Infographic: The typographic anatomy

By
Paredro Editorial
-
November 6, 2015
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Being a good graphic designer implies knowing everything about

typography, not only historical data, but also those related to typographic
anatomy, as this will allow you to choose appropriate fonts for your
projects.

Related notes
The origin of colors by country
7 things you should avoid if you are a freelance designer
The 3 keys to creating an impressive portfolio

Below we present an infographic that shows the most frequent features of

the types in a detailed and concise way.

So if you are still studying graphic design, it will be very useful for you to
consult, while if you are an advanced designer it will also be very useful for
you.

Anatomy of typography
Manuel Rivas March 21, 2011 5 Comments

All of us who work closely with design or in places where design has weight,
as is the case with journalists, know something about fonts. In most cases,
this knowledge is reduced to the differentiation between serif types (or with a
finish - from Roman, new Roman and Egyptian, we don't even talk -), sans
serif (without a finish, grotesque or dry wood) and, in some cases, scripts
(those that simulate manual writing). But there is a whole world of type
unknown to most people: the anatomy of typography.
Visually we could show it like this:

Anatomy of typography obtained from MentExpansiva

According to Wikipedia, the anatomy of a font is defined by (in brackets, my
additions):
 Capital Height – This is the height of the high case letters [basically the capital
letters].
 X-Height : Height of the lowercase letters, the lowercase letters, excluding
ascenders and descenders.
 Ring : it is the closed curved shaft formed by the letters b, p and o.
 Ascendant : stem containing the low case letter and protruding above the x
height, such as the letters b, d and k.
 Antler : main feature of the letter that defines it as its most essential form or part.
 Upright horns : These are the main or oblique horns of a letter, such as in L, B,
V or A.
 Wavy shaft or spine : it is the main feature of the uppercase letter S or
lowercase.
 Transverse shaft : horizontal feature of the letters A, H, fo t.
 Arm : terminal part that projects horizontally or upward and is not included
within the character, as pronounced in the letters E, K and L.
 Tail : hanging oblique shaft that forms some letters, such as R or K.
 Descending : Low box letter shaft that is below the baseline, as is the case with
the letters p and g.
 Inclination : angle of inclination of a type [it may or may not be italic, since
there are typography that, for example, are italic - that is, inclined forward - in
their normal style].
 Baseline : the line on which the height rests [some fonts have characters that do
not rest on this baseline, such as the numbers of the Georgia font, for example]
 Ear : it is the ending or terminal that is added to some letters such as g, o and r.
 Burr : is the space that exists between the character and its edge.
 Serif, finish or grace : it is the stroke or end of a shaft, arm or tail.
In Typography Deconstructed they are presented in a different way and in
English.
UPDATE : Very late I discovered Anatomy of the Letter , by Some Tough
Guys , a highly recommended blog about typography .

Typography also has anatomy

11/08/2017

by Mari Carmen Chueco

0 comments

Typography is a design and communication element made up of symbols and characters

that are different from each other. They have their own ergonomics, a particular anatomy
to distinguish one type from another. Typography itself is the reflection of an era, an
example that we can see in letters such as Art Nouveau, whose quality came to represent
an artistic, architectural movement and, in itself, a cultural evolution. In this post, we will
review the parts of a letter to better understand and distinguish its classification.
Before continuing, we must distinguish, within the definition of typography, two definitions.
And the same word is made up of two others.
Type: Refers to the mold used to make the words in the old printing press. With this tool,
entire books were created, letter by letter.
Graphics: Concept that translates as writing or recording. In other words, it is the quality of
our own writing or any other writing.
In short, quality of the letter is the most accurate 'translation' for this case.
In the following image we can see the type described above and from there, the different
parts of the structure of the letter. We can see these sections in any design program once
we select the Text tool. They help us layout, align the letters or compose them following
these basic lines. They are 'respect' spaces between letter and letter, letter and baseline,
etc.
Knowing the definition of these basic guidelines, we move on to describe the different parts
of a letter. To do this we use color coding for each of the parts.
There are other definitions or 'rules' within typographic anatomy but they affect the
paragraph, other parts of the text itself.
So much for the theoretical part of the anatomy of the letter. I invite you to investigate this
topic. It is very enriching and you have many sources, as well as varied information at a
creative and artistic level, as well as design.
Knowing each of the parts that make up fonts is not only important for
those who love fonts, but because only by knowing the presence or
absence of the elements will you be able to realize their functions and take
this into account to appropriately choose one. typography for your projects.

You should also note that fonts have been modified over time, so their
elements have been added, lost, stylized according to the contextual
reasons of the moment.

The typographic anatomy is the historical reflection of the design, because

as you well know, for a long time letters with serifs or also known as serifs
were used, but in contemporary times—at least until recently—serifs were
the preferred ones to use in print, while sans serifs were more appropriate
for mobile devices and now this has changed.

Furthermore, knowing these terms perfectly will help you distinguish type
families, fonts and styles.

Typographic Anatomy (Concepts,

Parts and Terms)
January 18, 2019 by Edwin Ortiz

It is basically the description of the different parts of a letter or text

, which are made up of a series of terms that I will be explaining in
detail in this article.
The first thing I am going to talk to you about are the invisible lines
that make up a letter or text , in them we find:
typographic-anatomy
Baseline , as its name indicates, is the basis of our letter and future
text.
And to determine the size of the lowercase letters we have Line X or
Height X , this will determine the size of the lowercase letters and
some special characters.
You may also be interested in: The Best Graphics Tablets of 2018
Characters that exceed the line x are called ascenders , and their
size is determined by the line above. Likewise, characters that
exceed the baseline are called descenders , and their size is
determined by the bottom line.
And the sum of these heights results in the total size of the letter
or text , represented in points. Knowing this, we are going to see the
terms that make up a typography.
but first watch this video.

Knowing this, I am going to leave you with the most important parts
of typographic anatomy and what you should know about them.
 Parts of typographic anatomy
APEX
Union of two poles at the top of the letter.

APOPHIGE
Small curved line that links the vertical shaft with the terminals or
finials.

POLE
Main feature of the letter that defines its essential form. Without
her, letter would not exist.

ASCENDING HORN
Shaft of the letter that protrudes above the height of the X (middle
eye).

DESCENDING HANDLE
Handle of the letter that is below the baseline.
WAVY ANTL OR THORN
Main feature of the S or the s.

