duration.

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11.3 Control modules

A BMS normally comprises a few single function systems, known as

modules. Each of these modules carries out a specific function, such
as heating, lighting, solar shading, fire alarm, sprinklers, and so on.

11.3.1 Common components

As mentioned above, common components in a control systems are

sensors, including those for temperature, pressures, humidity and
species concentrations, and actuators, such as switches, valves,
dampers, fans, pumps, and motors. Conventionally they are
presented in drawings or diagrams by the signs shown in Figure 11.4

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Figure 11.4 Common signs in control design

Sensors

The most common sensor that monitors control variables are

temperature sensors, such as a thermistor. The resistance of a
thermistor varies with the ambient temperature, which results in a
changing of voltage. This is the signal the control system takes to
process in a controller.

Other sensors include pressure sensors, humidity sensors, and

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species concentration sensors. Their principles are same: convert a

variable, such as temperature, pressure, humidity and so on into an
electrical signal, which could be processed by the controller.

Actuators

An actuator is a device that carries out one or a series of specific

acts that affect the controlled variable. It can be a damper that
controls the ventilation rate, or a valve that control hot water flow rate
and consequently the heating supply.

Controller

A controller is a device, very often an electronic chip, a micro

processor that receives signal inputs, interprets this data and
produces an output signal for a certain action to be taken. A
controller can be a single function unit, such as a thermostat, or a
micro-processor which can be programmed and also be able to store
data.

Control algorithms

A control algorithm is programed into the controller to perform data

processing, which includes analysing the signals from the sensors,
and sending instructions to the actuators to perform the pre-specified
actions.

Figure 11.5 shows a simplest control algorithm, in which, the

temperature signal, the analogue data is taken by a sensor to the
controller, the algorithm responds by sending two type of signal: on
and off. When indoor air temperature is low, the controller sends an
instruction “on” to start the heating. When the air temperature rises
over the upper level of the set-point, the controller turns “off” the
heating. This algorithm ensures a stable indoor air temperature
temperature

tu

tl

on
off

Figure 11.5 Indoor temperature control

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11.3.2 heating control

Figure 11.6 shows a simple space heating system, comprising of

• two radiators, to provide heating for the room;
• a boiler, to provide hot water as the media to heat the
radiators,
• a pump, to drive the flow in the circuit;
• pipework to carry the water flow (thick lines).
• sensors, to measure the temperature in the outdoor air, room,
and the water from the radiators
• a control unit, which is simple thermal stat
• wires (thin lines)

Ratio Adjustment
90

80
Water Flow Temperature

70

60

50

40

30

20
0 5 10 15 20
Outside Air Temperature

Figure 11.6 A control system of domestic central heating

The control is done by firstly taking the signal from the outdoor
temperature sensor, to adjust the temperature of the boiler flow,
sensed by sensor 3, through the controller which sets the burner in
the boiler on and off.

The temperature sensor 2, monitors room temperature, this turns the

pump on/off through the control, to heat the space when the
temperature drops below the set point and stop the heating when the
temperature goes over the set point.

In the simple control in Figure12.6 where two-position control is

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used, the decision is simple, as shown below.

Condition Decision
Temperature at or above set-point Heater off
Temperature below set-point Heater on

The decisions made by the system may link conditions in the

sensors through the use of AND and OR statements. Hence there is
some form of data processing needed, but there is still no facility to
record the input data, outdoor and indoor conditions, running hours,
flow rates, temperature or energy use. A data recording system can
record the details of operation information. This data would help to
optimise the operation efficiency and improve control quality.

Also this system is for a constantly occupied space, such as a

nursing home. For offices and other periodically occupied spaces, a
clock is built into the control to create two modes during the 24
hours, and for weekdays and weekends. All the procedures activate
only during the occupied hours.

As the control unit is pre-programmed, it should be modifiable by the

actual user to adjust the control, say, the room temperature,
occupied hours and so on. The modification can be done at two
levels. One by the designated building manager or facility manager,
or the other by a specific user to modify the local control.

Obviously the control unit also has a memory function to store data,
and the control

11.3.3 Ventilation

Ventilation control can be rather complicated, when natural

ventilation is involved, such as a mixed mode ventilation system.
Figure 11.6 shows a simple ventilation and heat system, which is
used in a lecture theatre or similar rooms with high occupant density,
in a location with mild summer and cold winter.

Due to high occupancy density, the space needs ventilation primarily

for fresh air supply and indoor body odour removal. During the winter,
the indoor air temperature can be lower than a comfortable standard,
then heating is needed. Therefore there are two sensors in the room,
one for temperature and the other for CO2 concentration.

