CHAPTER 1

Photo 12/Alamy Stock Photo

AL
RI
TE
The animation techniques and special effects used in the film The Avengers rely on computers and
mathematical concepts such as trigonometry and vectors. Such mathematical concepts will be very useful
throughout this book in our discussion of physics.
MA
D

Introduction and L E A R NI NG O BJ E CTI VES

TE

After reading this module, you should be able

to...

Mathematical Concepts
GH

1.1 Describe the fundamental nature of

physics.
1.2 Describe different systems of units.
RI

1.3 Solve unit conversion problems.

PY

1.4 Solve trigonometry problems.

1.1 The Nature of Physics 1.5 Distinguish between vectors and scalars.
CO

Physics is the most basic of the sciences, and it is at the very root of subjects like chem- 1.6 Solve vector addition and subtraction
istry, engineering, astronomy, and even biology. The discipline of physics has developed problems by graphical methods.
over many centuries, and it continues to evolve. It is a mature science, and its laws en- 1.7 Calculate vector components.
compass a wide scope of phenomena that range from the formation of galaxies to the in-
teractions of particles in the nuclei of atoms. Perhaps the most visible evidence of physics 1.8 Solve vector addition and subtraction
in everyday life is the eruption of new applications that have improved our quality of life, problems using components.
such as new medical devices, and advances in computers and high-tech communications.
The exciting feature of physics is its capacity for predicting how nature will be-
have in one situation on the basis of experimental data obtained in another situation.
Such predictions place physics at the heart of modern technology and, therefore, can
have a tremendous impact on our lives. Rocketry and the development of space travel
have their roots firmly planted in the physical laws of Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) and
Isaac Newton (1642–1727). The transportation industry relies heavily on physics in
the development of engines and the design of aerodynamic vehicles. Entire electronics
and computer industries owe their existence to the invention of the transistor, which
grew directly out of the laws of physics that describe the electrical behavior of solids.
The telecommunications industry depends extensively on electromagnetic waves, 1
 2 CH APT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

TA B L E 1 . 1 Units of Measurement

System
Courtesy NIST Archives

SI CGS BE
Length Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Foot (ft)
Mass Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Slug (sl)
Time Second (s) Second (s) Second (s)

FIGURE 1.1 The standard platinum–iridium whose existence was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) in his theory of electricity
meter bar.
and magnetism. The medical profession uses X-ray, ultrasonic, and magnetic resonance methods
for obtaining images of the interior of the human body, and physics lies at the core of all these.
Perhaps the most widespread impact in modern technology is that due to the laser. Fields ranging
from space exploration to medicine benefit from this incredible device, which is a direct applica-
tion of the principles of atomic physics.
Because physics is so fundamental, it is a required course for students in a wide range of
major areas. We welcome you to the study of this fascinating topic. You will learn how to see the
world through the “eyes” of physics and to reason as a physicist does. In the process, you will
learn how to apply physics principles to a wide range of problems. We hope that you will come
to recognize that physics has important things to say about your environment.
Science Source

1.2 Units
Physics experiments involve the measurement of a variety of quantities, and a great deal of effort
FIGURE 1.2 The standard platinum–iridium
goes into making these measurements as accurate and reproducible as possible. The first step toward
kilogram is kept at the International Bureau ensuring accuracy and reproducibility is defining the units in which the measurements are made.
of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France. In this text, we emphasize the system of units known as SI units, which stands for the French
This copy of it was assigned to the United phrase “Le Système International d’Unités.” By international agreement, this system employs
States in 1889 and is housed at the National the meter (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit of mass, and the second (s) as
Institute of Standards and Technology. the unit of time. Two other systems of units are also in use, however. The CGS system utilizes the
centimeter (cm), the gram (g), and the second for length, mass, and time, respectively, and the
BE or British Engineering system (the gravitational version) uses the foot (ft), the slug (sl), and
the second. Table 1.1 summarizes the units used for length, mass, and time in the three systems.
Originally, the meter was defined in terms of the distance measured along the earth’s surface
between the north pole and the equator. Eventually, a more accurate measurement standard was
needed, and by international agreement the meter became the distance between two marks on
a bar of platinum–iridium alloy (see Figure 1.1) kept at a temperature of 0 °C. Today, to meet
further demands for increased accuracy, the meter is defined as the distance that light travels in a
vacuum in a time of 1/299 792 458 second. This definition arises because the speed of light is a
universal constant that is defined to be 299 792 458 m/s.
The definition of a kilogram as a unit of mass has also undergone changes over the years.
As Chapter 4 discusses, the mass of an object indicates the tendency of the object to continue
in motion with a constant velocity. Originally, the kilogram was expressed in terms of a specific
amount of water. Today, one kilogram is defined to be the mass of a standard cylinder of platinum–
iridium alloy, like the one in Figure 1.2.
As with the units for length and mass, the present definition of the second as a unit of time is
different from the original definition. Originally, the second was defined according to the average
time for the earth to rotate once about its axis, one day being set equal to 86 400 seconds. The earth’s
© Geoffrey Wheeler

rotational motion was chosen because it is naturally repetitive, occurring over and over again. Today,
we still use a naturally occurring repetitive phenomenon to define the second, but of a very different
kind. We use the electromagnetic waves emitted by cesium-133 atoms in an atomic clock like that
in Figure 1.3. One second is defined as the time needed for 9 192 631 770 wave cycles to occur.*
The units for length, mass, and time, along with a few other units that will arise later, are
regarded as base SI units. The word “base” refers to the fact that these units are used along with
FIGURE 1.3 This atomic clock, the
NIST-F1, keeps time with an uncertainty of
about one second in sixty million years. *See Chapter 16 for a discussion of waves in general and Chapter 24 for a discussion of electromagnetic waves in particular.
 1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving 3

various laws to define additional units for other important physical quantities, such as force and Standard Prefixes Used to
energy. The units for such other physical quantities are referred to as derived units, since they are TA BL E 1 . 2 Denote Multiples of Ten
combinations of the base units. Derived units will be introduced from time to time, as they arise
naturally along with the related physical laws. Prefix Symbol Factor a
The value of a quantity in terms of base or derived units is sometimes a very large or very tera T 1012
small number. In such cases, it is convenient to introduce larger or smaller units that are related giga G 109
to the normal units by multiples of ten. Table 1.2 summarizes the prefixes that are used to denote
mega M 106
multiples of ten. For example, 1000 or 103 meters are referred to as 1 kilometer (km), and 0.001
or 10 −3 meter is called 1 millimeter (mm). Similarly, 1000 grams and 0.001 gram are referred kilo k 103
to as 1 kilogram (kg) and 1 milligram (mg), respectively. Appendix A contains a discussion of hecto h 102
scientific notation and powers of ten, such as 103 and 10 −3. deka da 101
deci d 10−1

1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving centi

milli
c
m
10−2
10−3
micro μ 10−6
The Conversion of Units nano n 10−9
Since any quantity, such as length, can be measured in several different units, it is important to pico p 10−12
know how to convert from one unit to another. For instance, the foot can be used to express the femto f 10−15
distance between the two marks on the standard platinum–iridium meter bar. There are 3.281 feet a
Appendix A contains a discussion of powers of ten and
in one meter, and this number can be used to convert from meters to feet, as the following example scientific notation.
demonstrates.

E XAMPLE 1 The World’s Highest Waterfall

The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela, with a total
drop of 979.0 m (see Figure 1.4). Express this drop in feet.

Reasoning When converting between units, we write down the units

explicitly in the calculations and treat them like any algebraic quantity.
In particular, we will take advantage of the following algebraic fact:
Multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter an
equation.

Solution Since 3.281 feet = 1 meter, it follows that (3.281 feet)/

(1 meter) = 1. Using this factor of 1 to multiply the equation “Length =
979.0 meters,” we find that

3.281 feet
Length = (979.0 m) (1) = (979.0 meters)
( 1 meter ) = 3212 feet

The colored lines emphasize that the units of meters behave like any al-
gebraic quantity and cancel when the multiplication is performed, leaving
only the desired unit of feet to describe the answer. In this regard, note
that 3.281 feet = 1 meter also implies that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) = 1.
© Andoni Canela/Age Fotostock

However, we chose not to multiply by a factor of 1 in this form, because

the units of meters would not have canceled.
A calculator gives the answer as 3212.099 feet. Standard proced-
ures for significant figures, however, indicate that the answer should be
rounded off to four significant figures, since the value of 979.0 meters is
accurate to only four significant figures. In this regard, the “1 meter” in
the denominator does not limit the significant figures of the answer, be-
cause this number is precisely one meter by definition of the conversion
factor. Appendix B contains a review of significant figures.
FIGURE 1.4 Angel Falls in Venezuela is the highest
waterfall in the world.

Problem-Solving Insight In any conversion, if the units do not combine algebraically to

give the desired result, the conversion has not been carried out properly.
4 CH APT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

With this in mind, the next example stresses the importance of writing down the units and
illustrates a typical situation in which several conversions are required.

E XAM PLE 2 Interstate Speed Limit

Express the speed limit of 65 miles/hour in terms of meters/second. miles

Speed = (65 (1) (1) =
Reasoning As in Example 1, it is important to write down the units hour )
explicitly in the calculations and treat them like any algebraic quantity. miles 5280 feet 1 hour feet
Here, we take advantage of two well-known relationships—namely, (65 hour ) ( 1 mile ) ( 3600 seconds ) = 95 second
5280 feet = 1 mile and 3600 seconds = 1 hour. As a result, (5280 feet)/
(1 mile) = 1 and (3600 seconds)/(1 hour) = 1. In our solution we will use To convert feet into meters, we use the fact that (1 meter)/(3.281 feet) = 1:
the fact that multiplying and dividing by these factors of unity does not
feet
alter an equation. Speed = (95 (1) =
second )
Solution Multiplying and dividing by factors of unity, we find the speed feet 1 meter meters
(95 second ) ( 3.281 feet )
limit in feet per second as shown below: = 29
second

In addition to their role in guiding the use of conversion factors, units serve a useful purpose
in solving problems. They can provide an internal check to eliminate errors, if they are carried
along during each step of a calculation and treated like any algebraic factor.

Problem-Solving Insight In particular, remember that only quantities with the same units
can be added or subtracted.

Thus, at one point in a calculation, if you find yourself adding 12 miles to 32 kilometers, stop and
reconsider. Either miles must be converted into kilometers or kilometers must be converted into
miles before the addition can be carried out.
A collection of useful conversion factors is given on the page facing the inside of the front
cover. The reasoning strategy that we have followed in Examples 1 and 2 for converting between
units is outlined as follows:

REASONING STRATEGY Converting Between Units

1. In all calculations, write down the units explicitly.
2. Treat all units as algebraic quantities. In particular, when identical units are divided,
they are eliminated algebraically.
3. Use the conversion factors located on the page facing the inside of the front cover. Be
guided by the fact that multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter
the equation. For instance, the conversion factor of 3.281 feet = 1 meter might be applied
in the form (3.281 feet)/(1 meter) = 1. This factor of 1 would be used to multiply an equa-
tion such as “Length = 5.00 meters” in order to convert meters to feet.
4. Check to see that your calculations are correct by verifying that the units combine algeb-
raically to give the desired unit for the answer. Only quantities with the same units can
be added or subtracted.