PROFILE, FILLET OR BAR

Horizontal line between verticals, diagonals or curves.

ARM
Horizontal or diagonal line that arises from a vertical shaft.

LOOP OR BELLY
Curved line that encloses a countershape.

LINE
Lower extension of some features.
COUNTERFORM OR COUNTERPUNCH
Internal space of a letter totally or partially enclosed.

CROSS OR CROSSBOARD
Horizontal line that crosses some point of the main shaft.

NECK
Stroke that joins the head with the tail of the g.

SPUR
Extension that articulates the union of a curved line with a straight
one.
DROP, TEAR OR BUTTON
End of a stroke that does not end in a grace or finish, but with a
rounded shape.

SHOULDER OR ARCH
Curved stroke that emerges from the main stem of some letters
without ending up closing.

RIBBON
Line that joins the curve with the main shaft.

BUTTONHOLE
Loop created on the descender of the low case g.

EAR
Small stroke located at the head of the low case g.
PAW
Diagonal stroke that supports some letters. It can also be called a
queue.

SERIF, FINISH OR GRACE

Terminal stroke of an antler, arm or tail. It is an ornamental highlight
that is not essential for the definition of the character, there being
alphabets that lack them (sans serif).

NAIL OR HOOK
End of a stroke that does not end in a finish, but with a small
projection of a stroke.

VERTEX
Exterior meeting point between two strokes at the bottom of the
letter.
JEISSI

Anatomy of a typeface
WRITTEN BY JUAN MARTÍN · LEAVE A COMMENT

Any typeface has a more or less complicated development process. From the
simplest wooden ones to the decorative ornamental ones, they have to go through
a very elaborate study and follow mandatory guidelines and standards in order to
become usable sources.
 Table of contents [ hide ]
 How a font is created
o Font Terminology
 Stem or antler
 Upright pole
 Bar, fillet, profile or crossbar
 Serif or serif
 Sin serif (Sans-serif)
 Upward
 Falling
 Foot
 Terminal or Drop
 Shoulder or arch
 Eye, internal white or hollow
 Opening
 Ring or belly
 Arm
 Ear
 Ligature or neck
 Eyelet or loop
 Transverse pole, crossbar or cross
 wavy antler or spike
 Apex
 Vertex
 Streak
 Line
 Spur
 Base line
 x height
 Capital Height
 Line spacing
 Box
 Kerning or kerning
 Traking or spacing between letters
How a font is created

The branches of design extend to many fields, some of them unknown to many,
one of them is the Font Designer whose work is broader than giving a name to a
letter so that it appears in the drop-down menu of the programs.

The number of terms and standards used is immense, even more so when there is
no general agreement to name the same aspect or characteristic.

This is due to translations made by third parties that have been spread, believing
them to be correct, or due to nomenclatures made personally. As there is no body
that regulates this aspect, there may be different words that define the same
aspect.

For that reason I am going to reduce the list a little so that it is not too heavy by
referring to this fact with several possible names, since many qualities appear or
not depending on the typeface designed.

Font Terminology

For all those who are starting out in the world of typography, whether to design a
new type of font or to be able to use them in some projects with greater ease, I
leave you below the description of the most important parts that you need to know.
 Stem or antler
The stem or stem is the most important part with which a typeface is formed, it tells us the
thickness and size that all the letters within the same family will have and can be found in
some letters with the name of the stroke. Without him there would be no typography

Upright pole
The upright refers to the main strokes that make up a letter, such as "L", "B", "V" or "A",
whether vertical or oblique.

Bar, fillet, profile or crossbar

The bar can be known by the names of fillet , profile or crossbar . This element is a
horizontal stroke that passes through the center of the uppercase letters "A" or "H" or
below the eye of a lowercase "e."
 Serif or serif
The strokes attached to the shaft or that end in open ends to it, are known as serifs ( serif
in English), are decorative or ornamental elements. This term also refers to typefaces that
have been designed with this feature. Fonts that lack these serifs are known as sans-serif.

« Serif » comes from the Dutch word « schreef » whose translation can be
interpreted as «writing lines».

Sin serif (Sans-serif)

The typeface « Sans-serif » refers to the category of typefaces that have been designed
without serif (serif) and have no ornaments.

The term "s ans " comes from French and means " without ."
 Upward
Some lowercase letters exceed the height of x , this area above the rest of the lowercase
letters is known as ascending and is typical of the letters "b", "d", "h", "k" and "l".

Capital letters are not ascenders .

Falling
When the letters exceed the baseline on which the typeface rests, a zone called
descending is formed. Lowercase letters such as "g", "j", "p", "q" and "y" have descenders.

Unlike ascenders, some capital letters may be designed to exceed the baseline,
and this area would be descending.
 Foot
As a general rule, the foot appears in fonts designed with a serif (serif) and at the bottom
of the shaft or stem . It rests on the baseline .

Terminal or Drop
This decorative element can be found at the end of a shaft or stem other than a serif .
These finials can be of different types, when the shape is round it is known as a drop ,
teardrop or button , while if it is of another type, for example conical, it is known as a
terminal .
 Shoulder or arch
It is a curved stroke that does not finish closing and that comes out of the main shaft, the
shoulder is a characteristic of some letters such as "h", "m" or "n".

Eye, internal white or hollow

The internal space left in some letters with a closed area such as "a", "b", "d" or "g" is
called the internal blank or gap . The letter "e" has its own name to designate this space
with the name eye .
 Opening
The opening is similar to the internal white of other letters, but it differs in that it does not
completely close. We can see the examples of "n", "c", "s" or "e" among others.

Ring or belly
The curved part that encloses the internal white or gap of letters such as "d", "b", "O" or "g"
is known as the ring or belly of the typeface. The curved strokes of the letter "c" are
sometimes known as a ring even though it is not closed.
 Arm
The arms are the horizontal strokes that come out of the main shaft and that help form
letters such as "E", "T" or "Z". It is a characteristic mainly of capital letters.

Ear
It is a characteristic of the lowercase "g". The ear is a decorative element that comes out
of the upper right part of the ring .
 Ligature or neck
The ligature or neck is also a genuine property of the lowercase letter "g" and is
responsible for joining the ring with the tail.

