.

Types of grounding for generators:

1. Generator grounding.

The neutral point of a generator is usually connected to ground. Facilitate the protection of the stator
winding and associated system. Grounding also prevents damage from transient surges in the event of a
ground fault or ferroresonance.

For high voltage generators, impedance is usually inserted into the stator ground to limit the magnitude
of the ground fault current.

There is a wide variation in the chosen ground fault current, with common values being:

Rated current

200A-400A (low impedance grounding)

10A-20A (high impedance grounding)

The main impedance-grounding methods for the generator are shown in Figure 1. Low values of ground
fault current can limit the damage caused by a fault, but at the same time make it difficult to detect a
fault towards the star point of the stator winding.

Except for special applications, such as marine, low voltage generators are normally grounded. Comply
with security requirements.

When a step-up transformer is applied, the generator and the lower voltage winding of the transformer
can be treated as an isolated system that is not influenced by the grounding requirements of the power
system.

(d) Distribution transformer earthing with overcurrent relay

Generator grounding methods.

Figure 1 - Generator grounding methods.

A grounding transformer or a series impedance. It can be used as the impedance. If a grounding
transformer is used, the continuous rating is generally in the range of 5-250 kVA. The secondary winding
is loaded with a resistance of a value that, when referenced through the transformer ratio, will pass the
chosen short-time ground fault current.

This is typically in the range of 5-20 A.

The resistor prevents the production of high transient overvoltages in the event of an arcing ground
fault, which it does by discharging the bound charge into the circuit capacitance. For this reason, the
resistive component of the fault current should not be less than the residual capacitance current.

This is the basis of design, and in practice. Values between 3-5 Ico are used.

It is important that the grounding transformer never becomes saturated. Otherwise, a very undesirable
ferroresonance condition may occur.

The normal rise in generated voltage above the nominal value caused by a sudden loss of load or field
forcing, as well as the doubling of flux in the transformer due to the application of point-in-wave voltage,
must be considered.

It is sufficient that the transformer is designed to have an emf primary winding point equal to 1.3 times
the nominal line voltage of the generator.

The setting should be no more than 33% of the generator's maximum ground fault current, and a lower
setting would be preferable, depending on rating considerations.
2.1.2 Sensitive ground fault protection

This method is used in the following situations:

Direct connection generators that operate in parallel.

Generators with high impedance neutral grounding, the ground fault current is limited to a few tens of
amperes.

Installations where the resistance of the ground fault path is very high, due to the nature of the terrain.

In these cases, conventional ground fault protection is of little use.

The ground fault current (residual) can be obtained. from the residual connection of the line CTs, a CBCT
connected to the line or a CT in the generator neutral. The latter is not possible if directional protection
is used. The bias voltage is generally the neutral voltage offset input to the relay, or the residual of the
three phase voltages, so a suitable VT must be used.

For Petersen Coil grounding, a vatometry technique can also be used.

For directly connected generators operating in parallel, directional sensitive ground fault protection may
be necessary. This is to ensure that a failed generator activates before there is a chance that the neutral
overcurrent protection will trip a healthy parallel generator.

When driven by a residually connected phase. In CTs, protection must be stabilized against incorrect
tripping with a transient spill current in the case of asymmetrical CT saturation when the phase fault or
input current is passed. of magnetization.

Stabilization techniques include adding impedance to the relay circuit and/or applying a time delay.
When the required protection setting is very low compared to the rated current of the phase CTs, it
would be necessary to employ a single CBCT for ground fault protection to ensure transient stability.
Since any generator in the parallel group can be grounded, all generators shall be equipped with neutral
overcurrent protection and sensitive directional ground fault protection.

The setting of the sensitive directional ground fault protection is chosen to coordinate with the
generator differential protection and/or neutral voltage shift protection to ensure that 95% of the stator
winding is protected.

Figure 2 illustrates the complete scheme, including optional blocking signals where difficulties occur in
coordinating the generator and downstream feeder ground fault protection.
 Figure 2 -
Comprehe
nsive
Ground fault protection for direct connected generators operating in parallel scheme
For cases (b) and (c) above, it is not necessary to use a directional facility. Care should be taken to use
the correct relay characteristic angle (RCA) setting - for example, if the grounding impedance is mainly
resistive, this should be 0°.
In isolated or very high impedance grounded systems, a –90° RCA would be used, since the ground fault
current is predominantly capacitive.