Sometimes an equation is expressed in a way that requires specific units to be used for the
variables in the equation. In such cases it is important to understand why only certain units can
be used in the equation, as the following example illustrates.

E XAM PLE 3 BIO The Physics of the Body Mass Index

The body mass index (BMI) takes into account your mass in kilograms However, the BMI is often computed using the weight* of a person in
(kg) and your height in meters (m) and is defined as follows: pounds (lb) and his or her height in inches (in.). Thus, the expression for
the BMI incorporates these quantities, rather than the mass in kilograms
Mass in kg and the height in meters. Starting with the definition above, determine the
BMI =
(Height in m) 2 expression for the BMI that uses pounds and inches.

*Weight and mass are different concepts, and the relationship between them will be discussed in Section 4.7.
 1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving 5

Reasoning We will begin with the BMI definition and work separately 1 kg 12 in. 2 3.281 ft 2 (Weight in lb)
=( )(
with the numerator and the denominator. We will determine the mass in 2.205 lb 1 ft ) ( 1 m ) (Height in in.) 2
kilograms that appears in the numerator from the weight in pounds by using
the fact that 1 kg corresponds to 2.205 lb. Then, we will determine the height kg · in.2 (Weight in lb)
BMI = (703.0
in meters that appears in the denominator from the height in inches with the lb · m2 ) (Height in in.) 2
aid of the facts that 1 m = 3.281 ft and 1 ft = 12 in. These conversion factors
are located on the page facing the inside of the front cover of the text. For example, if your weight and height are 180 lb and 71 in., your body
Solution Since 1 kg corresponds to 2.205 lb, the mass in kilograms can mass index is 25 kg/m2. The BMI can be used to assess approximately
be determined from the weight in pounds in the following way: whether your weight is normal for your height (see Table 1.3).
1 kg
Mass in kg = (Weight in lb) (
2.205 lb )
Since 1 ft = 12 in. and 1 m = 3.281 ft, we have TA BL E 1. 3 The Body Mass Index
1 ft 1m BMI (kg/m2) Evaluation
Height in m = (Height in in.)
( 12 in. ) ( 3.281 ft )
Below 18.5 Underweight
Substituting these results into the numerator and denominator of the BMI
definition gives 18.5–24.9 Normal
1 kg 25.0–29.9 Overweight
(Weight in lb)
Mass in kg ( 2.205 lb )
BMI = = 30.0–39.9 Obese
(Height in m) 2 1 ft 2 1m 2
(Height in in.) 2 ( 40 and above Morbidly obese
12 in. ) ( 3.281 ft )

Dimensional Analysis
We have seen that many quantities are denoted by specifying both a number and a unit. For
example, the distance to the nearest telephone may be 8 meters, or the speed of a car might be
25 meters/second. Each quantity, according to its physical nature, requires a certain type of unit.
Distance must be measured in a length unit such as meters, feet, or miles, and a time unit will not
do. Likewise, the speed of an object must be specified as a length unit divided by a time unit. In
physics, the term dimension is used to refer to the physical nature of a quantity and the type of
unit used to specify it. Distance has the dimension of length, which is symbolized as [L], while
speed has the dimensions of length [L] divided by time [T], or [L/T]. Many physical quantities
can be expressed in terms of a combination of fundamental dimensions such as length [L], time
[T], and mass [M]. Later on, we will encounter certain other quantities, such as temperature,
which are also fundamental. A fundamental quantity like temperature cannot be expressed as a
combination of the dimensions of length, time, mass, or any other fundamental dimension.
Dimensional analysis is used to check mathematical relations for the consistency of their
dimensions. As an illustration, consider a car that starts from rest and accelerates to a speed υ in
a time t. Suppose we wish to calculate the distance x traveled by the car but are not sure whether
1 1
the correct relation is x = 2 𝜐t 2 or x = 2 𝜐t. We can decide by checking the quantities on both sides
of the equals sign to see whether they have the same dimensions. If the dimensions are not the
1
same, the relation is incorrect. For x = 2 𝜐t 2, we use the dimensions for distance [L], time [T], and
speed [L/T] in the following way:
1
x = 2 𝜐t 2

L
Dimensions [L] ≟ [ ] [T] 2 = [L][T]
T
1
Dimensions cancel just like algebraic quantities, and pure numerical factors like 2 have no dimen-
sions, so they can be ignored. The dimension on the left of the equals sign does not match those
1
on the right, so the relation x = 2 𝜐t 2 cannot be correct. On the other hand, applying dimensional
1
analysis to x = 2 𝜐t, we find that
1
x = 2 𝜐t

L
Dimensions [L] ≟ [ ] [T] = [L]
T
6 CH APT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

Problem-Solving Insight You can check for errors that may have arisen during algebraic
manipulations by performing a dimensional analysis on the final expression.

The dimension on the left of the equals sign matches that on the right, so this relation is dimen-
1
sionally correct. If we know that one of our two choices is the right one, then x = 2 𝜐t is it. In the
absence of such knowledge, however, dimensional analysis cannot identify the correct relation.
It can only identify which choices may be correct, since it does not account for numerical factors
1
like 2 or for the manner in which an equation was derived from physics principles.

Check Your Understanding

(The answers are given at the end of the book.)
1. (a) Is it possible for two quantities to have the same dimensions but different units?
(b) Is it possible for two quantities to have the same units but different dimensions?
2. You can always add two numbers that have the same units (such as 6 meters + 3 meters). Can you always add
two numbers that have the same dimensions, such as two numbers that have the dimensions of length [L]?
3. The following table lists four variables, along with their units:

Variable Units
x Meters (m)
υ Meters per second (m/s)
t Seconds (s)
a Meters per second squared (m/s2)

These variables appear in the following equations, along with a few numbers that have no units. In which
of the equations are the units on the left side of the equals sign consistent with the units on the right side?
1
(a) x = 𝜐t (d) 𝜐 = at + 2 at 3
1 2
(b) x = 𝜐t + 2 at (e) 𝜐 3 = 2ax 2
2x
(c) 𝜐 = at (f) t = √
a
4. In the equation y = cnat2 you wish to determine the integer value (1, 2, etc.) of the exponent n. The di-
mensions of y, a, and t are known. It is also known that c has no dimensions. Can dimensional analysis
be used to determine n?

h = hypotenuse

ho = length of side
1.4 Trigonometry
opposite the
90° angle θ Scientists use mathematics to help them describe how the physical universe works, and tri-
θ
gonometry is an important branch of mathematics. Three trigonometric functions are utilized
ha = length of side throughout this text. They are the sine, the cosine, and the tangent of the angle θ (Greek theta),
adjacent to the angle θ
abbreviated as sin θ, cos θ, and tan θ, respectively. These functions are defined below in terms
INTERACTIVE FIGURE 1.5 A right triangle. of the symbols given along with the right triangle in Interactive Figure 1.5.

DEFINITION OF SIN θ, COS θ, AND TAN θ

ho
sin θ = (1.1)
h
ha
cos θ = (1.2)
h
ho
tan θ = (1.3)
ha
h = length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle
ho = length of the side opposite the angle θ
ha = length of the side adjacent to the angle θ
 1.4 Trigonometry 7

The sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle are numbers without units, because each is the ratio of the
lengths of two sides of a right triangle. Example 4 illustrates a typical application of Equation 1.3.

EXAMPLE 4 Using Trigonometric Functions

On a sunny day, a tall building casts a shadow that is 67.2 m long. The
angle between the sun’s rays and the ground is θ = 50.0°, as Figure 1.6
shows. Determine the height of the building.

Reasoning We want to find the height of the building. Therefore, we

begin with the colored right triangle in Figure 1.6 and identify the height
as the length ho of the side opposite the angle θ. The length of the shadow
is the length ha of the side that is adjacent to the angle θ. The ratio of the
length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side is the tangent
of the angle θ, which can be used to find the height of the building. ho

Solution We use the tangent function in the following way, with θ =

50.0° and ha = 67.2 m:
θ = 50.0°
ho
tan θ = (1.3)
ha
ha = 67.2 m
ho = ha tan θ = (67.2 m) (tan 50.0°) = (67.2 m) (1.19) = 80.0 m
FIGURE 1.6 From a value for the angle θ and the length ha of the
The value of tan 50.0° is found by using a calculator. shadow, the height ho of the building can be found using trigonometry.

The sine, cosine, or tangent may be used in calculations such as that in Example 4, depend-
ing on which side of the triangle has a known value and which side is asked for.

Problem-Solving Insight However, the choice of which side of the triangle to label ho
(opposite) and which to label ha (adjacent) can be made only after the angle θ is identified.

Often the values for two sides of the right triangle in Interactive Figure 1.5 are available,
and the value of the angle θ is unknown. The concept of inverse trigonometric functions plays
an important role in such situations. Equations 1.4–1.6 give the inverse sine, inverse cosine, and
inverse tangent in terms of the symbols used in the drawing. For instance, Equation 1.4 is read as
“θ equals the angle whose sine is ho/h.”

ho
θ = sin−1 (1.4)
(h)
ha
θ = cos−1 ( ) (1.5)
h
ho
θ = tan−1 ( ) (1.6)
ha

The use of −1 as an exponent in Equations 1.4–1.6 does not mean “take the reciprocal.” For
instance, tan−1 (ho /ha) does not equal 1/tan (ho /ha). Another way to express the inverse trigono-
metric functions is to use arc sin, arc cos, and arc tan instead of sin−1, cos−1, and tan−1. Example 5
illustrates the use of an inverse trigonometric function.

E XAMPLE 5 Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions

A lakefront drops off gradually at an angle θ, as Figure 1.7 indicates. and drops a weighted fishing line. By measuring the length of the line,
For safety reasons, it is necessary to know how deep the lake is at vari- the lifeguard determines the depth to be 2.25 m. (a) What is the value
ous distances from the shore. To provide some information about the of θ? (b) What would be the depth d of the lake at a distance of 22.0 m
depth, a lifeguard rows straight out from the shore a distance of 14.0 m from the shore?
8 CH APT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

Reasoning Near the shore, the lengths of the opposite and adjacent ho 2.25 m
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( = 9.13°
sides of the right triangle in Figure 1.7 are ho = 2.25 m and ha = 14.0 m, ha 14.0 m )
relative to the angle θ. Having made this identification, we can use the
inverse tangent to find the angle in part (a). For part (b) the opposite and (b) With θ = 9.13°, the tangent function given in Equation 1.3 can be used
adjacent sides farther from the shore become ho = d and ha = 22.0 m. With to find the unknown depth farther from the shore, where ho = d and ha =
the value for θ obtained in part (a), the tangent function can be used to find 22.0 m. Since tan θ = ho /ha, it follows that
the unknown depth. Considering the way in which the lake bottom drops
ho = ha tan θ
off in Figure 1.7, we expect the unknown depth to be greater than 2.25 m.
d = (22.0 m) (tan 9.13°) = 3.54 m
Solution (a) Using the inverse tangent given in Equation 1.6, we find
that which is greater than 2.25 m, as expected.