Eyelet or loop
In certain fonts, when the tail of the lowercase letter "g" is a closed element, it is called an
eyelet or loop.
 Transverse pole, crossbar or cross
The stroke that crosses the main shaft of a lowercase letter to form characters such as "t"
and "f" is called the crossbar or cross, although it is sometimes also called the crossbar to
unify the definition of the horizontal stroke that forms the "A", "H" or "e".

wavy antler or spike

In the letter "s", whether uppercase or lowercase, the main shaft is called the wavy shaft or
spine , due to its curved shape; without this stroke the letter could not be formed.
 Apex
The apex is a small distinctive mark that we can find in some letters. This is the case of the
upper part of the union of two strokes, as in the capital "A", or the diacritics of lowercase
letters such as "i" or "j". Spelling signs such as the tilde or the umlaut are also apexes .

Vertex
The vertex is formed at the bottom of a letter when two stems or strokes come together
 Streak
Some letters do not have a vertical shaft , but they still have a main element. In the case of
the "N", "M" or "Y", the shaft is in a diagonal position and is called the stroke .

Line
The tail is a very common decorative stroke in capital letters such as "Q", "K" or "R". Some
lowercase serif letters with a descending part such as "g", "j" or "y" can also be considered
tail .
 Spur
It serves as a union between a curved line and a straight line . Depending on the
typography, the spur may be more or less accentuated

Base line
The baseline is the imaginary line on which letters and other characters rest. Letters that
contain a descending part exceed this imaginary line.
 x height
This measurement is the height of the lowercase letters that rest on the baseline without
counting ascenders or descenders , it is marked by the size of the letter "x", hence its
name.

Capital Height
The height of the capital letter is also known as " Cap Line ", it is an invisible line that
indicates the maximum height of capital letters and some lowercase letters with an
ascender.
 Line spacing
It is the vertical space between lines of text and is measured from the baselines of each
line.

Box
It is the space that delimits the characters of a typographic font. There are two types of
boxes, the upper box for capital letters, capitals or capital letters, and the lower box for
lowercase letters.
 Kerning or kerning
Kerning is the space between two characters, the horizontal distance that can be manually
modified to add or remove space between two letters.

Traking or spacing between letters

We should not confuse it with kerning , tracking also affects the space between letters but
in a complete section, an entire word or a complete paragraph, unlike kerning which does
so between two consecutive characters.

A good place to locate the typeface we are looking for and be able to download it is
the font base that Google Fonts has with more than 800 font families.
 Typography
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Several problems were detected in this article on art and literature , please edit
it to improve it:

 It needs to improve its structure .

 This is a mere list of data or links without further explanation.
 It lacks sources or references that appear in an accredited source .
 It could be difficult to understand for readers interested in the topic.
These deficiencies were found on May 5, 2010.

Metallic typographic characters.

Typography (from the Greek τύπος [types] , 'stroke' or 'imprint', and γράφω [gráfο] , 'to write')
is the art and technique of handling and selecting type to create printing works.
The typographer Stanley Morison defined it as:
Art of correctly arranging printing material, according to a specific purpose: that of placing letters,
distributing space and organizing type with a view to providing the reader with maximum help in
understanding the verbally written text.
Morrison (1936)

The printing method that makes use of types is also called "typography or letterpress printing" (
letterpress ) as opposed to other existing methods, such as offset printing, digital printing, etc.

Index

 1 Definitions of typography
 2 History
o 2.1 Gothic and Renaissance
 2.1.1 Techniques
 2.1.2 The first Roman typeface families, classic or serif
o 2.2 Industrialization, 19th century: linotype and monotype
o 2.3 Photocomposition
 o 2.4 Digital era: TeX, PostScript, desktop publishing
 3 Characteristics of the types
o 3.1 Anatomy of the letter
 4 Classification of types
o 4.1 Historical classification
o 4.2 Classification by shape (serif/sans-serif)
o 4.3 Monospaced/adjusted
o 4.4 Those who print
o 4.5 The Whites
 5 Typography: typographic measurements
 6 Metric
 7 Typographic elements
o 7.1 Justification or alignment
o 7.2 Spacing ( tracking )
o 7.3 Width or thickness
o 7.4 Line spacing
 8 Digital typography
o 8.1 Typography for web
o 8.2 Computer fonts
 9 Teaching
o 9.1 Studies in Spain and Latin America
 10 See also
 11 References
o 11.1 Bibliography
 12 External links

Definitions of typography
Typography is called the task or trade and industry that deals with the choice and use of types
(letters designed with a unity of style) to develop a printing task, which refers to the elements
letters , numbers and symbols belonging to printed content, whether in physical or digital
format.
It is important to keep in mind what you want to communicate, because this will define which
type is the most representative for the intended intention.
Microtypography or detail typography
The term Mikrotypografie ('microtypography') was first applied in a speech given at the
Munich Typographical Society. It has since become widespread in the specialized
literature. However, it can also be replaced by an English word, Detailtypografie ("detail
typography"). It includes the following items: the letter, the space between letters, the
word, the space between the words, the line spacing and the column. 1 It has three
important functions: visual weight, kerning and line spacing.
Macrotypography
Macrotypography focuses on the typeface, the style of the letter and the body of the
letter.
Editing Typography
It brings together typographic issues related to families, letter size, spaces between
letters and words; intertype and interline and the measure of line and column or box,
that is, those units that grant a normative character. 2
 Creative Typography
This contemplates communication as a visual metaphor, where the text not only has a
linguistic functionality, and where sometimes, it is represented graphically, as if it were
an image. 2

History [ edit ]
 For before the invention of the printing press, see: Manuscript and
Calligraphy .
Gothic and Renaissance

Copyist monk in a scriptorium .

Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry : texture font style.

42-line Bible by J. Gutenberg (letter texture).

Arch of Titus : Roman inscription showing the capitals that served as inspiration for the
first Venetian typographers.