Directional sensitive ground fault protection can also be used for sinuous ground fault detection. In this
case, the relay element is applied to the generator terminals and is configured to respond to faults only
within the machine windings.

Therefore, ground faults in the external system will not result in relay operation. However, current
flowing from the system into a winding ground fault causes the relay to operate. It will not work on
grounded machine, so other types of ground fault protection must also be applied.

All generators must be installed, as any can be operated as a grounded machine.

Neutral voltage shift protection

In a balanced network, the addition of the three phase-to-ground voltages produces a nominally zero
residual voltage, since there would be little zero sequence voltage present.

Any ground fault will establish a zero sequence system voltage, resulting in a non-zero residual voltage.

This can be measured by a suitable relay element. The voltage signal must be derived from a VT that is
suitable, i.e. it must be capable of transforming zero sequence voltage, therefore 3 limbed types and
those without primary ground are not suitable.

This unbalance voltage provides a means of detecting ground faults.

The relay element must be insensitive to third harmonic voltages that may be present in the system
voltage waveforms, as these will add residually.

As the protection is not yet restricted, the voltage setting of the relay must be greater than the effective
setting of any downstream ground fault protection. Time must also be delayed to coordinate with said
protection.
Sometimes a second high-set element with a short time delay is used to provide fast-acting protection
against major winding ground faults.

Figure 3 illustrates the possible connections that can be used.

Figure 3 - Neutral Voltage Shift Protection

Indirectly connected generators:

As noted at the beginning of this article, a directly grounded generator-transformer unit cannot
exchange zero sequence current with the rest of the network and therefore there is no fault protection
rating problem at land.

The following paragraphs detail protection methods. For the various forms of impedance grounding of
generators:

Heavy Duty Grounding - Neutral Overcurrent Protection:

A current transformer mounted on the neutral conductor can drive an instantaneous and/or time-
delayed overcurrent relay element, as shown in Figure 4 below.

It is impossible to provide protection for the entire winding, and Figure 4 also details how the percentage
of covered winding can be calculated. For a relay element with an instantaneous setting, protection is
typically limited to 90% of the winding.
This is to ensure that the protection will not malfunction with zero sequence current during operation of
a primary fuse for a VT ground fault or with any transient overcurrent that may flow through the step-up
transformer interleaving capacitance for a VT ground fault. HV system.

A time delay relay is safer in this regard, and can be configured to cover 95% of the stator winding.

Figure 4 – Ground fault protection of high

resistance grounded generator stator
winding using a current element

Since the generating units under

consideration are generally large, instantaneous and time-delayed relay elements are often applied, with
settings of 10% and 5% of the maximum ground fault current respectively. This is the optimal
compromise in performance.

The portion of the coil left unprotected for a ground fault is at the neutral end. Since the voltage to
ground at this end of the winding is low, the probability of a ground fault occurring is also low.

Therefore, additional protection is often not applied.

Grounding the distribution transformer using a current element

In this arrangement, shown in Figure 5(a), the generator is connected to ground through the primary
winding of a distribution transformer. The secondary winding is equipped with a load resistor to limit the
ground fault current.
An overcurrent relay element energized from a current transformer connected in the resistance circuit is
used to measure the secondary earth fault current. The relay must have an effective setting equivalent
to 5% of the maximum ground fault current at the rated voltage of the generator, in order to protect
95% of the stator winding.

The response of the relay element to the third harmonic current must be limited to avoid incorrect
operation when a sensitive adjustment is applied.
 Figure 5 -
Generator
Winding Ground
Fault Protection:
Setting
distribution transformer ground

- Protection through a current element.

As discussed in the previous section “High Resistance Grounding – Neutral Overcurrent Protection”, the
protection should be delayed in time when a sensitive setting is applied, to avoid malfunction under
transient conditions.

It must also be rated with generator VT primary protection (for a VT primary ground fault). An operation
time in the range of 0.5s-3s is usual.

A less sensitive instant protection can also be applied. to provide rapid tripping for heavier ground fault
condition.
 Figure 6 - Winding Ground Fault Protection
generator: distribution transformer grounding

- Protection by means of a tension element:

Application of both voltage and current.Elements for a generator with distribution transformer
grounding provide some
advantages. The currently
operated function will
continue to operate in the
case of a short-circuited load
resistor and the voltage
protection still works in the
case of an open-circuit
resistor.
(b) Protection using a voltage element

However, neither scheme will work in the event of a flashover in the primary terminals of the
transformer or the neutral wire between the generator and the transformer during a ground fault.