22.0 m

14.0 m

θ FIGURE 1.7 If the distance from the shore

2.25 m and the depth of the water at any one point are
d
known, the angle θ can be found with the aid of
trigonometry. Knowing the value of θ is useful,
because then the depth d at another point can be
determined.

The right triangle in Interactive Figure 1.5 provides the basis for defining the various tri-
gonometric functions according to Equations 1.1–1.3. These functions always involve an angle
and two sides of the triangle. There is also a relationship among the lengths of the three sides
of a right triangle. This relationship is known as the Pythagorean theorem and is used often in
this text.

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the other two sides:

h2 = ho2 + ha2 (1.7)

1.5 Scalars and Vectors

The volume of water in a swimming pool might be 50 cubic meters, or the winning time of a race
could be 11.3 seconds. In cases like these, only the size of the numbers matters. In other words,
how much volume or time is there? The 50 specifies the amount of water in units of cubic meters,
while the 11.3 specifies the amount of time in seconds. Volume and time are examples of scalar
quantities. A scalar quantity is one that can be described with a single number (including any
units) giving its size or magnitude. Some other common scalars are temperature (e.g., 20 °C) and
mass (e.g., 85 kg).
While many quantities in physics are scalars, there are also many that are not, and for these
quantities the magnitude tells only part of the story. Consider Figure 1.8, which depicts a car
that has moved 2 km along a straight line from start to finish. When describing the motion, it is
incomplete to say that “the car moved a distance of 2 km.” This statement would indicate only
that the car ends up somewhere on a circle whose center is at the starting point and whose radius
 1.5 Scalars and Vectors 9

is 2 km. A complete description must include the direction along with the distance, as in the state- N
ment “the car moved a distance of 2 km in a direction 30° north of east.” A quantity that deals
W E
inherently with both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity. Because direction is an
important characteristic of vectors, arrows are used to represent them; the direction of the arrow S
gives the direction of the vector. The colored arrow in Figure 1.8, for example, is called the
m
displacement vector, because it shows how the car is displaced from its starting point. Chapter 2 2k
Finish
discusses this particular vector.
30.0°
The length of the arrow in Figure 1.8 represents the magnitude of the displacement vector. If
Start
the car had moved 4 km instead of 2 km from the starting point, the arrow would have been drawn
twice as long. By convention, the length of a vector arrow is proportional to the magnitude of
the vector.
In physics there are many important kinds of vectors, and the practice of using the length of
an arrow to represent the magnitude of a vector applies to each of them. All forces, for instance,
FIGURE 1.8 A vector quantity has a
are vectors. In common usage a force is a push or a pull, and the direction in which a force acts is
magnitude and a direction. The colored arrow
just as important as the strength or magnitude of the force. The magnitude of a force is measured in this drawing represents a displacement
in SI units called newtons (N). An arrow representing a force of 20 newtons is drawn twice as vector.
long as one representing a force of 10 newtons.
The fundamental distinction between scalars and vectors is the characteristic of direction.
Vectors have it, and scalars do not. Conceptual Example 6 helps to clarify this distinction and
explains what is meant by the “direction” of a vector.

CONC EPT UAL E XAMPL E 6 Vectors, Scalars, and the Role of Plus and Minus Signs

There are places where the temperature is +20 °C at one time of the year Answer (a) is incorrect. The plus and minus signs associated with
and −20 °C at another time. Do the plus and minus signs that signify +20 °C and −20 °C do not convey a physical direction, such as due east or
positive and negative temperatures imply that temperature is a vector due west. Therefore, temperature cannot be a vector quantity.
quantity? (a) Yes (b) No
Answer (b) is correct. On a thermometer, the algebraic signs simply
mean that the temperature is a number less than or greater than zero on
Reasoning A hallmark of a vector is that there is both a magnitude and
the temperature scale being used and have nothing to do with east, west,
a physical direction associated with it, such as 20 meters due east or 20
or any other physical direction. Temperature, then, is not a vector. It is a
meters due west.
scalar, and scalars can sometimes be negative.

Often, for the sake of convenience, quantities such as volume, time, displacement, velo-
city, and force are represented in physics by symbols. In this text, we write vectors in boldface
symbols (this is boldface) with arrows above them* and write scalars in italic symbols (this is
→ →
italic). Thus, a displacement vector is written as “A = 750 m, due east,” where the A is a boldface
symbol. By itself, however, separated from the direction, the magnitude of this vector is a scalar
quantity. Therefore, the magnitude is written as “A = 750 m,” where the A is an italic symbol
without an arrow.

Check Your Understanding

(The answer is given at the end of the book.)
5. Which of the following statements, if any, involves a vector? (a) I walked 2 miles along the beach. (b) I
walked 2 miles due north along the beach. (c) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling at 17 miles
per hour. (d) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling straight down at a speed of 17 miles per
hour. (e) My bank account shows a negative balance of −25 dollars.

*Vectors are also sometimes written in other texts as boldface symbols without arrows above them.
10 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

W E
1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction
S
Tail-to-head Addition
Often it is necessary to add one vector to another, and the process of addition must take into ac-
A B
count both the magnitude and the direction of the vectors. The simplest situation occurs when the
Start Finish
vectors point along the same direction—that is, when they are colinear, as in Figure 1.9. Here, a
→
R car first moves along a straight line, with a displacement vector A of 275 m, due east. Then the
→
car moves again in the same direction, with a displacement vector B of 125 m, due east. These
FIGURE 1.9 Two colinear displacement →
→ → two vectors add to give the total displacement vector R , which would apply if the car had moved
vectors A and B add to give the resultant →
→ from start to finish in one step. The symbol R is used because the total vector is often called the
displacement vector R . resultant vector. With the tail of the second arrow located at the head of the first arrow, the two
lengths simply add to give the length of the total displacement. This kind of vector addition is
identical to the familiar addition of two scalar numbers (2 + 3 = 5) and can be carried out here
only because the vectors point along the same direction. In such cases we add the individual
N
magnitudes to get the magnitude of the total, knowing in advance what the direction must be.
W E
Formally, the addition is written as follows:
→ → →
Finish R =A+B
S →
R
R = 275 m, due east + 125 m, due east = 400 m, due east
B
θ 90° Perpendicular vectors are frequently encountered, and Figure 1.10 indicates how they can
→
Start A be added. This figure applies to a car that first travels with a displacement vector A of 275 m, due
→
east, and then with a displacement vector B of 125 m, due north. The two vectors add to give a
→
Tail-to-head resultant displacement vector R . Once again, the vectors to be added are arranged in a tail-to-
FIGURE 1.10 The addition of two
head fashion, and the resultant vector points from the tail of the first to the head of the last vector
→
perpendicular displacement vectors A and added. The resultant displacement is given by the vector equation
→ →
B gives the resultant vector R . → → →
R=A+B
The addition in this equation cannot be carried out by writing R = 275 m + 125 m, because
the vectors have different directions. Instead, we take advantage of the fact that the triangle in
N Figure 1.10 is a right triangle and use the Pythagorean theorem (Equation 1.7). According to this
→
theorem, the magnitude of R is
W E
R = √(275 m) 2 + (125 m) 2 = 302 m
S Finish
The angle θ in Figure 1.10 gives the direction of the resultant vector. Since the lengths of all three
R B sides of the right triangle are now known, sin θ, cos θ, or tan θ can be used to determine θ. Noting
θ 55.0°
that tan θ = B/A and using the inverse trigonometric function, we find that:
Start A

Tail-to-head
B 125 m
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( = 24.4°
(a)
A 275 m )

cm
Thus, the resultant displacement of the car has a magnitude of 302 m and points north of
.8 cm
22 28 east at an angle of 24.4°. This displacement would bring the car from the start to the finish in
24 Figure 1.10 in a single straight-line step.
20
16 When two vectors to be added are not perpendicular, the tail-to-head arrangement does not
12
8 lead to a right triangle, and the Pythagorean theorem cannot be used. Figure 1.11a illustrates
→
4 B such a case for a car that moves with a displacement A of 275 m, due east, and then with a dis-
0 R →
placement B of 125 m, in a direction 55.0° north of west. As usual, the resultant displacement
θ 55.0° →
vector R is directed from the tail of the first to the head of the last vector added. The vector
A
addition is still given according to
(b) → → →
R=A+B
FIGURE 1.11 (a) The two displacement → → →
→ →
vectors A and B are neither colinear nor However, the magnitude of R is not R = A + B, because the vectors A and B do not have the
perpendicular, but even so they add to give the same direction, and neither is it R = √A2 + B2, because the vectors are not perpendicular, so the
→
resultant vector R . (b) In one method for adding Pythagorean theorem does not apply. Some other means must be used to find the magnitude and
them together, a graphical technique is used. direction of the resultant vector.
 1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction 11

One approach uses a graphical technique. In this method, a diagram is constructed in

which the arrows are drawn tail to head. The lengths of the vector arrows are drawn to scale,
and the angles are drawn accurately (with a protractor, perhaps). Then the length of the arrow
representing the resultant vector is measured with a ruler. This length is converted to the mag-
nitude of the resultant vector by using the scale factor with which the drawing is constructed.
In Figure 1.11b, for example, a scale of one centimeter of arrow length for each 10.0 m of
→
displacement is used, and it can be seen that the length of the arrow representing R is 22.8 cm.
→
Since each centimeter corresponds to 10.0 m of displacement, the magnitude of R is 228 m.
→
The angle θ, which gives the direction of R , can be measured with a protractor to be θ = 26.7°
north of east.

Subtraction
The subtraction of one vector from another is carried out in a way that depends on the follow-
ing fact. When a vector is multiplied by −1, the magnitude of the vector remains the same, but
the direction of the vector is reversed. Conceptual Example 7 illustrates the meaning of this
statement.

CO NCE PTUAL E XAMP LE 7 Multiplying a Vector by −1

→ →
Consider two vectors described as follows: Reasoning A displacement vector of −D is (−1) D . The presence of
the (−1) factor reverses the direction of the vector, but does not change its
→
1. A woman climbs 1.2 m up a ladder, so that her displacement vec- magnitude. Similarly, a force vector of −F has the same magnitude as the
→ →
tor D is 1.2 m, upward along the ladder, as in Figure 1.12a. vector F but has the opposite direction.
2. A man is pushing with 450 N of force on his stalled car, trying to
→ Answer (a) and (b) are incorrect. While scalars can sometimes be
move it eastward. The force vector F that he applies to the car is
negative, magnitudes of vectors are never negative.
450 N, due east, as in Figure 1.13a.
→ →
→ → Answer (c) is correct. The vectors −D and −F have the same mag-
What are the physical meanings of the vectors −D and −F ? → →
→
nitudes as D and F , but point in the opposite direction, as indicated in
(a) −D points upward along the ladder and has a magnitude of −1.2 m; Figures 1.12b and 1.13b.
→ →
−F points due east and has a magnitude of −450 N. (b) −D points
→
downward along the ladder and has a magnitude of −1.2 m; −F points Related Homework: Problems 67
→
due west and has a magnitude of −450 N. (c) −D points downward along
→
the ladder and has a magnitude of 1.2 m; −F points due west and has a
magnitude of 450 N.