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Figure 11.6 Heating and ventilation system and control

11.3.4 AHU

Air handling unit (known as air handler in US) comprise of a fan, a

filter, one or more heating coils or heaters, a cooling coil or cooler.
Each of these elements performs a specific function and all of them
are controlled by a programmable micro processor. Figure 12.7 show
both the control scheme and a graphic user interface control panel
on a BMS (TREND, UK)

a) the schematic control diagram of the air handling unit

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B) the graphic user interface (GUI) control panel of the BMS

Figure 11.7 A real AHU providing ventilation, heating and cooling

(Beaufort Court, Renewable Energy Systems Ltd, UK)

There are four flow circuits in the system:

• airflow, driven by two fans, controlled by dampers, and
running in the ducts linking the outdoor, AHU and the room
being conditioned;

In some other VAV systems fans can be controlled by

convertors to vary their speeds. This measure can reduce
waste of the energy for the fans. Therefore there is
connection between the fans with the main controller too.

• chill water flow, from chiller in cooling plant room, controlled

by a motorised valve;

Refrigeration is controlled by the two motorised valves in the

diagram. In addition the refrigeration plant is also connected
into this control loop.

• hot water flows in two sets of heaters;

There are two sets of heaters in this circuit. One is provided

by low grade hot water coming from solar heaters. As solar
heating is not stable, the second heater is to provide
complimentary heating when the solar heating is insufficient.

• electronic signals, either by wire circuits or wireless, receive

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monitoring signals from the sensors and delivering control

messages from MC controllers.

The graphic user interface provides easy operation over the system.
System status is shown for all elements such as fans and valves.
Meter readings are displayed too for the air temperature at various
stages in the circuit, as well as water temperature for incoming flows
and return flows. This data is processed to give the actual cooling
and heating input.

11.4.3 Overall system

The system shown in Figure 12.7 is one of many modules in the

BMS. There are modules for various functions, such as
• a boiler control to achieve best efficiency on heat output for
various demands of the building,
• chill water pumped from a borehole to cool the cooling coil in
the AHU;
• roof lights control, to allow natural ventilation to remove heat
in summer,
• access from remote users, such as the contractor who
commissioned the installation.
• display on a website for promotion of energy awareness and
other good practise to general public.
• Spare connection for future development.

To integrate all these modules a tree structure is normally used

(Figure 11.8). System integration is also one of the key measures
used to maximise the benefits of a BMS and achieve optimal
operation.

Figure 11.8 An integrated system (tree)

Other possible modules included or to be included are:

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– Lighting and blinds control system,

– Communication system,
– Office automation system,
– Security access system,
– Fire alarm system,
– Smoke ventilation system
– Emergency lighting system
– Generic cabling system.

11.4 Control for mixed mode

11.4.1 Mixed mode

Mixed mode is a strategy in designing a HVAC system. Its main idea

is to use natural ventilation as much as possible to remove indoor
contaminants and heat. Mechanical ventilation, heating and cooling
are only used when natural ventilation is either unavailable or
insufficient. A good mixed mode can significantly cut energy
consumption but it is as a consequence of good building design,
system control, careful consideration in commissioning and handover,
and fine turning in operation that overall energy use is reduced.

Theoretically whenever the outdoor air has a temperature lower than

the upper level of the set point, natural ventilation should be pursued.
Moreover, significant evidence suggests that occupants can tolerate
a higher indoor temperature, even up to 26~28˚C in natural
ventilated buildings. Therefore Mixed Mode has been highly
recommended by CIBSE for buildings in the UK. It should also be
considered in locations where there are mild seasons during a year.

As discussed in previous units, natural ventilation relies greatly on

building design, including orientation, plane and section design, and
the arrangement of openings, such as windows, doors, vents, roof
lights and so on. Many of them also affect architectural design and
form and others. Hence mixed mode has to be considered in the
early stage of planning and design, so that the factors that influence
natural ventilation can be considered and implemented at an early
stage.

11.4.2 Decisions at design stage

Modern buildings, particularly offices, inevitably require services for

indoor air treatment due to the high density of indoor heat gains and
the release of contaminants. Provision of these services can be
designed and operated in various ways. Good design and

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appropriate operation can ensure quality services with low energy

and low running costs.

As a guide for decision making at initial design stage, the flowchart in

Figure 12.9 show a series of considerations over a few key variables
and decisions made on building form, façade, fabric, ventilation
strategy, zoning, system option and so on.

Figure 11.9 Flowchart for development of a ventilation strategy

(CIBSE Guide for mix mode ventilation)

As both outdoor weather and indoor occupancy vary, a well designed

control algorithm is also essential to ensure each of the design
decision shown in the chart is correct and all systems respond
accordingly. Here, the HVAC system is integrated together with the
automatic system controlling the building elements, which alter
features of the buildings fabric and envelope to improve thermal
performance of the building itself and to run the services at their
most optimal operation. For example, the control system can open
windows, vents, ridge lights to maximise natural ventilation that can
remove indoor heat during mild seasons, or during night time.

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Mechanical ventilation is added as a backup when natural ventilation

is insufficient to achieve acceptable indoor comfort.

This approach is increasingly used in large buildings particularly in so

called intelligent buildings. A successful mixed mode design needs to
be well integrated with the building fabric, services and controls
which work together to provide a good working environment and
value for money for the buildings occupant and owner.