A CT could be added at the neutral connection near the generator, to energize a high-set overcurrent
element to detect such a fault, but the fault current is probably high enough to operate the phase
differential protection.

Neutral voltage shift protection:

This can be applied in the same way as for directly connected generators. The only difference is that
there are no classification problems since the protection is inherently restricted.
GROUNDED SAFETY

INSTALLING THE GENERATOR, we finally address the grounding systems as they are especially related to
our safety. An electric shock can endanger a person's life. To safely use electrical generators, with the
exception of relatively small portable ones, we must always connect the ground connection.

GENERATOR GROUNDING

earth symbol:

When purchasing a generator of any size we easily find a screw identified with the ground symbol. The
correct thing to do is to use a green-yellow cable and connect it to a spike inserted into the surrounding
ground. We have just grounded the metal masses of the generator.
THE DIFFERENTIAL SWITCH

Interrupt differentials IV-II:

It is very important to familiarize ourselves with this device that protects people from indirect contact
with metal parts of defective receivers. It even protects us from those “cramps” that have sometimes
surprised us all when changing a light bulb. Currently, it is mandatory to install it in all receiving facilities.
The minimum sensitivity to protect people must be 30 mA. Once this current threshold is exceeded, the
supply must be instantly interrupted.
RECEIVING INSTALLATION, LANDS:

Since every receiving electrical installation must include its own ground connection, a new situation
arises when we find ourselves with two different ground connections: the one necessary for the
generator and the mandatory one for the installation. As we will see and in general "it is not worth
joining them." Small generators with a maximum output voltage of 250 V do not need grounding.

In the remaining cases, the technical regulations established by the current Low Voltage Electrotechnical
Regulations, in their complementary Technical Instructions (ITC's), must be followed. - Below we include
in PDF the protection measures proposed by this official regulation for the three possible distribution
schemes in Low Voltage: TT – IT – TN. But first we are going to see three real schemes incorporated into
our generators

SMALL GENERATORS THAT DO NOT REQUIRE GROUNDING

Fnguoñio group* sue no prKiún put to tiorra, 5,

generator generator

LIN SINGLE RECEIVER SEVERAL RECEIVERS

The nominal voltage of the alternator

between phases, if 8s !rifiiitolnO«?é!
upjn<ir,i 220 V.

The trogen gupegle alterer will be Class II . {Double

insulation according to UNE 203141, and iu qrado tin
protetein IIP) I will be suitable for the 1st cond-
A small generator (< 10 KVA) with single-phase voltage lower than 250 V is not
clones of the place tle vtilizactón IUNE 20324)
required to be grounded. This is because its two output conductors are not
connected to ground, on the contrary they are completely isolated from it. An
Pair? construction works, outdoor uses V lu
accidental contact between one of its live poles and ground has no potential and
stoneware aná nons recommends a mihim of
therefore no danger to people. What happens then with the differential switches?
IP54.
They would only protect in the event of serious damage to the alternator winding The receiver will be from All receivers are
with a connection to the chassis (exceptional but possible). Under normal w1 or II IUNE 20314) and roundel Clsse II IUNE
service conditions and only in this type of generators, its usefulness is reduced. w IPsnra suitable als 20314) and ju lP It will
However, the regulations require that the alternator and the receivers have conditions of the place
be adeto the conditions
when
utilization. of the place of use.
double insulation and that for outdoor use both have a sufficient degree of
protection.
OFFICIAL REGULATIONS: MP protection measures. grounding of electrical generators

Obtaining the system with neutral

To obtain it, generators or transformers are used as a source with the windings connected in the star
(Y).
1. Solidly grounded

It refers to the connection of the neutral of the generator or transformer directly to ground.

• Solidly grounded system

2. Grounding with resistance

In it, the neutral is connected to ground through a resistance. In this method the phase-to-ground
voltages that exist during a fault are almost the same as for an ungrounded system, except for transient
overvoltages.

• System grounded through a resistor

3. grounding reactance

A reactor is connected between the neutral system and ground.