The printing press in Europe developed at the height of the Renaissance ;

However, Johannes Gutenberg 's first prints such as the 42-line Bible used a
font style from the Gothic period which was called texture .
The first movable type, invented by Johann Gutenberg , and the round or
Roman typeface that followed in Italy, imitated the handwritten style of those
countries in vogue at the time.
Although it is now known that the Chinese had already experimented with
ceramic movable type in the 11th century, Gutenberg is recognized as the
father of movable type. He lived in Mainz (Germany) and was a goldsmith by
trade, but he acquired technical knowledge of the art of printing. Prints had
been made from hand-carved blocks of wood many years before.
In 1440 he began a series of experiments that, ten years later, would result in
the invention of the printing press using movable type. He used his knowledge
of existing technology and materials—the screw press, oil-based inks, and
paper—but it was the manufacture of type to which he devoted much of his
efforts.
As a goldsmith he knew very well the modeling, mixing and casting of metals,
which allowed him to develop a method for manufacturing types. It involved
engraving each character in reverse relief on a steel die that was embedded
with a mallet into the die (a copper bar). The die was placed in the matrix, a
master mold to cast each letter, according to a process called justification. The
matrix was then placed in an adjustable hand mold into which an alloy of lead
and antimony was poured, thereby modeling each of the types. The visible
fruits of his labors are the 42-line Bible , in 1445, the oldest book printed in the
Western world, although he printed Indulgence of Mainz the previous year, for
which he used a cursive style of Gothic script, called bastarda .
The first round typefaces that appeared in Italy between the years 1460 and
1470 were based on humanist handwriting. A renewed interest in the
Carolingian minuscule had led to a refinement in its design, the result being
the final project for the first Roman type.
After 1460, leadership in the development of movable type passed from
Germany to Italy, the artistic center of the Renaissance. In 1465, in Subiaco ,
near Rome, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pennartz, two Germans who had
moved to Italy, influenced by Gutenberg's work, created a hybrid type, a
mixture of Gothic and Roman characteristics. In 1467 they moved to Rome
and by 1470 they had created a new set of letters, based on humanist writing.
Meanwhile in Venice, in 1469, the da Spira brothers created another Roman
type, superior to the previous one. Despite this, in 1470 Nicholas Jenson
created a typeface that surpassed all those designed at the time in Italy and
which he continued to perfect, creating a new one six years later and known
as white letter Roman , used for the printing of Nonius Peripatetica . Since
then, Jenson's proportions have served as inspiration for type designs.
Although the predominant style in Italy was Roman, it was not the only one.
Even Jenson continued to produce books in Gothic print, as did many others.
In 1483, unusually, the German Erhard Ratdolt printed Eusebius using Gothic
and Roman script together.
During the Middle Ages , book culture revolved around Christian monasteries,
which could be said to have served as publishing houses in the modern sense
of the term. The books were not printed, but written by monks specialized in
this task who were called copyists ; They carried out their work in a place that
was found in most monasteries called scriptorium , which had a library and a
room with a type of desk similar to the lecterns in today's churches. In this
place, the Monks transcribed the library books, whether commissioned by a
feudal lord or another monastery.
During the Gothic style, Europe gradually returned to an economic system
dependent on the cities—and not on the countryside as it was traditionally
during almost the entire Middle Ages—which determined the birth of guilds ,
which gave way to greater production. from books. The books, generally
religious, were commissioned by patrons that were given to a guild of book
artists, which had specialists trained in signs, decorative capitals, letter
decoration, galley correction and binding; Since this was a completely
artisanal process, a 200-page book could take 5 to 6 months, and
approximately 25 sheep skins were required to make the vellum where it was
written and illustrated with egg tempera, gouache and a primitive form. of oil.
The cities that strengthened the most during the Gothic period were those of
northern Europe, such as Paris , London and a large number of German cities,
which were the first to adopt the guild system; In addition to this, the city
determined the birth of universities, which increased the demand for
manuscripts and raised the need to find a new, massive and much more
economical way of producing books.
Techniques [ edit ]
Paper reached the West, following the routes of the caravans that came from
the Far East in Asia towards the Mediterranean Sea , until it reached the Arab
world , and they, in turn, brought the invention to Europe during the Arab
invasions that reached Spain. .
In a short time, approximately towards the middle of the 14th century , the first
paper mills spread from Spain to France , Italy , Great Britain and Germany .
The same path that paper took, so did woodcut , another Chinese invention.
The first manifestations of this printing system could be seen in card games
and religious images. Because these were the first designs to be introduced
into an illiterate culture, they represented the first manifestation of the
democratization of the art of printing in Europe . These images were loaded
with signs and symbols, which forced a logical deduction. Woodcut allowed
books to be within reach of the common people, most of whom were illiterate
and for this reason, the block book had very little text and many illustrations,
which were understood by anyone, unlike of the text that needed the literacy
of the population.
This system, however, was still quite expensive, since it took a long time to
engrave each letter and illustration on the wood, which meant that they were
very short books, approximately 30 to 50 pages.
The first block books were printed with a hand stamp and sepia or gray ink,
which would later be replaced by black ink. After the text and illustrations were
printed, they were colored by hand with the same technique that was applied
in Gothic manuscripts.
Some engravers who made block books, trying to simplify their work, tried to
engrave each letter independently to use it several times in different books,
but since wood is a very malleable material, the letters became deformed after
a few impressions. In the middle of the 15th century, a new invention arose,
which received different names, including "movable type printing system",
"typography" and "printing press".
The first to carry out a printing process using movable metal type in the West
was the German Johannes Gutenberg , who produced his first prints between
the years of 1448 and 1450. It should be noted that although the development
of this printing process is mainly European, it occurred thanks to certain
changes that occurred in medieval Europe :

 The Arab invasions of the Hispanic peninsula, which produced the

meeting of two cultures, which stimulated the production of ideas in
medieval European society. Thanks to this meeting, Europe had its first
contacts with new ways of thinking that were linked to new sciences such
as algebra, the Arab mathematical system and new scientific models.
 The progressive commercial exchange of Europe with the Far East
brought with it new materials and inventions such as the compass , paper
and ink , the latter two of utmost importance for the development of
modern printing systems, since at the time, in Europe , editorial production
was based on raw materials such as vellum (skin) and dyes of mineral
origin that were unsuitable for printing on paper.
 When new trade routes were established, it is almost certain that new
techniques would have arrived in Europe, such as oriental reproduction
systems, including engraving and serial printing with wooden blocks, very
similar to the movable type printing system. but it was not developed
massively in the Far East due to the pictographic writing system of these
cultures.
This is how Gutenberg adapted a press, and cast thousands of movable metal
types, which could be adapted to the press by means of a box called
typographic. In medieval block printing, light water ink extracted from oak galls
was used, which was very well absorbed by the wood, but in metal type it ran
or smudged. To produce a thick, sticky ink, Gutenberg used boiled linseed oil,
which he then colored with smoke pigment. The only thing that was done by
hand in the typographic print was the design of the capital letter and the
application of its color.
In the illuminated manuscripts, the books had a generous amount of images
that were gradually suppressed from the typographic books due to the
technological impossibility of the time of casting an entire image in metal;
Because the production of an illuminated manuscript was extremely
expensive, block and typographic printing made it possible to reduce these
costs, thus ensuring that writing, as well as information, spread and produced
changes of thought in Europe, which would bring reforms. , counter-reforms
and revolutions.
The first Roman, classical or serif typeface families [ edit ]

The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili of Francesco Colonna, a book printed in classical or

Roman typeface by Aldo Manucio in 1499.