Integrating design of the building, systems and control has been

recommended by professional organisations, such as CIBSE as a
best practise to start a building project. Such integration requires
collaboration among all practitioners, including services engineers
who should join the design team with the client and architect at the
start and throughout the whole design process, commissioning and
the initial operation of the system.

11.4.3 Mixed mode strategies

Mixed mode solutions can be widely varied. There are three main
design approaches, namely contingency, complementary and zoned.

Contingency Approach

In this approach, buildings are carefully designed primarily for natural

ventilation and selective additions of mechanical ventilation and
cooling systems can be added where needed at a later date. A
building relying on natural ventilation uses its fabric, as windows and
vents and openings, and thermal mass as the main modifier of the
indoor climate, but a strategy for adaptation with the addition of
mechanical systems is built in. This kind of contingency approach
provides the building with the ability to adapt to possible unforeseen
uses. Building costs are also lower with naturally ventilated buildings
because money does not need to be spent on mechanical
components, this money can be used to improve the buildings fabric.
There will also be less demand for energy consumption especially
electricity reducing CO2 emissions reducing the buildings
environmental impact.

Complimentary Approach:

Complementary mixed mode ventilation is simply a combination of a

natural ventilation system and a mechanical system designed for
integrated operation to provide thermal comfort in either passive
(natural system in operation) or active (mechanical system in
operation) modes. The main objective in this design is to optimise

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the use of the complimentary passive and active features. For the
building to work to its optimum level of efficiency the mechanical
system should change seamlessly from the passive mode and vice
versa, maintaining a good internal environment with minimum energy
use. The complementary system has many positive benefits
including the ability to deal with large cooling loads in the building,
large amounts of flexibility to allow greater depth of floor plans and
the potential energy cost saving. To optimise this system the benefits
of a balance of the passive and active features needs to be met.

There are three main modes in which the complementary mixed

mode system works, these are; mechanical ventilation only,
mechanical ventilation with cooled air and mechanical cooling only.

The use of mechanical ventilation only is firstly to provide adequate

levels of fresh air to the building when natural ventilation is
insufficient, and secondly to cool the building when the outdoor air is
cool.

Once the means of ventilation naturally or mechanical are

inadequate to cool the building and provide fresh air the
mechanically ventilated air is cooled and then introduced into the
building.

Mechanical cooling only is intended for use when natural ventilation

is sufficient in fresh air supply but insufficient for cooling. Hence it is
used to compliment the natural cooling system. There are two means
of providing mechanical cooling only. The first is by direct cooling
which can be provided by chilled ceilings, chilled beams or chilled
radiators that will exchange heat with the high temperature natural
ventilated air when contact is made. The other way is by powered
systems like fan coil units and refrigeration system that work similarly
to air conditioning systems.

Zoned Approach:

Zoned design allows for different service strategies to operate in

different parts of a building, for example a naturally ventilated office
with an air-conditioned computer room and mechanically ventilated
kitchen and restaurant. This kind of system allows a wider range of
ventilation and cooling systems to be used in one building, as parts
of the building are different in functions and conditions and require
different environmental treatments. A simplest example of this would
be a large open plan office area with operable windows for natural
ventilation around the perimeter and with a mechanical ventilation
system in the core of the area.

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11.5 Example: Beaufort Court

This building was previously a farm house for hams in Egg Farm and
had been refurbished into a headquarters office for Renewable
Energy Systems Ltd. To reflect the company’s many business
activities and their environmental concerns, the building has many
sustainable features to match its owner’s initiative and engagement
in sustainable development, including renovation of a rural farm
building into a high standard modern office, widespread use of clean
and renewable energy and a high degree of integration and control
over various services systems.

As the site is near a busy motor way (M25), the windows on the
outer-side wall are sealed to avoid high level traffic noise. The
ventilation is achieved by stack effect in summer through the high
level operable window panels on the inner-side wall and dorm
windows, operable roof lights and most importantly the motorised
ridge lights on the first floor. As the two levels are linked, the offices
are naturally ventilated most the time during a year. In summer when
outdoor air is hot and the openings are shut, mechanical cooling is
provided in two levels. The first is by the cool air supply from AHU
and the second is by the chilled condensers.

Figure 11.10 Schematic diagram of a cross section of the building

and zoned mix mode ventilation strategy in summer operation.

In winter all openings are shut, the AHU supplies warm air. At each
inlet, the water coils can provide extra heating during extremely cold
days.

The operation of the AHU, the coils, chilled condensers and ridge
lights are controlled by a central BMS system, and personal control

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panel. Control variables are outside ambient temperature, rain and

indoor temperature in each zone in the building. During the office
hours, the outdoor and indoor air temperature is compared. If the
outdoor is cooled and no rain, the ridge lights are fully open to allow
warm air to escape.

The offices on the outer-side of the building have no operable

windows and therefore are mechanically ventilated and cooled. The
offices on the inner-side and the office on the top floor are primarily
naturally ventilated and back up by mechanical ventilation, heating
and cooling.

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Questions and outline answers

Q10.1 Explain what are the three elements to start a fire inside a
building and discuss how

Answer outline

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