Finding the Answers to the Research the positive or negative response to a question.

Questions Coding is helpful in structuring and labeling the data.

Lesson 1- Data Analysis Method 4. Identifying patterns and connections: Once the
data is coded, the research can start identifying
What is the first thing that comes to mind when we themes, looking for the most common responses to
see data? The first instinct is to find patterns, questions, identifying data or patterns that can
connections, and relationships. We look at the data answer research questions, and finding areas that
to find meaning in it. can be explored further.

Similarly, in research, once data is collected, Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

the next step is to get insights from it. For example, if Several methods are available to analyze qualitative
a clothing brand is trying to identify the latest trends data. The most commonly used data analysis
among young women, the brand will first reach out to methods are:
young women and ask them questions relevant to  Content analysis: This is one of the most
the research objective. After collecting this common methods to analyze qualitative data. It is
information, the brand will analyze that data to used to analyze documented information in the form
identify patterns — for example, it may discover that of texts, media, or even physical items. When to use
most young women would like to see more variety of this method depends on the
jeans. Data analysis is how researchers go from a research questions. Content analysis is usually used
mass of data to meaningful insights. There are many to analyze responses from interviewees.
different data analysis methods, depending on the  Narrative analysis: This method is used to
type of research. analyze content from various sources, such as
interviews of respondents, observations from the
Here are a few methods you can use to analyze field, or surveys. It focuses on using the stories and
quantitative and qualitative data. experiences shared by people to answer the
research questions.
Analyzing Qualitative Data  Framework analysis. This is more advanced
Qualitative data analysis works a little method that consists of several stages such as
differently from quantitative data, primarily because familiarization, identifying a thematic framework,
qualitative data is made up of words, observations, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.
images, and even symbols. Deriving absolute  Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis,
meaning from such data is nearly impossible; hence, discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions
it is mostly used for exploratory research. While in with people. However, it focuses on analyzing the
quantitative research there is a clear distinction social context in which the communication between
between the data preparation and data analysis the researcher and the respondent occurred.
stage, analysis for qualitative research often begins Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent’s
as soon as the data is available. day-today environment and uses that information
during analysis.
Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis  Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative
Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and data to explain why a certain phenomenon
include the following steps: happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar
1. Getting familiar with the data: Since most cases in different settings and using the data to
qualitative data is just words, the researcher should derive causal explanations. Researchers
start by reading the data several times to get familiar may alter the explanations or create new ones as
with it and start looking for basic observations or they study more cases until they arrive at an
patterns. This also includes transcribing the data. explanation that fits all cases. These methods are
2. Revisiting research objectives: Here, the the ones used most commonly. However, other data
researcher revisits the research objective and analysis methods, such as conversational analysis,
identifies the questions that can be answered are also available.
through the collected data.
3. Developing a framework: Also known as coding Qualitative data analysis can also be conducted
or indexing, here the researcher identifies broad through the following three steps:
ideas, concepts, behaviors, or phrases and assigns Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes. Coding
codes to them. For example, coding age, gender, can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’
socio economic status, and even concepts such as can be a word or a short phrase that represents a
theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned group/observation/any other qualitative data
meaningful titles. A wide range of collection method with the findings of literature
non-quantifiable elements such as events, behaviors, review and discussing differences between them;
activities, meanings etc. can be coded.  Search for missing information – discussions
There are three types of coding: about which aspects of the issue was not mentioned
1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data by respondents, although you expected them to be
to try to make sense of it. mentioned;
2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the  Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary
categories of codes. research findings to phenomena from a different area
3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through and discussing similarities and differences.
connecting the categories. Coding can be done Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last stage
manually or using qualitative data analysis software you need to link research findings to hypotheses or
such as NVivo, Atlas ti 6.0, Hyper RESEARCH 2.8, research aim and objectives. When writing data
Max QDA and others. analysis chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations
When using manual coding you can use from the transcript in order to highlight major themes
folders, filing cabinets, wallets etc. to gather together within findings and possible contradictions. It is
materials that are examples of similar themes or important to note that the process of qualitative data
analytic ideas. Manual method of coding in analysis described above is general and different
qualitative data analysis is rightly considered as labor types of qualitative studies may require slightly
intensive, time-consuming and outdated. different methods of data analysis.
In computer-based coding, on the other hand,
physical files and cabinets are replaced with Analyzing Quantitative Data
computer based directories and files. When choosing Data Preparation
software for qualitative data analysis you need to The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation,
consider a wide range of factors such as the type where the aim is to convert raw data into something
and amount of data you need to analyze, time meaningful and readable. It includes some steps:
required to master the software and cost Step 1: Data Validation
considerations. The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as
Moreover, it is important to get confirmation from possible, whether the data collection was done as
your dissertation supervisor prior to application of per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a
any specific qualitative data analysis software. four step process, which includes…
 Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was
Qualitative Data Coding actually interviewed or not.
Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and  Screening, to make sure that respondents were
relationships. Unlike quantitative methods, in chosen as per the research criteria.
qualitative data analysis there are no universally  Procedure, to check whether the data collection
applicable techniques that can be applied to procedure was duly followed.
generate findings. Analytical and critical thinking  Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer
skills of asked the respondent all the questions, rather than
researcher plays significant role in data analysis in just a few required ones.
qualitative studies. Therefore, no qualitative study To do this, researchers would need to pick a random
can be repeated to generate the same results. sample of completed surveys and validate the
Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that collected data. (Note that this can be time-consuming
you can use to identify common themes, patterns for surveys with lots of responses.)
and relationships within responses of sample group For example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents
members in relation to codes that have been split into 2 cities. The researcher can pick a sample
specified in the previous stage. of 20 random respondents from each city. After this,
Specifically, the most popular and effective the researcher can reach out to them through email
methods of qualitative data interpretation include the or phone and check their responses to a certain set
following: of questions.
 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary
data for words and phrases most commonly used by Step 2: Data Editing
respondents, as well as, words and phrases used Typically, large data sets include errors. For
withunusual emotions; example, respondents may fill fields incorrectly or
 Primary and secondary data comparisons – skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are
comparing the findings of interview/focus no such errors, the researcher should conduct basic
data checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw percentage is a good way to show the gender
research data to identify and clear out any data distribution of respondents.
points that may hamper the accuracy of the results. Descriptive statistics are most helpful when
For example, an error could be fields that the research is limited to the sample and does not
were left empty by respondents. While need to be
editing the data, it is important to make sure to generalized to a larger population. For example, if
remove or fill all the empty fields. you are comparing the percentage of children
vaccinated in two different villages, then descriptive
Step 3: Data Coding statistics is enough.
This is one of the most important steps in data Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for
preparation. It refers to grouping and assigning analyzing single variable, it is often called univariate
values to responses from the survey. analysis.
For example, if a researcher has interviewed
1,000 people and now wants to find the average age Inferential Analysis
of the respondents, the researcher will create age These complex analyses show the complex
buckets and categorize the age of each of the relationships between multiple variables to
respondent as per these codes. (For example, generalize results and make predictions.
respondents between 13-15 years old would have Correlational –describes the relationship
their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.) between two variables.
 Regression – shows or predicts the relationship
Then during analysis, the researcher can deal between two variables
with simplified age brackets, rather than a massive  Analysis of Variance – tests the extent to which 2
range of individual ages. groups differ