By 1500, Gutenberg's invention had been so widely disseminated that there

were already approximately 1,100 printing presses in operation in Europe. In
the Germanic countries the most used font style was fraktur (although the type
used in the first Gutenberg Bible was "texture"). 3 Unlike Germany, in southern
Europe the custom in the Middle Ages was to use the Carolingian lowercase
along with the Roman square capitals adapted from the inscriptions found in
the ruins of the Roman Empire , such as Trajan's Column ; For this reason,
this style of writing served as a model for the first Italian printers to create
classic or serif typeface families (also called "gavilanes" or "remates"). The
first typeface with serifs appeared in the year 1465, later, typographers and
printers of the stature of Nicolas Jenson and Aldo Manucio perfected these
first casts, making them more stylized and refined in addition to including a
new style of letter that was called " italics ", which was taken from the
chancellor's calligraphy of the time; Currently, this style of lettering is called
"italic" (after the country of origin) or "italics", and it is used to highlight words
chosen by the editor, foreign words and quotations in a text.
These first Roman types, classical or serif, were given the name Venetian
style , since the main Italian printing presses that produced them had been
established in the city of Venice.
In France, it is worth highlighting the typographer and printer Claude
Garamond , who created between the 1530s and 1550s a French typographic
family based on the Venetian style, which over time became the standard of
his time and others that followed.
Industrialization, 19th century: linotype and monotype [ edit ]
During industrialization, improvements were made in almost all tasks related
to typography: in type design , Linn Boyd Benton patented the pantographic
engraver in 1885 for making matrices and punches; 4 in composition, two
composing machines were invented, the monotype in 1886, where each letter
of the mold is cast in relief separately, and in the linotype in 1887 5 each entire
line is cast separately (hence its name), and when printing is finished, each
line is melted again to create new lines.
Artistic movements are closely related to typography and its design are:
Futurism , Dadaism , Russian Constructivism , De Stijl movement and
Suprematism .
Photocomposition [ edit ]
Main article: Photocomposition

After the Second World War, the first steps were taken in the creation of
machines that would allow mechanical typesetters to be replaced by
photographic systems, but it was not until 1956 when the first phototypesetting
machine was marketed, improving the traditional linotype and monotype
machines.
In the 1960s, the use of cathode ray tubes increased productivity and had a
great impact on the printing industry. 6
Digital age : TeX, PostScript, desktop publishing
PostScript is a language that encodes descriptive information, regardless of
resolution or system.

Characteristics of the types [ edit ]

Main article: Typeface

 Typographic elements: Á á É é Í í Ó ó Ú ú Ü ü Ñ ñ • ¡¿ «» - † º ª • Â Å â Ĉ
ĉÊêŜŝ•ČčĆćĐ𩹮ž•ÄäËëÖöÜü•Çç•ĀāåĒēĪīŌōŪ
ū•ß•ÐðÞþ•Æ挜•–—•~|°§→•≈±−×¹²³•'“'”•£€•Αα
ΒβΓγΔδ•ΕεΖζΗηΘθ•ΙιΚκΛλΜμ•ΝνΞξΟοΠπ•ΡρΣσς
ΤτΥυ•ΦφΧχΨψΩωøØ
Anatomy of the letter
Parts that make up a type:

 Caps Height: This is the height of the tall case letters.

 x-height : height of the lowercase letters, the lowercase letters, excluding
ascenders and descenders.
 Ring: it is the closed curved shaft formed by the letters "b, p and o."
 Ascendant: a stem that contains the low case letter and protrudes above
the x height, such as the letters "b, d and k."
 Antler: main feature of the letter that defines it as its most essential form
or part.
 Upright horns: These are the main or oblique horns of a letter, such as "L,
B, V or A."
 Wavy shaft or spine: it is the main feature of the capital letter "S" or
lowercase "s".
 Transverse shaft: horizontal feature of the letters «A, H, fo t».
 Arm: terminal part that projects horizontally or upward and is not included
within the character, as pronounced in the letters "E, K and L."
 Tail: hanging oblique shaft that forms some letters, such as "R or K."
 Descending: The shaft of the low box letter that is below the baseline, as
is the case with the letters "p and g."
 Tilt: angle of inclination of a type.
  Baseline: the line on which the height rests.
 Ear: it is the ending or terminal that is added to some letters such as "g, o
and r."
 Burr: is the space that exists between the character and its edge.
 Serif, finish or grace: it is the stroke or end of a shaft, arm or tail.

Classification of types [ edit ]