• System grounded through a reactance

Corner of a delta system

Grounding a delta system in the middle of a winding

4. Ground fault neutralizer

It is a reactor connected between the neutral of a system and ground, and is selected with a relatively
high reactance value.

When the ground fault current that can flow in a grounded system is a function of the reactance of the
neutral, the magnitude of the fault current is often used as a criterion to describe the degree of
grounding.

Grounding of systems that do not use the neutral is performed on delta connected transformers that do
not provide access to the neutral system.
5. Autotransformers

They are frequently used in transmission and distribution systems. They are used to transform voltage.
They reduce the cost of the transformer or avoid the creation of a new grounding system.

• Autotransformer powered by a grounded system

6. Star-star transformers

This transformer configuration is used in solidly grounded utility distribution systems. Also and with
particular attention, in ungrounded systems to prevent ferrosonance when supply switches can be
operated by one pole at the same time.

• Grounded star-star transformer

Calculation and evaluation

Firstly, grounding requires geological exploration to determine the resistivity of the ground. "There are
more than 45 important parameters for determining the resistivity or conductivity of the ground, some
of a chemical, mechanical, electrical, electronic, ionic nature... and it would be necessary to master
disciplines such as geology, geochemistry, geophysics, petrography, mineralogy, magnetometry ,
lithogeochemistry, metamorphic petrography, which disqualifies anyone from being an expert in
grounding.”

Grounding of electrical systems

The main purpose of the system is to provide a discharge point for dead parts.

The correct functioning of this type of protection guarantees safety to its users. Over the years, due to
their importance, they have been improved. There is a rule that regulates them, but eventually it is not
complied with.

Grounding the neutral and installing the main connection jumper:

Nowadays, in different ways, all of us are involved with electricity. In our homes or offices, we are in
constant relationship with it. Understanding its behavior and applications provides relevant knowledge.
Grounding in electrical systems is one of the many existing forms of protection, since it can be oriented
towards the protection of electrical equipment, electronic signals or atmospheric protection.

It is stated that grounding in electrical systems is extremely necessary, since, first of all, it protects the
safety of people who are near the facilities. In the same way, it also guarantees the correct operation of
overcurrent protections,

The electric current that circulates in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and
inversely proportional to the electrical resistance.

Within the general grounding system there are other subsystems, such as “grounding for protection
against electrical atmospheric discharges”, “grounding for electrical safety” or also called “Equipment
ground” or “Safety ground”. ; “High frequency earth”, which is not governed by the same rules as low
frequency earth; “Grounding for protection against electromagnetic interference” (EMI), “radio
frequency interference” (RFI) and “electrostatic discharge” (ESD) its acronym in English), and “Grounding
for instrumentation and controls”.

Currently, solid state technology, based on modern electronics, continues to evolve and becomes more
sensitive to electrical noise and electromagnetic pollution, which requires a noise-free grounding system
and electromagnetic compatibility of all equipment and systems.

Grounding is used in any type of installation, whether industrial, commercial or residential. The
objectives of this form of protection are to enable grounding in systems with grounded neutral, to
provide the discharge point for casings, frames or installations; Ensure that de-energized parts, such as
equipment frames, are always at ground potential, even in the event of insulation failure, and provide an
effective means of discharging feeders or equipment before carrying out maintenance work on them. .

Grounding electrical systems limits any elevated voltages that may result from lightning, induction
phenomena, or unintentional contact with higher voltage wires. For this, an appropriate conductor is
used that is connected to the ground.

Objective of grounding an electrical system

A) Stabilize voltage to ground

B) Provide a path for the ground fault current to circulate, which will allow the overcurrent protection
devices to operate to clear the fault. It should be noted that in this type of installations it is necessary to
be aware of the characteristics of the line, intensity and voltage to which the setting will be used. Also, it
is important to know the operation of the electrodes in their resistances during the passage of the
electric current.
This type of protection is relevant for the correct and better functioning of the system. With them, risks
are limited, costs are saved and better performance is ensured.

Current path in the human body

Benefits

In recent years, this type of protection has been given certain importance and high priority due to the
million-dollar losses caused by the total failure of a system, which generates catastrophic damage to
equipment and accidents in the thousands, caused by electrical shocks. in humans.
On the other hand, avoiding failures saves budget. If an electric motor of a water pump fails, if it were
not for the grounding cable, the water pipe could become energized, endangering people; On the other
hand, the engine would suffer irreparable damage.