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods Intellectual Honesty in Research

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The Intellectual Honesty is an applied method of
two most commonly used quantitative data analysis problem-solving, characterized by an unbiased,
methods are descriptive statistics and inferential honest attitude, which can be demonstrated in a
statistics. number of different ways including:
 Ensuring support for chosen ideologies does not
Descriptive Statistics interfere with the pursuit of truth;
Typically descriptive statistics (also known as  Relevant facts and information are not
descriptive analysis) is the first level of analysis. It purposefully omitted even when such things may
helps researchers summarize the data and find contradict one's hypothesis;
patterns. A few commonly used descriptive statistics  Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and
are: not twisted to give misleading impressions or to
Mean: numerical average of a set of values. support one view over another;
Median: midpoint of a set of numerical  References, or earlier work, are acknowledged
values. where possible, and plagiarism is avoided.
Mode: most common value among a set of
values. Ten Signs of Intellectual Honesty
Percentage: used to express how a value or
group of respondents within the 1. Do not overstate the power of your argument.
data relates to a larger group of respondents. One’s sense of conviction should be in proportion to
Frequency: the number of times a value is the level of clear evidence assessable by most. If
found. someone portrays their opponents as being stupid or
Range: the highest and lowest value in a set dishonest for disagreeing, intellectual dishonesty is
of values. probably in play. Intellectual honesty is most often
associated with humility, not arrogance.
Descriptive statistics provide absolute
numbers. However, they do not explain the rationale 2. Show willingness to publicly acknowledge that
or reasoning behind those numbers. Before applying reasonable alternative viewpoints exist. The
descriptive statistics, it’s important to think about alternative views do not have to be treated as equally
which one is best suited for your research question valid or powerful, but rarely is it the case that one
and what you want to show. For example, a and only one viewpoint has a complete
monopoly on reason and evidence.
 point or makes a good criticism, it demonstrates an
3. Be willing to publicly acknowledge and unwillingness to participate in the give-and-take that
question one’s own assumptions and biases. All characterizes an honest exchange.
of us rely on assumptions when applying our While no one is perfect, and even those who
worldview to make sense of the data about the world. strive for intellectual honesty can have a bad day,
And all of us bring various biases to the table. simply be on the lookout for how many and how
often these criteria apply to someone. In the arena of
4. Be willing to publicly acknowledge where your public discourse, it is not intelligence or knowledge
argument is weak. Almost all arguments have weak that matters most – it is whether you can trust the
spots, but those who are trying to sell an ideology will intelligence or knowledge of another.
have great difficulty with this point and would rather After all, intelligence and knowledge can sometimes
obscure or downplay any weak points. be the best tools for an intellectually dishonest
approach.
5. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when you
are wrong. Those selling an ideology likewise have
great difficulty admitting to being wrong, as this
undercuts the rhetoric and image that is being sold.
You get small points for admitting to being wrong on
trivial matters and big points for admitting to being
wrong on substantive points. You lose big points for
failing to admit being wrong on something trivial.

6. Demonstrate consistency. A clear sign of

intellectual dishonesty is when someone extensively
relies on double standards. Typically, an excessively
high standard is
applied to the perceived opponent(s), while a very
low standard is applied to the ideologues’ allies.

7. Address the argument instead of attacking the

person making the argument. Ad hominem
arguments are a clear sign of intellectual dishonesty.
However, oftentimes, the dishonesty is more subtle.
For example, someone might make a token effort to
debunk an argument and then turn significant
attention to the person making the argument, relying
on stereotypes, guilt-by-association, and innocent-
sounding gotcha questions.

8. When addressing an argument, do not

misrepresent it. A common tactic of the
intellectually dishonest is to portray their opponent’s
argument in straw man terms. In politics, this is
called spin. Typically, such tactics eschew quoting
the person in context but instead rely heavily on out-
of-context quotes, paraphrasing, and impressions.
When addressing an argument, one should show
signs of having made a serious effort to first
understand the argument and then accurately
represent it in its strongest form.

9. Show a commitment to critical thinking.

10. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when a

point or criticism is good. If someone is unable or
unwilling to admit when their opponent raises a good