Main article: Typographic classification

Typefaces are classified through styles by their shape and also by the time in
which they were designed.
Historical classification
The first movable type created by Johannes Gutenberg imitated the
handwriting of the Middle Ages . For this reason, it is not surprising that the
first types that began to be merged were the Gothic or fraktur letter in
Germany and the humanistic or Roman (also called Venetian) letter in Italy.
The evolution of typographic design has made it possible to establish a
classification of typefaces by styles generally linked to the periods in which the
typeface families were created.
Humanistic or Venetian
Those first types created in Italy, shortly after the printing press was invented, are
known by this name; They imitated the Italian calligraphy of the time. Likewise, those
foundries that, without being from this time (15th century), are inspired by them are
called humanistic. It is created on the outskirts of the city of Venice, Mestre. Generating
great controversy about the exact origin of this type of calligraphy.
The sans serif type is based on Roman proportions. The inscriptional capitals and the
low case design of the Roman ones of the 15th–16th centuries. They are not monoline
and are a version of the Roman one but without serifs. Some examples of these types:
Gill Sans , Stone Sans, Optima .
Edward Johston, calligrapher of the time, with his creation of the Palo Seco type for the
London Underground in 1916 meant a great step in relation to the usual characteristics
until then present in these types.
Ancient or Roman
Historically, ancient types are those used by Aldo Manucio in his Venetian printing
press starting in 1495 and all those that have been made later but are influenced by
them or are later adaptations. Like the humanistic typographic families, they have a
great calligraphic influence but are more refined, because the matrix carvers had
acquired more skill in making typographic pieces.
Transitional or real
They are from the 17th century belonging to the first Industrial Revolution (England).
The main characteristic of these is that several characters enter the same line, the
apex is in the shape of a drop, and the lowercase letters are higher than in the case of
humanists and garaldas.
These characteristic shapes also correspond to the fact that they are used in the
famous TIMES newspaper (in which they use the Times New Roman font created by
Morrison). The narrow and tall letters achieve good visualization for the reader and
several characters enter on the same line, this would help them to perfectly
accommodate the information.
modern
In 1784 Firmín Didot created the first modern type. This had formal characters such as
a deep modulation and contrast between the strokes and clear finishes that in another
era would not have been able to be carved. This style was improved with the creation
of the Italian Bodoni and was used as a running text until the beginning of the 19th
century .
Egyptians or Mechanics
They are those with great finishes that deviate from traditional features such as
calligraphy. Also called mechanical, they exaggerate the finishes of modern ones,
producing a striking appearance, revealing firmer lines. The contrasts of the stroke are
variants, the mechanical types are characterized by their monolinear structure and
flattened features, simplified geometric shapes are also perceived and in general of a
single thickness in the stroke, the serif is almost the same thickness as the batons of
the letters . They emerged from industrialization at the end of the 18th century and the
beginning of the 19th century. Examples: Serifa, Rockwell, Clarendon.
Dry stick or sans serif
Those that do not have finishes. It was not possible to establish a date on which the
first ones appeared since in some catalogs tall case letters without endings appeared
as early as the 19th century.
Classification by shape
(serif/sans-serif) [ edit ]

Example of a dry stick or sans-serif font.

One way to classify letters is whether

or not they have "serifs." Serifs , or
serifs , are understood to be the
small lines found at the ends of the
letters, mainly in the vertical or
diagonal strokes. The usefulness of
serifs is to facilitate reading , since
they create in the eye the illusion of
a horizontal line along which the eye
moves when reading.
Letters without serifs or sans serifs
are those that do not have any type
of ending; They are generally
considered inappropriate for a long
text since reading is uncomfortable
because there is a visual tendency to
identify this type of letters as a
succession of consecutive vertical
sticks.
For this reason, serif letters (also
called Roman ) are used in
newspapers , magazines and
books , as well as in publications
containing long texts. Letters without
serifs or sans serifs are used in
headlines, labels, advertisements
and publications with short texts in a
brave style. Given the appearance of
electronic media, plain letters have
also become the standard for
publishing on the web and electronic
formats since, due to the low
resolution of monitors, serifs end up
distorting the type. This is because
small curves are very difficult to
reproduce on screen pixels.
Monospaced/adjusted [ edit ]
We can also classify them
depending on their use in a more
colloquial way, as typographers
currently use on a typesetting
machine with Heidelberg Aspas or
Minerva.
Those who print
They are the letters or types,
borders, signs, numbers... in short,
all the characters that can be printed.
The Whites [ edit ]
They are pieces shorter than the
type and are used to create line
spacing, between words, spaces,
ingots or impositions.

Typography:
typographic
measurements [ edit ]
Main article: Typography
Metric
Most scriptures share the notion of a
baseline: an imaginary horizontal line
upon which characters rest. In some
scripts, there are parts of glyphs that
go below the baseline slope that
spans the distance between the
baseline and the lowest descending
glyph of a typeface, and the part of a
glyph that descends below The
bottom line has the well-known
descendant. Conversely, rise
traverses the distance between the
baseline and the top of the glyph
reaching as far as possible from the
baseline. Rise and slope may or may
not include distance added by
accents or diacritics.
In Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts
(sometimes collectively designated
as LGC) they may refer to the
distance from the bottom to the top
of glyphs, the lowercase (bad line)
as x-height, and the part of a glyph
that rises above the x-height as
ascendant. The distance from the
baseline to the top of the rise or
regular capital glyphs (cap line) is
also known as the cap height. 7 The
height of the ascender can have a
dramatic effect on the readability and
appearance of a casting. The
quotient between the x-height and
the height of the rise or the cap often
serves to characterize it. To measure
the height of the letters, a typometer
is used, which is a graduated ruler
where centimeters and millimeters
appear on one side, and ciceros and
points on the other.

Typographic
elements [ edit ]
Justification or alignment
Justifying or aligning text is the way
to arrange the lines in the box. That
is, it is the way they align with each
other, leaning on one side, in the
center or achieving a whimsical
shape. Taking into account that the
word "box" appeals to the ancient
method of arranging types (letters) in
a wooden container to form columns,
we can clearly imagine the lines
leaning to the left on a column, for
example.
The names given to the ways of
justifying a text vary occasionally
between different countries, but we
can say that the most common are:

 In block , block or box, which are

those in which the lines go from
side to side in a column.
 Aligned or Crazy to the left,
those that lean to the left without
the requirement of reaching the
end of the column.
 Aligned or Crazy to the right.
 In pineapple or Aligned to the
center, being the ones that are
centered one under the other.
Nowadays, columns of text are also
applied in whimsical ways either
following the outline of a figure or
creating a figure with themselves.
Creativity has developed portraits
formed with the text of the
character's biography and endless
applications are commonly seen in
legible or practically illegible
deformations, seeking to attract the
observer's attention. Justifying is
then simply giving any format to the
text in question.
Spacing ( tracking )
Spacing or tracking refers to the
space that exists between each pair
of words in a text in relation to the
square or width and height of the
body used.
Wide or thick
A second way of classifying letters is
according to their width or thickness,
that is, the space that each letter
occupies horizontally. From the
beginning of writing and calligraphy
 and of course typography, the first
teachers noticed that not all letters
were equal in width and for this
reason, the space between each one
of them should vary so that reading
was fluid. and balanced. Contrary to
this reasoning, the letters on the
typewriters each occupied the same
space, so that different spaces were
seen between them in the text.
Taking into account that not all
letters have the same width: An "m"
took up all the space, while an "i"
took up much less. If an "i" and an "l"
appeared in a row in the text, the
space between them was very large,
while if an "m" and an "o" appeared
in a row, the space was very small.
All of this resulted in considerable
reading discomfort, for example, in
the case of headlines or labels.
Below is an example of each of the
two types of letters:

 Lorem ipsum with Arial (offset

font):
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore
magna aliqua.
 Lorem ipsum with Courier
New 8 (uncompensated
font):
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor
incididunt ut labore et dolore magna
aliqua.
Line spacing
As the word says, line
spacing is the existing
separation between lines. It
is measured in points .