(a)

–F

D –D

(b)

FIGURE 1.13 (a) The force vector

(a) (b) for a man pushing on a car with 450 N
→
of force in a direction due east is F .
FIGURE 1.12 (a) The displacement vector for a woman climbing 1.2 m up a (b) The force vector for a man pushing
→
ladder is D . (b) The displacement vector for a woman climbing 1.2 m down a on a car with 450 N of force in a
→ →
ladder is −D . direction due west is −F .
12 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

In practice, vector subtraction is carried out exactly like vector addition, except that one of
→
the vectors added is multiplied by a scalar factor of −1. To see why, look at the two vectors A
→ →
C=A +B and B in Figure 1.14a. These vectors add together to give a third vector C , according to
→ → → → → → →
B C = A + B. Therefore, we can calculate vector A as A = C − B, which is an example of vector
→ → →
subtraction. However, we can also write this result as A = C + (−B) and treat it as vector addi-
→ → →
tion. Figure 1.14b shows how to calculate vector A by adding the vectors C and −B. Notice that
→ →
A
vectors C and −B are arranged tail to head and that any suitable method of vector addition can
→
be employed to determine A.
( a)

Tail-to-head

Check Your Understanding

C
–B
(The answers are given at the end of the book.)
→ → → → → →
6. Two vectors A and B are added together to give a resultant vector R : R = A + B . The magnitudes
→ →
of A and B are 3 m and 8 m, respectively, but the vectors can have any orientation. What are (a) the
→
A = C – B
maximum possible value and (b) the minimum possible value for the magnitude of R ?

( b)
7. Can two nonzero perpendicular vectors be added together so their sum is zero?
8. Can three or more vectors with unequal magnitudes be added together so their sum is zero?
FIGURE 1.14 (a) Vector addition according → →
→ → → 9. In preparation for this question, review Conceptual Example 7. Vectors A and B satisfy the vector
→ → → →
to C = A + B . (b) Vector subtraction accord- equation A + B = 0. (a) How does the magnitude of B compare with the magnitude of A ? (b) How
→ → → → → →
ing to A = C − B = C + (−B ). →
does the direction of B compare with the direction of A ?
→ → → → → →
10. Vectors A , B , and C satisfy the vector equation A + B = C , and their magnitudes are related by the
→ →
scalar equation A2 + B 2 = C 2. How is vector A oriented with respect to vector B ?
→ → → → → →
11. Vectors A , B , and C satisfy the vector equation A + B = C , and their magnitudes are related by the
→ →
scalar equation A + B = C. How is vector A oriented with respect to vector B ?

Finish
N
1.7 The Components of a Vector
W E
r y
S Vector Components
90°
Start Suppose a car moves along a straight line from start to finish, as in Figure 1.15, the corres-
x
ponding displacement vector being → r . The magnitude and direction of the vector → r give the
→
FIGURE 1.15 The displacement vector r distance and direction traveled along the straight line. However, the car could also arrive at
→ →
and its vector components x and y . the finish point by first moving due east, turning through 90°, and then moving due north. This
alternative path is shown in the drawing and is associated with the two displacement vectors
→
x and → y . The vectors →
x and →y are called the x vector component and the y vector component
→
of r .
Vector components are very important in physics and have two basic features that are appar-
ent in Figure 1.15. One is that the components add together to equal the original vector:
→
r =→
x+→
y
The components → x and →y , when added vectorially, convey exactly the same meaning as does the
+y →
original vector r : they indicate how the finish point is displaced relative to the starting point. The
other feature of vector components that is apparent in Figure 1.15 is that → x and →y are not just any
→
two vectors that add together to give the original vector r : they are perpendicular vectors. This
A Ay perpendicularity is a valuable characteristic, as we will soon see.
Any type of vector may be expressed in terms of its components, in a way similar to
that illustrated for the displacement vector in Figure 1.15. Interactive Figure 1.16 shows an
θ → → →
+x arbitrary vector A and its vector components A x and A y. The components are drawn parallel
Ax to convenient x and y axes and are perpendicular. They add vectorially to equal the original
→
INTERACTIVE FIGURE 1.16 An arbitrary
vector A :
→ → → → → →
vector A and its vector components A x and A y. A = Ax + Ay
 1.7 The Components of a Vector 13

There are times when a drawing such as Interactive Figure 1.16 is not the most convenient way +y
to represent vector components, and Figure 1.17 presents an alternative method. The disadvant-
→ →
age of this alternative is that the tail-to-head arrangement of A x and A y is missing, an arrange-
→ → →
ment that is a nice reminder that A x and A y add together to equal A .
The definition that follows summarizes the meaning of vector components: Ay A

DEFINITION OF VECTOR COMPONENTS

→ θ
In two dimensions, the vector components of a vector A are two perpendicular vectors +x
→ →
A x and A y that are parallel to the x and y axes, respectively, and add together vectorially Ax
→ → →
according to A = A x + A y.
FIGURE 1.17 This alternative way of
→
drawing the vector A and its vector
Problem-Solving Insight In general, the components of any vector can be used in place of components is completely equivalent to
the vector itself in any calculation where it is convenient to do so. that shown in Interactive Figure 1.16.

The values calculated for vector components depend on the orientation of the vector relative
→
to the axes used as a reference. Figure 1.18 illustrates this fact for a vector A by showing two
sets of axes, one set being rotated clockwise relative to the other. With respect to the black axes,
→ → →
vector A has perpendicular vector components Ax and Ay; with respect to the colored rotated axes,
→ → →
vector A has different vector components A′x and A′.y The choice of which set of components to use +y +y´
is purely a matter of convenience.

Scalar Components A

A´y Ay
It is often easier to work with the scalar components, Ax and Ay (note the italic symbols), rather
→ →
than the vector components A x and A y. Scalar components are positive or negative numbers (with
→ +x
units) that are defined as follows: The scalar component Ax has a magnitude equal to that of A x Ax
→ →
and is given a positive sign if A x points along the +x axis and a negative sign if A x points along A´x
the −x axis. The scalar component Ay is defined in a similar manner. The following table shows
an example of vector and scalar components:

+x´
Vector Components Scalar Components Unit Vectors
→ → FIGURE 1.18 The vector components of the
A x = 8 meters, directed along the +x axis Ax = +8 meters A x = (+8 meters) x̂ vector depend on the orientation of the axes
→ → used as a reference.
A y = 10 meters, directed along the –y axis Ay = −10 meters A y = (–10 meters) ŷ

In this text, when we use the term “component,” we will be referring to a scalar component,
unless otherwise indicated.
Another method of expressing vector components is to use unit vectors. A unit vector is a
vector that has a magnitude of 1, but no dimensions. We will use a caret (^) to distinguish it from
other vectors. Thus, +y

x̂ is a dimensionless unit vector of length l that points in the positive x direction, and
ŷ is a dimensionless unit vector of length l that points in the positive y direction. Ay y

These unit vectors are illustrated in Figure 1.19. With the aid of unit vectors, the vector com-
→ → →
ponents of an arbitrary vector A can be written as A x = Ax x̂ and A y = Ay ŷ, where Ax and Ay are
→
its scalar components (see the drawing and the third column of the table above). The vector A is
→
then written as A = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ. y
Ax x
+x

x
Resolving a Vector into Its Components
FIGURE 1.19 The dimensionless unit
If the magnitude and direction of a vector are known, it is possible to find the components vectors x̂ and ŷ have magnitudes equal to 1,
of the vector. The process of finding the components is called “resolving the vector into its and they point in the +x and +y directions,
components.” As Example 8 illustrates, this process can be carried out with the aid of trigo- respectively. Expressed in terms of unit
nometry, because the two perpendicular vector components and the original vector form a vectors, the vector components of the vector
→
right triangle. A are Ax x̂ and Ay ŷ.
14 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

E XAM PLE 8 Finding the Components of a Vector

→
A displacement vector r has a magnitude of r = 175 m and points at an Solution The y component can be obtained using the 50.0° angle and
angle of 50.0° relative to the x axis in Figure 1.20. Find the x and y com- Equation 1.1, sin θ = y/r:
ponents of this vector. y = r sin θ = (175 m)(sin 50.0°) = 134 m
Reasoning We will base our solution on the fact that the triangle formed In a similar fashion, the x component can be obtained using the 50.0°
→ → →
in Figure 1.20 by the vector r and its components x and y is a right angle and Equation 1.2, cos θ = x/r:
triangle. This fact enables us to use the trigonometric sine and cosine
functions, as defined in Equations 1.1 and 1.2. x = r cos θ = (175 m)(cos 50.0°) = 112 m

Problem-Solving Insight You can check to see whether the

components of a vector are correct by substituting them into Math Skills Either acute angle of a right triangle can be used
the Pythagorean theorem in order to calculate the magnitude to determine the components of a vector. The choice of angle is a
of the original vector. matter of convenience. For instance, instead of the 50.0° angle, it is
also possible to use the angle α in Figure 1.20. Since α + 50.0° =
90.0°, it follows that α = 40.0°. The solution using α yields the
same answers as the solution using the 50.0° angle:
α y
cos α =
r
r y y = r cos α = (175 m) (cos 40.0°) = 134 m
x
sin α =
r
FIGURE 1.20 The x and y components
50.0° 90.0° → x = r sin α = (175 m) (sin 40.0°) = 112 m
of the displacement vector r can be
x found using trigonometry.

Since the vector components and the original vector form a right triangle, the Pythagorean
theorem can be applied to check the validity of calculations such as those in Example 8. Thus,
with the components obtained in Example 8, the theorem can be used to verify that the magnitude
of the original vector is indeed 175 m, as given initially:
r = √(112 m) 2 + (134 m) 2 = 175 m
It is possible for one of the components of a vector to be zero. This does not mean that the
vector itself is zero, however.

Problem-Solving Insight For a vector to be zero, every vector component must individually
be zero.
→ → →
Thus, in two dimensions, saying that A = 0 is equivalent to saying that A x = 0 and A y = 0.
→
Or, stated in terms of scalar components, if A = 0, then Ax = 0 and Ay = 0.

Problem-Solving Insight Two vectors are equal if, and only if, they have the same magnitude
and direction.

Thus, if one displacement vector points east and another points north, they are not equal,
→
even
→
if each has the same magnitude of 480 m. In terms of vector components, two vectors A and
B are equal if, and only if, each vector component→of one is equal
→
to the corresponding vector
→ → → →
component of the other. In two dimensions, if A = B, then A x = Bx and A y = A y. Alternatively,
using scalar components, we write that Ax = Bx and Ay = By.