According to statistics, death by electrocution is in fourth place among the causes of fatal industrial
accidents. “Most of these accidents could have been avoided with basic knowledge of proper grounding.

Grounding protection limits risks, saves costs, ensures better performance and provides safety to
personnel and the general public.

Elements and evaluation. Respect values and adapt to the rules

Grounding neutral (PTN) is a connection between the neutrals of transformers and generators, and the
general grounding mesh. These connection points are grounded solidly or through low or high
resistance, low or high reactance, transformers or autotransformers.

The elements that must be taken into account when designing a ground connection are the area of the
plant in which it is located, the site plans and the ground system; ground resistivity testing,
measurement of grounding resistance value and size of conductors.

Likewise, it is necessary to determine the touch voltages for the different systems, whether they are low,
medium or high voltage. It is also important to specify the geometric configurations of the grounding
electrode system, such as ground mesh, rods, ground rings, radials or any existing electrode permitted
by the Standard.

It is necessary to respect the ground resistance value required by the Standard and the industry,
calculated during design and measured with a tellurometer of an existing ground system. In addition, it is
considered relevant to determine fault currents to indicate the size of the grounding and safety ground
conductors, as well as knowing the GPR or ground potential rise, especially in medium and high voltage
systems. In the same order, it indicates that voltage calculations (touch voltage and step voltage) must
be carried out for the design of a ground grid for a substation. “With the result of these values, the
preliminary design of a ground mesh is made.”

Grounding methods in electrical systems

Obtaining the system with neutral

To obtain it, generators or transformers are used as a source with the windings connected in the star (Y).

1. Solidly grounded

It refers to the connection of the neutral of the generator or transformer directly to ground.

• Solidly grounded system

2. Grounding with resistance

In it, the neutral is connected to ground through a resistance. In this method the phase-to-ground
voltages that exist during a fault are almost the same as for an ungrounded system, except for transient
overvoltages.

• System grounded through a resistor

3. grounding reactance

A reactor is connected between the neutral system and ground.

• System grounded through a reactance

Corner of a delta system

Grounding a delta system in the middle of a winding

4. Ground fault neutralizer

It is a reactor connected between the neutral of a system and ground, and is selected with a relatively
high reactance value.

When the ground fault current that can flow in a grounded system is a function of the reactance of the
neutral, the magnitude of the fault current is often used as a criterion to describe the degree of
grounding.

Grounding of systems that do not use the neutral is performed on delta connected transformers that do
not provide access to the neutral system.

Calculation and evaluation

First of all, grounding requires geological explorations to determine the resistivity of the ground. "There
are more than 45 important parameters for determining the resistivity or conductivity of the ground,
some of a chemical, mechanical, electrical, electronic, ionic nature... and it would be necessary to master
disciplines such as geology, geochemistry, geophysics, petrography, mineralogy, magnetometry ,
lithogeochemistry, metamorphic petrography, which disqualifies anyone from being an expert in
grounding,” says engineer Díaz.

This ground resistivity value is necessary for the application not only of complex equations for the design
of a grounding system, which at some level require the assistance of a computer program, but for the
practical/empirical equations that have been developed. to get a preliminary idea of the ground
resistance of the configuration under consideration.
Properties of grounding conductors

Exceeding the thermal value of the conductors has the following effects:

A) It increases the temperature of the conductor and, consequently, will begin to modify the properties
of its insulation if the grounding conductor is installed with insulation. If installed without insulation, it
can damage adjacent conductors when carrying ground fault current.

B) It can melt the grounding conductor, thereby creating a dangerous electrical installation, because the
overcurrent protection devices would not operate and would not release ground.

Land treatment:

The ground resistance value is determined with a three-terminal tellurometer or terrameter. Ground
resistance is measured using several industry-accepted methods, such as the “62% Method” and the
“Fall of Potential Method.”

Avoiding accidents is priceless

As in any type of installation, working with good quality materials, trained professionals and adhered to
the standard not only guarantees the safety of the workers, but also that of the users. Skimping on your
budget is a serious mistake that can cost lives.

This type of system does not involve large investments. In any civil work, whether the construction of a
building, an industrial plant or a residence, this protection represents insignificant budgets; Only wiring,
connectors and grounding electrodes are required. However, one of the most expensive elements it
presents is copper.