Digital typography
The word processors of
today's computers have a
wide range of types - also
incorrectly called, due to the
influence of English, font -,
both of one type and
another.
The Times New Roman font
was originally designed for
the English newspaper The
Times . This type of font
achieved great legibility and
excellent use of space,
which is why its use soon
became widespread in
printed media and, above
all, in the press. The great
popularity of Times New
Roman is a point in its favor
for its use even in electronic
media, but for long texts in
electronic format it can
cause fatigue, precisely
because the way in which
the eye perceives the edges
in this format is just the
opposite than on paper
since due to the low
resolution of the monitors,
the serifs end up distorting
the outline of the glyph. This
is because small curves are
very difficult to reproduce on
screen pixels. Obviously, the
separation between lines
also influences the
readability of an electronic
text. For letters and emails
both types of fonts are
appropriate, while for reports
and contracts (generally
long ones) serif fonts are
more suitable.
Typography for web [
edit ]
It is possible to affirm that all
types whose design is the
same or similar to classical
Latin (Roman) types are
those that offer the best
legibility. To date, the type
that offers maximum
legibility in printed
 documents is Times New
Roman designed by Stanley
Morison in 1932 to be used
especially for the London
newspaper The Times .
However, for the Internet,
there are those who
consider that one of the best
font families is Verdana ,
because it does not have
serifs that distort, which is
why it is one of the legible
ones even at tiny sizes on
monitors.
Computer typefaces
Main article: Typeface

The main formats used for

fonts in computing are: PS ,
True type and OpenType .

Teaching
Studies in Spain and
Latin America [ edit ]

 Higher School of Design

in Madrid, Spain
 Master in typographic
design. Center for
Gestalt Studies,
Veracruz, Mexico.
 CDT-UBA, Typography
Design Course.
University of Buenos
Aires, Argentina.

5 key points to write a good

essay
May 14, 2019 91

Respecting its structure, choosing an interesting topic and including

personal reflections are some of the key points
The introduction, development and conclusion are equally important in the development of your essay | Source:
Shutterstock
188

 For your academic success it is necessary to know how to write a good essay.

 With these tips you will have the necessary tools to write a good thesis.

 All parts of your essay are equally important, know how to write them
correctly.
It is very common that when writing an essay all the ideas we had disappear and
the mind goes blank.

In order for ideas to be organized, it is important to know the structure of this

type of monograph , but there are also other factors that influence its quality.
Below, we present 4 tips to keep in mind to do it correctly , according to the
portal How to do a good essay

1. Respect the structure

The main thing is to know the structure of the essays, which has an
introduction, a development and a conclusion .
The introduction is usually short, but it all depends on the size of our writing. Its
function is to introduce the reader to the topic and make them aware of what has
been said about the topic so far, that is, to present the background.

The development is nothing more and nothing less than the body of the essay .
This is where you must present the arguments that support the hypothesis.
Remember to include quotes, sources and references, as they give truth to the
work.

The conclusion is the final part of the essay. In it we can recapitulate the main
lines of argument following a line from the hypothesis and end by giving our
point of view or final resolution of the topic.

2. Choose an interesting theme

No matter how orderly the structure of the essay is, it is necessary that the topic
in question be of great relevance . Addresses current issues and writes with the
intended audience in mind. Check the local media and familiarize yourself with
the topics that are on the table.

3. Don't cover too many points

The essay does not attempt to exhaust all the possibilities of a topic, but rather
focuses only on a part of it. Avoid writing paragraphs and paragraphs on other
aspects of the topic at hand.
DO YOU STILL DON'T KNOW WHAT TO STUDY?
CHOOSE YOUR IDEAL CAREER

4. Use short sentences

This will give dynamism to the text and keep the reader's attention . It is a
way to avoid boring your audience and keep your ideas concrete.
5. Includes reflections
No matter how objective your essay should be, it is recommended that after the
conclusion you include a paragraph that stimulates reflection and attempts to
change the reader's perspective on the topic.

5 steps to make an easy and well-

done essay
March 13, 2019 by Viviana Garcia 20 comments

In this guide you will learn in 5 simple steps how to write an essay based on a
question or topic given by your school or university teacher. You can also create it
from a theme that you have defined.

Table of contents navigation

1. What to do before starting an academic essay

2. How to start writing an academic essay
3. How to structure an academic essay
4. How to choose the best title for your essay
5. What to do after finishing the test

Let's start by briefly defining what an essay is.

What is an essay and what is it for?

An essay is a personal interpretation on a specific topic. It must be written in

prose and in a formal and respectful tone. Briefly and clearly.

The word “essay” is derived from the Latin “ exagium ” and means “Presentation of
a case.” And unlike the scientific essay, it does not always require that your
opinions be supported with quotes or sources. Although doing so enriches it.

TO NOTE:
An essay serves to present an introduction to a deeper topic, based on a
critical evaluation of it. Its main goal is to convince the reader—or at least
suggest—about the ideas that the author has on a particular topic.

The essay should always be written thinking about a reader who does not know
(but understands) in depth the topic on which it is based.

Through an essay, your understanding of

specific ideas and your ability to develop
and argue can be evaluated.
NORMS.CO

And now… let's get to work!

1. What to do before starting an academic

essay
We recommend that you pay special attention to this first step because the
success of the other steps depends on it and, above all, achieving a job well done.

1.1 Analysis of the question about which you will write

the essay:
Essay questions are questions that pose a problem or a specific situation.