Check Your Understanding

(The answers are given at the end of the book.) Variable Magnitude Direction
12. Which of the following displacement vectors →
A 100 m 30° north of east
(if any) are equal? →
B 100 m 30° south of west
→
C 50 m 30° south of west
→
D 100 m 60° east of north
 1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components 15

→ → +y
13. Two vectors, A and B , are shown in CYU Figure 1.1. (a) What
are the signs (+ or −) of the scalar components, Ax and Ay, of
→
the vector A ? (b) What are the signs of the scalar components,
→
Bx and By, of the vector B ? (c) What are the signs of the scalar B
→ → → →
components, Rx and Ry, of the vector R , where R = A + B ? A
14. Are two vectors with the same magnitude necessarily equal?
+x
15. The magnitude of a vector has doubled, its direction remaining
the same. Can you conclude that the magnitude of each com-
ponent of the vector has doubled?
16. The tail of a vector is fixed to the origin of an x, y axis sys-
tem. Originally the vector points along the +x axis and has a CYU FIGURE 1.1
magnitude of 12 units. As time passes, the vector rotates coun-
terclockwise. What are the sizes of the x and y components of the vector for the following rotational
angles? (a) 90° (b) 180° (c) 270° (d) 360°
17. A vector has a component of zero along the x axis of a certain axis system. Does this vector necessarily
have a component of zero along the x axis of another (rotated) axis system?

Addition of Vectors by Means of

1.8

Components
The components of a vector provide the most convenient and accurate way of adding (or sub-
→ →
tracting) any number of vectors. For example, suppose that vector A is added to vector B . The
→ → → →
resultant vector is C , where C = A + B . Interactive→Figure 1.21a illustrates this vector addition,
→ →
along with the x and y vector components of A and B. In part b of the drawing, the vectors A and
→
B have been removed, because we can use the vector components of these vectors in place of
→
them. The vector component B x has been shifted downward and arranged tail to head with vector
→ →
component A x. Similarly, the vector →component A y has been shifted to the right and arranged tail
to head with the vector component B y. → The x components are colinear and add together to give
the x component of the resultant vector
→
C . In like fashion, the y components are colinear and add
together to give the y component of C . In terms of scalar components, we can write
Cx = Ax + Bx and Cy = Ay + By
→ →
The vector components Cx and Cy of the resultant vector form the sides of the
→
right triangle
shown in Interactive Figure 1.21c. Thus, we can find the magnitude of C by using the INTERACTIVE FIGURE 1.21 (a) The
→ →
Pythagorean theorem: vectors A and B add together to give the
→
C = √Cx 2 + Cy2 resultant vector C. The x and y components
→ →
→ of A and B are→also shown. (b) The →
drawing
→ → →
The angle θ that C makes with the x axis is given by θ = tan−1 (Cy /Cx). Example 9 illustrates how illustrates that Cx = A x + B x and Cy = A y +
→ →
to add several vectors using the component method. B y. (c) Vector C and its components form a
right triangle.
+y

C
B By By
C C Cy

A Bx
Ay Ay θ
+x
Ax Ax Bx Cx

(a) (b) (c)

16 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

Analyzing Multiple-Concept Problems

E XAM PLE 9 The Component Method of Vector Addition

→
A jogger runs 145 m in a direction 20.0° east of north (displacement vector A ) and then 105 m in a N
→
direction 35.0° south of east (displacement vector B ). Using components, determine the magnitude and
→
direction of the resultant vector C for these two displacements. W E
→ →
Reasoning Figure 1.22 shows the vectors A and B , assuming that the y axis corresponds to the dir- S
→
ection due north. The vectors are arranged in a tail-to-head fashion, with the resultant vector C drawn +y
→ → Ax Bx
from the tail of A to the head of B . The components of the vectors are also shown in the figure. Since
→
C and its components form a right triangle (red in the drawing), we will use the Pythagorean theorem 35.0°
→
and trigonometry to express the magnitude and directional angle θ for C in terms of its components. By
→ → → B
The components of C will then be obtained from the components of A and B and the data given for A
these two vectors.
Ay 20.0°
Knowns and Unknowns The data for this problem are listed in the table that follows:

C Cy
Description Symbol Value Comment
→
145 m θ +x
Magnitude of vector A
Cx
→
Direction of vector A 20.0° east of north See Figure 1.22. → →
FIGURE 1.22 The vectors A and B
→
Magnitude of vector B 105 m add together to give the resultant vector
→ → →
→ C. The vector components of A and B
Direction of vector B 35.0° south of east See Figure 1.22. →
are also shown. The resultant vector C
Unknown Variable can be obtained once its components
have been found.
Magnitude of resultant vector C ?
Direction of resultant vector θ ?

Modeling the Problem

→ → →
STEP 1 Magnitude and Direction of C In Figure 1.22 the vector C and its components C x C = √Cx 2 + Cy 2 (1a)
→
and C y form a right triangle, as the red arrows show. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to this right Cy
→
triangle shows that the magnitude of C is given by Equation 1a at the right. From the red triangle it θ = tan−1 (1b)
→ ( Cx )
also follows that the directional angle θ for the vector C is given by Equation 1b at the right.
→ → → → →
STEP 2 Components of C Since vector C is the resultant of vectors A and B , we have C = C = √Cx 2 + Cy 2 (1a)
→ → → →
A + B and can write the scalar components of C as the sum of the scalar components of A
→
and B : C x = Ax + Bx C y = Ay + By
(2)
C x = Ax + Bx and C y = Ay + By Cy
θ = tan−1 (1b)
( Cx )
These expressions can be substituted into Equations 1a and 1b for the magnitude and direction
→ C x = Ax + Bx C y = Ay + By
of C , as shown at the right. (2)

Solution Algebraically combining the results of each step, we find that

STEP 1 STEP 2

C = √Cx 2 + Cy 2 = √(Ax + Bx ) 2 + (Ay + By ) 2

Cy Ay + By
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (
Cx Ax + Bx )
STEP 1 STEP 2
→ →
To use these results we need values for the individual components of A and B .
 1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components 17

Referring to Figure 1.22, we find these values to be

Ax = (145 m) sin 20.0° = 49.6 m and

Ay = (145 m) cos 20.0° = 136 m
Bx = (105 m) cos 35.0° = 86.0 m and
By = −(105 m) sin 35.0° = −60.2 m
→
Note that the component By is negative, because B y points downward, in the negative y direction
in the drawing. Substituting these values into the results for C and θ gives

C = √(Ax + Bx ) 2 + (Ay + By ) 2
= √(49.6 m + 86.0 m) 2 + (136 m − 60.2 m) 2 = 155 m
Ay + By
θ = tan−1
( Ax + Bx )

136 m − 60.2 m
= tan−1 = 29°
( 49.6 m + 86.0 m )

Math Skills According to the definitions given in Equations 1.1 and 1.2, the sine and
ho ha
cosine functions are sin ϕ = and cos ϕ = , where ho is the length of the side of a
h h
right triangle that is opposite the angle ϕ, ha is the length of the side adjacent to the angle
ϕ, and h is the length of the hypotenuse (see Figure 1.23a). Applications of the sine and
cosine functions to determine the scalar components of a vector occur frequently. In such
applications we begin by identifying the angle ϕ. Figure 1.23b shows the relevant portion
→
of Figure 1.22 and indicates that ϕ = 20.0° for the vector A . In this case we have ho = Ax,
ha = Ay, and h = A = 145 m; it follows that

h o Ax
sin 20.0° = = or Ax = A sin 20.0° = (145 m) sin 20.0° = 49.6 m
h A
h a Ay
cos 20.0° = = or Ay = A cos 20.0° = (145 m) cos 20.0° = 136 m
h A

+y

ho Ax

90°

h A

Ay
ha 20.0°

+x
(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.23 Math Skills drawing.

Related Homework: Problems 45, 47, 50, 54

18 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

Check Your Understanding

(The answer is given at the end of the book.)
→ →
18. Two vectors, A and B , have vector components that are shown (to the same scale) in CYU Figure 1.2.
→ → →
The resultant vector is labeled R . Which drawing shows the correct vector sum of A + B ? (a) 1,
(b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4

R
By R
Ax Bx

R R
Ay

(1) (2) (3) (4)

CYU FIGURE 1.2

In later chapters we will often use the component method for vector addition. For future reference, the
main features of the reasoning strategy used in this technique are summarized below.

REASONING STRATEGY The Component Method of Vector Addition

1. For each vector to be added, determine the x and y components relative to a conveniently
chosen x, y coordinate system. Be sure to take into account the directions of the compon-
ents by using plus and minus signs to denote whether the components point along the
positive or negative axes.
2. Find the algebraic sum of the x components, which is the x component of the resultant
vector. Similarly, find the algebraic sum of the y components, which is the y component
of the resultant vector.
3. Use the x and y components of the resultant vector and the Pythagorean theorem to de-
termine the magnitude of the resultant vector.
4. Use the inverse sine, inverse cosine, or inverse tangent function to find the angle that
specifies the direction of the resultant vector.

EXAM PL E 10 BIO Multi-joint Movements

→
Figure 1.24 shows an example of a multi-joint movement involving the joint, and vector B represents the position of the ball relative to the elbow
shoulder and elbow joints. The view from above shows a person holding a joint. Use the component method of vector addition and the angles given
→
ball in a position that involves both shoulder flexion and elbow extension. in the figure to find the magnitude and direction (θ) of vector C , which
→
Vector A represents the position of the elbow joint relative to the shoulder represents the position of the ball relative to the shoulder joint. The mag-
→ →
nitude of vector A is 35.6 cm, and the magnitude of vector B is 31.2 cm.
+y
The angle θ is measured relative to a vertical anatomical plane known as
Ball the frontal or coronal plane.
B → →
Reasoning Similar to Example 9, the vectors A and B in Figure 1.24
→ → →
C are drawn tail-to-head. Thus, the resultant vector C = A + B . The com-
→ →
ponents of vector C will be obtained from the components of vectors A
80.0° →
and B . Once Cx and Cy are known, we can calculate the magnitude of
→
vector C using the Pythagorean theorem. The directional angle θ will be
Elbow →
A determined from the components of vector C .
joint

θ 45.0° Solution Applying the component method of vector addition, we know

+x that Cx = Ax + Bx, and Cy = Ay + By. From Figure 1.24, we see that Ax =
Frontal (35.6 cm) cos 45° = 25.2 cm, Bx = – (31.2) cos 80° = – 5.42 cm, Ay =
plane Shoulder (35.6 cm) sin 45° = 25.2 cm, and By = (31.2 cm) sin 80° = 30.7 cm. Therefore,
joint Cx = 25.2 cm + (– 5.42 cm) = 19.8 cm, and Cy = 25.2 cm + 30.7 cm = 55.9 cm.
→
The magnitude of vector C is now found by the Pythagorean theorem:
FIGURE 1.24 Top view of a multi-joint movement involving the
→ → C = √Cx2 + Cy2 = √(19.8 cm) 2 + (55.9 cm) 2 = 59.3 cm The directional
shoulder and elbow joints. The vectors A and B add together to give the
→ angle θ is found by using the tangent function:
resultant vector C , which represents the position vector of the ball with
→
respect to the shoulder joint. The resultant vector C can be obtained, Cy 55.9 cm
θ = tan−1 −1
once its components are determined. ( Cx ) = tan ( 19.8 cm ) = 70.5° .
 Focus on Concepts 19

Concept Summary
1.2 Units The SI system of units includes the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the length of the hypot-
and the second (s) as the base units for length, mass, and time, respectively. One enuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of
meter is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in a time of 1/299 792 458 the other two sides, according to Equation 1.7.
second. One kilogram is the mass of a standard cylinder of platinum–iridium
alloy kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. One second h2 = ho2 + ha2 (1.7)
is the time for a certain type of electromagnetic wave emitted by cesium-133
atoms to undergo 9 192 631 770 wave cycles. 1.5 Scalars and Vectors A scalar quantity is described by its size, which
is also called its magnitude. A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a
1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving To convert a number from direction. Vectors are often represented by arrows, the length of the arrow
one unit to another, multiply the number by the ratio of the two units. For being proportional to the magnitude of the vector and the direction of the
instance, to convert 979 meters to feet, multiply 979 meters by the factor arrow indicating the direction of the vector.
(3.281 foot/1 meter).
The dimension of a quantity represents its physical nature and the type 1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction One procedure for adding vectors
of unit used to specify it. Three such dimensions are length [L], mass [M], utilizes a graphical technique, in which the vectors to be added are ar-
time [T]. Dimensional analysis is a method for checking mathematical rela- ranged in a tail-to-head fashion. The resultant vector is drawn from the tail
tions for the consistency of their dimensions. of the first vector to the head of the last vector. The subtraction of a vector
1.4 Trigonometry The sine, cosine, and tangent functions of an angle θ are is treated as the addition of a vector that has been multiplied by a scalar
defined in terms of a right triangle that contains θ, as in Equations 1.1–1.3, factor of −1. Multiplying a vector by −1 reverses the direction of the
where ho and ha are, respectively, the lengths of the sides opposite and adja- vector.
cent to the angle θ, and h is the length of the hypotenuse.
1.7 The Components of a Vector In two dimensions, the vector compon-
→ → →
ho ents of a vector A are two perpendicular vectors A x and A y that are parallel
sin θ = (1.1) to the x and y axes, respectively, and that add together vectorially so that
h → → →
A = A x + A y. The scalar component Ax has a magnitude that is equal to that
ha → →
cos θ = (1.2) of A x and is given a positive sign if A x points along the +x axis and a negative
→
h sign if A x points along the −x axis. The scalar component Ay is defined in a
ho similar manner.
tan θ = (1.3) Two vectors are equal if, and only if, they have the same magnitude and
ha
direction. Alternatively, two vectors are equal in two dimensions if the x
The inverse sine, inverse cosine, and inverse tangent functions are given vector components of each are equal and the y vector components of each
in Equations 1.4–1.6. are equal. A vector is zero if, and only if, each of its vector components is
zero.
ho
θ = sin−1 (1.4) 1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components If two vec-
(h) → → → → → →
tors A and B are added to give a resultant C such that C = A + B , then
ha Cx = Ax + Bx and Cy = Ay + By , where Cx, Ax, and Bx are the scalar compon-
θ = cos−1 (1.5)
(h) ents of the vectors along the x direction, and Cy, Ay, and By are the scalar
components of the vectors along the y direction.
ho
θ = tan−1 (1.6)
( ha )

Focus on Concepts
Note to Instructors: The numbering of the questions shown here reflects the North North North North
fact that they are only a representative subset of the total number that are B B B B
available online. However, all of the questions are available for assignment A
A A A
via WileyPLUS. R R
R R
East East East East
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Section 1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction
QUESTION 1
1. During a relay race, runner A runs a certain distance due north and then
→
hands off the baton to runner B, who runs for the same distance in a direction 2. How is the magnitude R of the resultant vector R in the drawing related
→ → → →
south of east. The two displacement vectors A and B can be added together to the magnitudes A and B of the vectors A and B ? (a) The magnitude of
→ → → →
to give a resultant vector R . Which drawing correctly shows the resultant the resultant vector R is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of A and B , or
→
vector? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 R = A + B. (b) The magnitude of the resultant vector R is greater than the
20 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

→ →
sum of the magnitudes of A and B , or R > A + B. (c) The B (a) Ax′ = −369 m and Ay′ = −258 m
→
magnitude of the resultant vector R is less than the sum of (b) Ax′ = +369 m and Ay′ = −258 m
→ → A
the magnitudes of A and B , or R < A + B. R
→ (c) Ax′ = +258 m and Ay′ = +369 m
5. The first drawing shows three displacement vectors, A ,
→ → QUESTION 2 (d) Ax′ = +258 m and Ay′ = −369 m
B , and C , which are added in a tail-to-head fashion. The
→
resultant vector is labeled R . Which of the following drawings shows the (e) Ax′ = −258 m and Ay′ = −369 m
→ → →
correct resultant vector for A + B − C ? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 +y

C +y´
A A +x´
B
R A
A R R +x
R
(1) (2) (3) A
QUESTION 5 A 35.0°
→ →
6. The first drawing shows the sum of three displacement vectors, A , B , and
→ →
C . The resultant vector is labeled R . Which of the following drawings shows QUESTION 12 (a) (b)
→ → →
the correct resultant vector for A − B − C ? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 → →
15. Suppose the vectors A and B in the drawing have magnitudes of 6.0 m
→
C and are directed as shown. What are Ax and Bx, the scalar components of A
A A →
B and B along the x axis?
R A
A R R R
(1) (2) (3) Ax Bx
QUESTION 6 (a) +(6.0 m) cos 35° = +4.9 m −(6.0 m) cos 35° = −4.9 m

Section 1.7 The Components of a Vector (b) +(6.0 m) sin 35° = +3.4 m −(6.0 m) cos 35° = −4.9 m
(c) −(6.0 m) cos 35° = −4.9 m +(6.0 m) sin 35° = +3.4 m
8. A person is jogging along a straight line, and her displacement is denoted
→
by the vector A in the drawings. Which drawing represents the correct vector (d) −(6.0 m) cos 35° = −4.9 m +(6.0 m) cos 35° = +4.9 m
→ → →
components, A x and A y, for the vector A ? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
(e) −(6.0 m) sin 35° = −3.4 m +(6.0 m) sin 35° = +3.4 m
+y +y
+y
Ax Ax
+x +x

A A
Ay Ay
A B
6.0 m 6.0 m
(1) (2) 35° 35°
QUESTION 15 +x
+y +y

Ax
+x
Ax
+x
Section 1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of Components
→ →
A A
17. Drawing a shows two vectors A and B , and drawing b shows their com-
Ay Ay ponents. The scalar components of these vectors are as follows:
Ax = −4.9 m Ay = +3.4 m
(3) (4)
Bx = +4.9 m By = +3.4 m
QUESTION 8 → → → →
→ When the vectors A and B are added, the resultant vector is R , so that R =
11. A person drives a car for a distance of 450.0 m. The displacement A of → → →
A + B . What are the values of Rx and Ry, the x and y components of R ?
the car is illustrated in the drawing. What are the scalar components of this
displacement vector? +y
+y
(a) Ax = 0 m and Ay = +450.0 m
A B
(b) Ax = 0 m and Ay = −450.0 m 6.0 m 6.0 m

(c) Ax = +450.0 m and Ay = +450.0 m +x 35° 35°

+x
A
(d) Ax = −450.0 m and Ay = 0 m (a)

(e) Ax = −450.0 m and Ay = +450.0 m +y

→
12. Drawing a shows a displacement vector A (450.0 m QUESTION 11
along the −y axis). In this x, y coordinate system the scalar components are A B
Ay By
Ax = 0 m and Ay = −450.0 m. Suppose that the coordinate system is rotated
counterclockwise by 35.0°, but the magnitude (450.0 m) and direction of θ θ
+x
→ Ax Bx
vector A remain unchanged, as in drawing b. What are the scalar components,
→
Ax′ and Ay′, of the vector A in the rotated x′, y′ coordinate system? QUESTION 17 (b)
 Problems 21

→ →
18. The displacement vectors A and B , when added together, give the res- +y
→ → → →
ultant vector R , so that R = A + B . Use the data in the drawing to find the
magnitude R of the resultant vector and the angle θ that it makes with the 23°
+x axis. B
A 8.0 m
6.0 m

θ R
QUESTION 18 +x

Problems
Note to Instructors: Most of the homework problems in this chapter are 10. M GO A partly full paint can has 0.67 U.S. gallons of paint left in it.
available for assignment via WileyPLUS. See the Preface for additional (a) What is the volume of the paint in cubic meters? (b) If all the remaining
details. paint is used to coat a wall evenly (wall area = 13 m2), how thick is the layer
of wet paint? Give your answer in meters.
SSM Student Solutions Manual BIO Biomedical application 11. M SSM A spring is hanging down from the ceiling, and an object of
MMH Problem-solving help E Easy mass m is attached to the free end. The object is pulled down, thereby stretch-
ing the spring, and then released. The object oscillates up and down, and the
GO Guided Online Tutorial M Medium time T required for one complete up-and-down oscillation is given by the
V-HINT Video Hints H Hard equation T = 2π √m/k, where k is known as the spring constant. What must
CHALK Chalkboard Videos be the dimension of k for this equation to be dimensionally correct?

Section 1.2 Units Section 1.4 Trigonometry

Section 1.3 The Role of Units in Problem Solving 12. E You are driving into St. Louis, Missouri, and in the distance you see the
famous Gateway to the West arch. This monument rises to a height of 192 m.
1. E GO A student sees a newspaper ad for an apartment that has 1330 You estimate your line of sight with the top of the arch to be 2.0° above the
square feet (ft2) of floor space. How many square meters of area are there? horizontal. Approximately how far (in kilometers) are you from the base of
2. E Bicyclists in the Tour de France reach speeds of 34.0 miles per hour the arch?
(mi/h) on flat sections of the road. What is this speed in (a) kilometers per 13. E SSM A highway is to be built between two towns, one of which lies
hour (km/h) and (b) meters per second (m/s)? 35.0 km south and 72.0 km west of the other. What is the shortest length of
3. E SSM Vesna Vulovic survived the longest fall on record without a para- highway that can be built between the two towns, and at what angle would
chute when her plane exploded and she fell 6 miles, 551 yards. What is this this highway be directed with respect to due west?
distance in meters? 14. E GO A hill that has a 12.0% grade is one that rises 12.0 m vertically for
4. E Suppose a man’s scalp hair grows at a rate of 0.35 mm per day. What every 100.0 m of distance in the horizontal direction. At what angle is such a
is this growth rate in feet per century? hill inclined above the horizontal?
5. E Given the quantities a = 9.7 m, b = 4.2 s, c = 69 m/s, what is the value 15. E GO The corners of a square lie on a circle of diameter D = 0.35 m.
of the quantity d = a3/(cb2)? Each side of the square has a length L. Find L.
1
6. E Consider the equation 𝜐 = 3 z xt 2. The dimensions of the variables υ, 16. E GO The drawing shows a person looking at a building on top of
x, and t are [L]/[T], [L], and [T], respectively. The numerical factor 3 is di- which an antenna is mounted. The horizontal distance between the per-
mensionless. What must be the dimensions of the variable z, such that both son’s eyes and the building is 85.0 m. In part a the person is looking at the
sides of the equation have the same dimensions? Show how you determined base of the antenna, and his line of sight makes an angle of 35.0° with the
your answer. horizontal. In part b the person is looking at the top of the antenna, and
his line of sight makes an angle of 38.0° with the horizontal. How tall is
7. E SSM A bottle of wine known as a magnum contains a volume of the antenna?
1.5 liters. A bottle known as a jeroboam contains 0.792 U.S. gallons. How
many magnums are there in one jeroboam?
8. E The CGS unit for measuring the viscosity of a liquid is the poise (P):
1 P = 1 g/(s · cm). The SI unit for viscosity is the kg/(s · m). The viscosity of
water at 0 °C is 1.78 × 10−3 kg/(s · m). Express this viscosity in poise.
9. E BIO Azelastine hydrochloride is an antihistamine nasal spray. A
standard size container holds one fluid ounce (oz) of the liquid. You are 35.0° 38.0°
searching for this medication in a European drugstore and are asked how
85.0 m 85.0 m
many milliliters (mL) there are in one fluid ounce. Using the following con-
version factors, determine the number of milliliters in a volume of one fluid
ounce: 1 gallon (gal) = 128 oz, 3.785 × 10−3 cubic meters (m3) = 1 gal, and (a) (b)
1 mL = 10−6 m3. PROBLEM 16
22 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