Its character can be literary, scientific, academic, social, political or artistic, among
others. They are usually made up of three fundamental parts (although some may
not expressly contain a question):

 An affirmation
 A question: which ones, how, where, what, why...
 A request: explain, define, give examples, support, express your opinion...

Normally the key theme is found in the statement. Pay special attention to this part.

A good strategy is to copy the question on paper or on your computer and highlight
the most relevant words: nouns, verbs, adjectives:
We share this example taken from the Oxford Dictionaries English page of the post
“how to understand the essay question” :

Assesses the risks of world war during the Cuban missile crisis.

The verb evaluate is the request they are making to the author.

World war, crisis, risks and Cuban missiles are nouns that stand out by themselves
within the phrase. They are the theme.

TO NOTE:

 Extract from the question the topic that the essay will discuss.
 Understand what they are asking you to develop from that question.
1.2 Analysis of the topic:
It is very likely that the topic on which you are going to write your essay is a topic
that you have previously seen in class or that you have read or studied on your
own, which will make the process easier.

But, if it is a topic that you do not know in depth, informing yourself before starting
to write is going to be crucial.

Don't worry! You don't have to be an expert on the topic, but you do have to
focus on what is most important for the question that has been asked.
Remember the previous point. The topic you are going to analyze is the topic that
you extracted from the analysis of the essay question.

Let's take the aforementioned example again:

The Cuban missile crisis is one of the topics you will have to investigate. And the
emphasis you must make is to establish the risks that a third world war could break
out due to this situation.

You see?

It is about doing a thorough analysis of the words that make up the essay question
in order to understand it in its entirety.

1.3 Plan the investigation:

 Do you have books on the subject?
 Are you a regular visitor to pages co-related to the topic of your essay?
 Do you attend discussion groups?
 Do you have contact with people who can shed light on the topic to be discussed
and serve as a secondary source to support your arguments for or against?

Everything that expands your knowledge on the subject will be of great help to
inform you, know other opinions and thus compare them with yours. And thinking
about it in an organized way will help you make the most of your time.

TO KEEP IN MIND : take note of those things that you consider relevant to you.
They will be essential when starting to write the essay.

2. How to start writing an academic

essay
Once you have clearly understood the question that you are going to develop with
the essay, and you have collected good information about the topic, you can begin
with step 2:

2.1 List of Ideas:

Helping yourself with your notes and all the information that you now have in your
mind about the topic, make a list of all the ideas that help you answer the essay
question.
TO KEEP IN MIND: remember that an essay is a personal writing, in which
through your opinion you will reveal your position on a topic, your ideas and way of
thinking.

2.2 List the topics and their order on paper:

An essay is made up of several development paragraphs, so on paper you must
plan how you are going to develop the topic. Create an order that you consider
important to develop the topic.

Why is it important that you organize the development of the topic in several
paragraphs? Because this way you will be able to present a main idea, defend or
support a position regarding the situation and provide references that support or
support your essay.

By doing it in several paragraphs it will be easier for the reader to understand the
entire text.

At this point, do not think about the final order of the essay but rather about the
order in which you are going to address the topic as such, related to the essay
question.

TO KEEP IN MIND: to write an academic essay there are no rules about its length,
you will define that and above all, the information it includes.

2.3 Start writing the draft:

The time has come! You can start writing.

If you like physical dictionaries, make sure you have one on hand or one of the
best online dictionaries that you like the most.

Is it advisable to start writing it directly on the computer?

We consider it to be a personal decision.

It all depends on your preferences. There are people who prefer to write on paper
and then transcribe the final text, while others prefer to write directly on the
computer and make corrections as they go.
What we do recommend and we emphasize this is that you always take notes
throughout the analysis of the essay question and the investigation of the topic.

Notes are one of the inputs that the author cannot do without.

3. How to structure an academic essay

The structure and parts of an essay are essential, for presentation and to give
continuity to the content.
3.1 – The introduction:
It is a short text that will tell your reader in broad strokes what they will find
throughout the essay.

Make sure it is a clear and short paragraph. And, attractive to hook the reader.

TO NOTE: It is very important that you be persuasive at this point! The introduction
is the first part of your essay, a gateway to a deeper and larger text.

3.2 The development of the theme:

Here are all the relevant ideas on the topic, your whys, your opinions, your
comparisons, your analyses, your position; everything that answers the essay
question.

This part also includes the evidence and evidence that supports your opinion.

3.3 Conclusions:
It is a brief summary of the most relevant ideas of the essay. If in the introduction
you attract the reader to read the essay, in the conclusions you leave important
points to think about.

3.4 The Bibliography / Webgraphy:

All the text and audiovisual supports on which you relied to research the topic.
4. How to choose the best title for your
essay
It is important that you know that the title in any text is a very important part
because the interest generated in the reader depends on it:

 Make a list of at least 10 titles that condense the topic of your essay.
 Test each title with your friends, colleagues or family.
 Ask them what they think your essay will be about when you read them.
 Choose the best.

TO NOTE:

 The title is the first thing your teacher and your readers will see.
 The title is the last thing you should write. Not the first. You know why? Exact!
because in the end the information you will have in your mind will be organized and
much clearer.
 Put yourself in the reader's shoes: when you were doing the research, which
information caught your attention the most: the one with fresh and simple titles or the
ones with confusing and far-fetched titles?
 Make the title credible and at the same time easy to understand.
 Let it not be too long. That can distract the reader and prevent them from reading
your essay.
 Make it consistent. That is, it is directly related to the theme developed throughout
the entire essay.

5. What to do after finishing the essay

Once you have finished your essay, you should pay special attention to those
details that sometimes, due to fatigue, escape our eyes.

The first thing you should do once you finish writing your essay is to get away from
the paper or the computer screen.

Go and do another activity. Go for a walk with your pet, watch an episode of a
series, prepare a meal as compensation for your dedication and effort, or simply
rest.

When you return, your mind and eyes will be rested and that will allow you to
detect typing, grammar, formatting or spelling errors:

 Read the entire essay.

 Correct typing errors as you go.
  Check the grammar (the meaning of the sentences).
 Check the grammar. And if you have doubts about a word, go to the dictionary
(physical or online) without hesitation.
 Correct the formatting if necessary (bold, italics, line spacing, etc.).

If you were asked to submit the essay as a written work is presented, this post will
be of great help to finalize the details before printing or sending it digitally: How to
present a written work .