17. E CHALK The two hot-air balloons in the drawing are 48.2 and 61.0 m Section 1.6 Vector Addition and Subtraction
above the ground. A person in the left balloon observes that the right balloon
is 13.3° above the horizontal. What is the horizontal distance x between the 23. E SSM (a) Two workers are trying to move a heavy crate. One pushes
→
two balloons? on the crate with a force A , which has a magnitude of 445 newtons and is
→
directed due west. The other pushes with a force B , which has a magnitude
of 325 newtons and is directed due north. What are the magnitude and direc-
→ →
tion of the resultant force A + B applied to the crate? (b) Suppose that the
→ →
second worker applies a force −B instead of B . What then are the magnitude
→ →
and direction of the resultant force A − B applied to the crate? In both cases
13.3°
express the direction relative to due west.
x →
24. E A force vector F1 points due east and has a magnitude of 200 new-
→ →
61.0 m tons. A second force F2 is added to F1 . The resultant of the two vectors has
48.2 m
a magnitude of 400 newtons and points along the east/west line. Find the
→
magnitude and direction of F2 . Note that there are two answers.
25. E SSM Consider the following four force vectors:
PROBLEM 17 →
F1 = 50.0 newtons, due east
18. M Available on WileyPLUS. →
F2 = 10.0 newtons, due east
19. M MMH The drawing shows sodium and Sodium ion →
chloride ions positioned at the corners of a cube Chloride ion F3 = 40.0 newtons, due west
that is part of the crystal structure of sodium →
F4 = 30.0 newtons, due west
chloride (common table salt). The edges of the
cube are each 0.281 nm (1 nm = 1 nanometer = Which two vectors add together to give a resultant with the smallest mag-
θ
10−9 m) in length. What is the value of the angle nitude, and which two vectors add to give a resultant with the largest mag-
θ in the drawing? nitude? In each case specify the magnitude and direction of the resultant.
→
20. M GO A person is standing at the edge of 26. E GO Vector A has a magnitude of 63 units and points due west, while
→
the water and looking out at the ocean (see the vector B has the same magnitude and points due south. Find the magnitude and
0.281 → → → →
drawing). The height of the person’s eyes above direction of (a) A + B and (b) A − B. Specify the directions relative to due west.
nanometers
the water is h = 1.6 m, and the radius of the 27. E Two bicyclists, starting at the same place, are riding toward the same
earth is R = 6.38 × 106 m. (a) How far is it to PROBLEM 19 campground by two different routes. One cyclist rides 1080 m due east and
the horizon? In other words, what is the distance d from the person’s eyes to then turns due north and travels another 1430 m before reaching the camp-
the horizon? (Note: At the horizon the angle between the line of sight and the ground. The second cyclist starts out by heading due north for 1950 m and
radius of the earth is 90°.) (b) Express this distance in miles. then turns and heads directly toward the campground. (a) At the turning
point, how far is the second cyclist from the campground? (b) In what direc-
h tion (measured relative to due east) must the second cyclist head during the
d
Horizon last part of the trip?
90° 28. E GO The drawing shows a triple jump on a checkerboard, starting at
the center of square A and ending on the center of square B. Each side of a
R
R square measures 4.0 cm. What is the magnitude of the displacement of the
colored checker during the triple jump?

PROBLEM 20

21. M SSM Three deer, A, B, and C, are grazing in a field. Deer B is located
62 m from deer A at an angle of 51° north of west. Deer C is located 77°
north of east relative to deer A. The distance between deer B and C is 95 m.
What is the distance between deer A and C? (Hint: Consider the law of
cosines given in Appendix E.)
22. H An aerialist on a high platform
holds on to a trapeze attached to a
A
support by an 8.0-m cord. (See the
θ 41° PROBLEM 28
drawing.) Just before he jumps off the 8.0 m
platform, the cord makes an angle of 0.75 m P
→ →
41° with the vertical. He jumps, 29. E Given the vectors P and Q shown on the 8.00 cm
swings down, then back up, releasing grid, sketch →and calculate the magnitudes of the
→ → → → →
the trapeze at the instant it is 0.75 m vectors (a) M = P + Q and (b) K = 2P − Q.
below its initial height. Calculate the Use the tail-to-head method and express the mag- Q
angle θ that the trapeze cord makes nitudes in centimeters with the aid of the grid scale
with the vertical at this instant. PROBLEM 22 shown in the drawing. PROBLEM 29
 Problems 23

→
30. M MMH Vector A has a magnitude of 12.3 units and points due west. N
→ → → →
Vector B points due north. (a) What is the magnitude of B if A + B has a #1
→ → W E
magnitude of 15.0 units? (b) What is the direction of A + B relative to due
→ → →
west? (c) What is the magnitude of B if A − B has a magnitude of 15.0 units? S
→ →
(d) What is the direction of A − B relative to due west? 30.0°

31. M SSM A car is being pulled out of the mud by two forces that are ap-
plied by the two ropes shown in the drawing. The dashed line in the drawing Ay A
bisects the 30.0° angle. The magnitude of the force applied by each rope is
2900 newtons. Arrange the force vectors tail to head and use the graphical
technique to answer the following questions. (a) How much force would a
single rope need to apply to accomplish the same effect as the two forces Net
added together? (b) How would the single rope be directed relative to the 90°
dashed line?
#2 Ax

2900 newtons
PROBLEM 36
30.0° →
37. E GO The components of vector A are Ax and Ay (both positive), and the
2900 newtons angle that it makes with respect to the positive x axis is θ. Find the angle θ
→
PROBLEM 31 if the components of the displacement vector A are (a) Ax = 12 m and
Ay = 12 m, (b) Ax = 17 m and Ay = 12 m, and (c) Ax = 12 m and Ay = 17 m.
32. M GO A jogger travels a route that has two parts. The first is a displace- 38. E During takeoff, an airplane climbs with a speed of 180 m/s at an angle
→ →
ment A of 2.50 km due south, and the second involves a displacement B that of 34° above the horizontal. The speed and direction of the airplane constitute
→ →
points due east. (a) The resultant displacement A + B has a magnitude of a vector quantity known as the velocity. The sun is shining directly overhead.
→ → →
3.75 km. What is the magnitude of B , and what is the direction of A + B How fast is the shadow of the plane moving along the ground? (That is, what
→ →
relative to due south? (b) Suppose that A − B had a magnitude of 3.75 km. is the magnitude of the horizontal component of the plane’s velocity?)
→ → →
What then would be the magnitude of B , and what is the direction of A − B
39. E SSM The x vector component of a displacement vector → r has a mag-
relative to due south?
nitude of 125 m and points along the negative x axis. The y vector component
33. M At a picnic, there is a contest in which hoses are used to shoot has a magnitude of 184 m and points along the negative y axis. Find the mag-
water at a beach ball from three directions. As a result, three forces act on
→ → → → → nitude and direction of →
r . Specify the direction with respect to the negative
the ball, F1 , F2 , and F3 (see the drawing). The magnitudes of F1 and F2 are x axis.
F1 = 50.0 newtons and F2 = 90.0 newtons. Using a scale drawing and the
→ 40. E Your friend has slipped and fallen. To F
graphical technique, determine (a) the magnitude of F3 and (b) the angle θ →
help her up, you pull with a force F , as the
such that the resultant force acting on the ball is zero. θ
drawing shows. The vertical component of this
force is 130 newtons, and the horizontal com-
N
ponent is 150 newtons. Find (a) the magnitude
F1 →
of F and (b) the angle θ.
W E
41. E Available on WileyPLUS.
60.0°
S 42. M GO Two racing boats set out from the PROBLEM 40
F2
same dock and speed away at the same con-
θ stant speed of 101 km/h for half an hour (0.500 h), the blue boat headed
25.0° south of west, and the green boat headed 37.0° south of west. During
this half hour (a) how much farther west does the blue boat travel, compared
F3
to the green boat, and (b) how much farther south does the green boat travel,
compared to the blue boat? Express your answers in km.
PROBLEM 33 →
43. M SSM MMH The magnitude of the force vector F is 82.3 newtons. The
x component of this vector is directed along the +x axis and has a magnitude
Section 1.7 The Components of a Vector of 74.6 newtons. The y component points along the +y axis. (a) Find the
→ →
direction of F relative to the +x axis. (b) Find the component of F along
34. E GO A force vector has a magnitude of 575 newtons and points at an
the +y axis.
angle of 36.0° below the positive x axis. What are (a) the x scalar component
and (b) the y scalar component of the vector? 44. H Available on WileyPLUS.
→
35. E SSM Vector A points along the +y axis and has a magnitude of 100.0
→
units. Vector B points at an angle of 60.0° above the +x axis and has a mag-
→ Section 1.8 Addition of Vectors by Means of
nitude of 200.0 units. Vector C points along the +x axis and has a magnitude
of 150.0 units. Which vector has (a) the largest x component and (b) the Components
largest y component? 45. E SSM Consult Multiple-Concept Example 9 in preparation for this
36. E Soccer player #1 is 8.6 m from the goal (see the drawing). If she kicks problem. A golfer, putting on a green, requires three strokes to “hole the ball.”
→
the ball directly into the net, the ball has a displacement labeled A . If, on the During the first putt, the ball rolls 5.0 m due east. For the second putt, the
other hand, she first kicks it to player #2, who then kicks it into the net, the ball travels 2.1 m at an angle of 20.0° north of east. The third putt is 0.50 m
→ →
ball undergoes two successive displacements, A y and A x. What are the mag- due north. What displacement (magnitude and direction relative to due east)
→ →
nitudes and directions of A x and A y? would have been needed to “hole the ball” on the very first putt?
24 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

46. E CHALK The three displacement vectors in the drawing have mag- +y
nitudes of A = 5.00 m, B = 5.00 m, and C = 4.00 m. Find the resultant
(magnitude and directional angle) of the three vectors by means of the com- B
ponent method. Express the directional angle as an angle above the positive
A
or negative x axis.
+y 20.0° +x
35.0° 50.0°
B
A
C
20.0° 60.0°
+x

D
C PROBLEM 50
PROBLEM 46

47. E MMH Multiple-Concept Example 9 reviews the concepts that play a

51. E MMH Available on WileyPLUS.
role in this problem. Two forces are applied to a tree stump to pull it out of
→ 52. M GO Two geological field teams are working in a remote area. A global
the ground. Force FA has a magnitude of 2240 newtons and points 34.0°
→ positioning system (GPS) tracker at their base camp shows the location of
south of east, while force FB has a magnitude of 3160 newtons and points
due south. Using the component method, find the magnitude and direction of the first team as 38 km away, 19° north of west, and the second team as
→ → 29 km away, 35° east of north. When the first team uses its GPS to check the
the resultant force FA + FB that is applied to the stump. Specify the direction
with respect to due east. position of the second team, what does the GPS give for the second team’s
(a) distance from them and (b) direction, measured from due east?
48. E GO A baby elephant is stuck in a mud hole. To help pull it out, game
→ 53. M SSM A sailboat race course con-
keepers use a rope to apply a force FA , as part a of the drawing shows. By 23.0°
→ → sists of four legs, defined by the dis-
itself, however, force FA is insufficient. Therefore, two additional forces FB B
→
→ → → → C
and FC are applied, as in part b of the drawing. Each of these additional placement vectors A , B , C , and D ,
θ
forces has the same magnitude F. The magnitude of the resultant force acting as the drawing indicates. The mag- 35.0°

on the elephant in part b of the drawing is k times larger than that in part a. nitudes of the first three vectors are A =
D A
Find the ratio F/FA when k = 2.00. 3.20 km, B = 5.10 km, and C = 4.80 km.
40.0°
The finish line of the course coincides
FB Finish Start
with the starting line. Using the data in the
PROBLEM 53
FA 20.0° FA drawing, find the distance of the fourth leg
20.0° and the angle θ.
FC 54. M Multiple-Concept Example 9 deals with the concepts that are import-
ant in this problem. A grasshopper makes four jumps. The displacement vec-
(a) (b)
tors are (1) 27.0 cm, due west; (2) 23.0 cm, 35.0° south of west; (3) 28.0 cm,
PROBLEM 48 55.0° south of east; and (4) 35.0 cm, 63.0° north of east. Find the magnitude
→ and direction of the resultant displacement. Express the direction with
49. E Displacement vector A points due east and has a magnitude of
→ respect to due west.
2.00 km. Displacement vector B points due north and has a magnitude of
→
3.75 km. Displacement vector C points due west and has a magnitude 55. M MMH Available on WileyPLUS.
→
of 2.50 km. Displacement vector D points due south and has a magnitude 56. M The route followed by a hiker consists of three displacement vec-
of 3.00 km. Find the magnitude and direction (relative to due west) of → → → →
→ → → → tors A , B , and C . Vector A is along a measured trail and is 1550 m in a
the resultant vector A + B + C + D . →
direction 25.0° north of east. Vector B is not along a measured trail, but
50. E Multiple-Concept Example 9 provides background pertinent to this the hiker uses a compass and knows that the direction is 41.0° east of
→
problem. The magnitudes of the four displacement vectors shown in the south. Similarly, the direction of vector C is 35.0° north of west. The
drawing are A = 16.0 m, B = 11.0 m, C = 12.0 m, and D = 26.0 m. Determine hiker ends up back where she started. Therefore, it follows that the res-
→ → →
the magnitude and directional angle for the resultant that occurs when these ultant displacement is zero, or A + B + C = 0. Find the magnitudes of
→ →
vectors are added together. (a) vector B and (b) vector C .

Additional Problems
57. E Available on WileyPLUS. through a hypodermic needle during an injection can be estimated with the
58. E A monkey is chained to a stake in the ground. The stake is 3.00 m following equation:
from a vertical pole, and the chain is 3.40 m long. How high can the monkey
πR n (P2 − P1 )
climb up the pole? Q=
8ηL
59. E SSM Available on WileyPLUS.
60. E BIO The volume of liquid flowing per second is called the volume The length and radius of the needle are L and R, respectively, both of which
flow rate Q and has the dimensions of [L]3/[T]. The flow rate of a liquid have the dimension [L]. The pressures at opposite ends of the needle are P2
 Concepts and Calculations Problems 25

and P1, both of which have the dimensions of [M]/{[L][T]2}. The symbol 𝜂 67. M Available on WileyPLUS.
represents the viscosity of the liquid and has the dimensions of [M]/{[L][T]}. 68. M CHALK You live in the building on the left in the drawing, and a
The symbol 𝜋 stands for pi and, like the number 8 and the exponent n, has friend lives in the other building. The two of you are having a discussion
no dimensions. Using dimensional analysis, determine the value of n in the about the heights of the buildings, and your friend claims that the height
expression for Q. of his building is more than 1.50 times the height of yours. To resolve the
61. E An ocean liner leaves New York City and travels 18.0° north of east issue you climb to the roof of your building and estimate that your line of
for 155 km. How far east and how far north has it gone? In other words, what sight to the top edge of the other building makes an angle of 21° above the
are the magnitudes of the components of the ship’s displacement vector in horizontal, whereas your line of sight to the base of the other building makes
the directions (a) due east and (b) due north? an angle of 52° below the horizontal. Determine the ratio of the height of
62. E GO A pilot flies her route in two straight-line segments. The dis- the taller building to the height of the shorter building. State whether your
→ friend is right or wrong.
placement vector A for the first segment has a magnitude of 244 km and
→
a direction 30.0° north of east. The displacement vector B for the second
segment has a magnitude of 175 km and a direction due west. The resultant
→ → →
displacement vector is R = A + B and makes an angle θ with the direction
→ 21°
due east. Using the component method, find the magnitude of R and the 52°
directional angle θ.
63. E SSM Available on WileyPLUS.
64. M Available on WileyPLUS.
→
65. M SSM Vector A has a magnitude of +y
→
6.00 units and points due east. Vector B
points due north. (a) What is the magnitude
→ → → F1
of B , if the vector A + B points 60.0° north PROBLEM 68
→ →
of east? (b) Find the magnitude of A + B . 30.0°

66. M GO Three forces act on an object, as 69. H Available on WileyPLUS.

→
indicated in the drawing. Force F1 has a mag- F2
+x
nitude of 21.0 newtons (21.0 N) and is direc- θ
→
ted 30.0° to the left of the +y axis. Force F2
has a magnitude of 15.0 N and points along
the +x axis. What must be the magnitude and
F3
direction (specified by the angle θ in the
→
drawing) of the third force F3 such that the
vector sum of the three forces is 0 N? PROBLEM 66

Concepts and Calculations Problems

→ →
This chapter has presented an introduction to the mathematics of trigono- 71. M CHALK SSM The figure shows three displacement vectors A , B , and
→
metry and vectors, which will be used throughout the text. In this section C . These vectors are arranged in tail-to-head fashion, and they add together
→
we apply some of the important features of this mathematics, and review to give a resultant displacement R , which lies along the x axis. Note that the
→ →
some concepts that can help in anticipating some of the characteristics of the vector B is parallel to the x axis. Concepts: (i) How is the magnitude of A
numerical answers. related to its scalar components Ax and Ay? (ii) Do any of the vectors in the
+y
figure have a zero value for either their x or y components? (If so, which
70. M CHALK The figure shows two dis- A → → → →
→ → → ones?) (iii) What does the fact that A , B , and C add together to give R tell
placement vectors A and B . Vector A
you about the components of these vectors? Calculations: What is the mag-
points at an angle of 22° above the x axis 22.0° →
+x nitude of the vector A and its directional angle θ?
and has an unknown magnitude. Vector
→
B has an x component Bx = 35.0 m and
(a)
has an unknown y component By. These +y
two vectors are equal. Concepts: (i) What +y
→ B
does the condition that vector A equals
→ 10.0 m
B imply about the magnitudes and dir- B
ections of the vectors? (ii) What does the A C
→ → By 23.0 m
condition that vector A equals B imply
θ Bx
about the x and y components of the vec- +x
θ 50.0°
35.0 m R
tors? Calculations: Find the magnitude of +x
→
A and the value of By. (b) 35.0 m
PROBLEM 70 PROBLEM 71
26 CH A PT E R 1 Introduction and Mathematical Concepts

Team Problems
72. M The Waterfall. You and your team are exploring a river in South sensor that will monitor precipitation, temperature, and sunlight through the
America when you come to the bottom of a tall waterfall. You estimate the upcoming winter. The sensor must link up to a central communications sys-
cliff over which the water flows to be about 100 feet tall. You have to choose tem at base camp that simultaneously uploads the data from numerous sensors
between climbing the cliff or backtracking and taking another route, but to a satellite. In order to set up and calibrate the sensor, you will have to com-
climbing the cliff would cut two hours off of your trip. There is only one municate with base camp to give them specific location information. Unfor-
experienced climber in the group: she would climb the cliff alone and drop a tunately, the group’s communication and navigation equipment has dwindled
rope over the edge to lift supplies and allow the others to climb without packs. to walkie-talkies and a compass due to a river-raft mishap, which means your
The climber estimates it will take her 45 minutes to get to the top. However, group must not exceed the range of the walkie-talkies (3.0 miles). However,
you are concerned that the rope might be too short to reach the bottom of the you do have a laser rangefinder to help you measure distances as you navigate
cliff (it is exactly 30.0 m long). If it is too short, she’ll have to climb back with the compass. After a few hours of hiking, you find the perfect plateau on
down (another 45 minutes) and you will be too far behind schedule to get to which to mount the sensor. You have carefully mapped your path from base
your destination before dark. As you contemplate how to determine whether camp around lakes and other obstacles: 550 m West (W), 275 m S, 750 m W,
the rope is long enough, you notice that the late afternoon shadow of the 900 m NE, 800 m W, and 400 m 30.0° W of S. The final leg is due south,
cliff grows as the sun descends over its edge. You suddenly remember your 2.20 km up a constant slope and ending at a plateau that is 320 m above the
trigonometry. You measure the length of the shadow from the base of the cliff level of base camp. (a) How far are you from base camp? Will you be able
to the shadow’s edge (144 ft), and the angle subtended between the base and to communicate with home base using the walkie-talkies? (b) What is the
top of the cliff measured from the shadow’s edge. The angle is 38.1°. Do you geographical direction from base camp to the sensor (expressed in the form
send the climber, or start backtracking to take another route? θ° south of west, etc.)? (c) What is the angle of inclination from base camp
73. M The Weather Monitor. Your South American expedition splits into to the detector?
two groups: one that stays at home base, and yours that goes off to set up a