Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.

4+

Lipids:
•Lipids are organic compounds including fats, oils, wax, Vitamins
(such as A, D, E, and K), and certain components of membranes that
are grouped together because they do not interact appreciably with
water (hydrophobic) meaning they repel water and do not dissolve in it
as they are non-polar.
• Lipids are oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
•Lipids are formed from hydrocarbon chains, and they are
heterogeneous in nature.
•Fats and oils, in the form of triglycerides, are efficient energy storage
molecules, providing a concentrated source of energy when broken
down.
•Fat stored underneath the skin helps in the insulation of extreme
temperatures in the body.
•Phospholipids are essential components of cell membranes, forming
the lipid bilayer that defines cellular boundaries. They help in the
selective permeability of a cell membrane. The plasma membrane
around a cell provides a barrier that separates the contents of a cell
from the external world It is responsible for controlling what
substances enter and leave a cell.
•Lipids like cholesterol and steroid hormones consists of four-ring
structure and function in membrane fluidity and cellular signaling.
•Lipids provide essential fatty acids that the body cannot produce on
its own and allow the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

Structure of lipids:
Lipids are made up of two molecules, glycerol, and fatty acids. The
structure of the lipid is as follows:

•Fatty acids are a type of lipids that consists of long hydrocarbon

chains with a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end.
•In lipids, such as triglycerides, the glycerol molecule function as a
backbone. Glycerol molecule consists of three carbon atoms with a
hydroxyl group attached to them.
•The hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are hydrophobic, that is
repelling water.
•In lipids like phospholipids, a hydrophilic phosphate group is
attached to the glycerol, while the fatty acid chains remain
hydrophobic, resulting in an amphipathic molecule.
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

Types of Lipids:
Lipids are mainly classified into three types. They are simple,
complex, and derived lipids.
1)Simple Lipids: Simple lipids are triglycerides, esters of fatty acids,
and wax esters. The hydrolysis of these lipids gives glycerol and fatty
acids.
2)Complex Lipids: Complex or compound lipids are the esters of
fatty acids with groups along with alcohol and fatty acids. Examples
are Phospholipids and Glycolipids.
3)Derived lipids: Derived lipids are the hydrolyzed compounds of
simple and complex lipids. Examples are fatty acids, steroids, fatty
aldehydes, ketone bodies, lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones.
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

Synthesis of lipids:
Short chain fatty acids enter the circulation directly but most of the
fatty acids are re esterified with glycerol in the intestines to form
triglycerides that enter into the blood as lipoprotein particles called
chylomicrons.
Lipoprotein lipase acts on these chylomicrons to form fatty acids.
These may be stored as fat in adipose tissue, used for energy in any
tissue with mitochondria using oxygen and re esterified to
triglycerides in the liver and exported as lipoproteins called VLDL
(very low density lipoproteins).
VLDL has a similar outcome as chylomicrons and eventually is
converted to LDL (low density lipoproteins). Insulin simulates
lipoprotein lipase.
During starvation for long periods of time the fatty acids can also be
converted to ketone bodies in the liver. These ketone bodies can be
used as an energy source by most cells that have mitochondria.
• Fatty acids Synthesis start in cytoplasm with help of acetyl-CoA and
NADPH produced from mitochondria and Pentose phosphate
Pathway (PPP) respectively using enzyme fatty acid synthases.
• Only small chain fatty acids get synthesized in to cytoplasm, so the
synthesis of long chain fatty acids like Triacylglycerol required
specialized organ like Liver.
•The liver is the major site for converting excess carbohydrates and
proteins into fatty acids and triglyceride. The liver synthesizes large
quantities of cholesterol and phospholipids.
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

Degradation
Fatty acids are broken down by Beta oxidation. This occurs in the
mitochondria and/or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA. The
process is the reverse of fatty acid synthesis: two-carbon fragments are
removed from the carboxyl end of the acid. This occurs after
dehydrogenation, hydration, and oxidation to form a beta-keto acid.
The acetyl-CoA then converts to ATP, CO2, and H2O using the
citric acid cycle and releases energy of 106 ATP. Unsaturated fatty
acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation.

Fatty Acids:
Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the
food we eat. During digestion, the body breaks down fats into fatty
acids, which can then be absorbed into the blood.
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if
there are only single bonds between neighboring carbons in the
hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated. Stearic acid is an
example of a saturated fatty acid.
When the hydrocarbon chain contains a double bond, the fatty acid is
unsaturated. Oleic acid is an example of an unsaturated fatty acid.
Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called
oils. Olive oil and corn oil are examples of unsaturated fats.
If there is one double bond in the molecule, then it is a
monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one
double bond, then it is a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

Long straight fatty acids with single bonds generally pack tightly and
are solid at room temperature. They are common in meat and butter)
are examples of saturated fats.
Fatty acids can additionally be classified into Cis and trans. Cis and
trans indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double
bond. If hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is a cis fat. If the
hydrogen atoms are on two different planes, it is a trans-fat.

The cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the fatty
acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fats help to lower blood cholesterol levels; whereas,
saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.

Cholesterol:
Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that your body needs for good
health, but in the right amounts. Unhealthy levels of cholesterol can
lead to a condition called high blood cholesterol.
Cholesterol in your blood is carried on lipoproteins:
1)Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), sometimes called “bad” cholesterol
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

2)High-density lipoprotein (HDL), sometimes called “good”

cholesterol.
High levels of “bad” LDL cholesterol cause plaque (fatty deposits) to
build up in your blood vessels. This may lead to heart attack, stroke,
or other health problems.
High levels of “good” HDL cholesterol may actually lower your risk
for health problems. HDL cholesterol carries cholesterol and plaque
buildup from your arteries to the liver, so it can be flushed out of the
body.
Unhealthy cholesterol levels are often caused by lifestyle habits, such
as unhealthy eating patterns, in combination with the genes that you
inherit from your parents.
Routine blood tests can show whether your cholesterol levels are
healthy. To help get your cholesterol levels into the healthy range, you
may need heart-healthy lifestyle changes or medicines.

Triglyceride (TG):
Is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids. Triglycerides
are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other vertebrates,
as well as vegetable fat.
Triglyceride is one of the types of blood lipids, along with cholesterol.
It is also produced by the body via the liver, it is acquired in more
amounts through food, wherein fats and carbohydrates are converted
into triglycerides.
There are many factors that can raise your triglyceride level like eat a
lot of sugar, Being overweight, Cigarette smoking, Excessive
alcohol use, Certain medicines, and many other factors.
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

KETONE BODIES
Ketone bodies, or simply ketones are substances produced by the liver
during gluconeogenesis, a process which creates glucose in times of
fasting and starvation There are three ketone bodies produced by the
liver They are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone These
compounds are used in healthy individuals to provide energy to the
cells of the body when glucose is low or absent in the diet when
there is not enough insulin, your body is unable to use sugar (for
energy and your body breaks down its own fat and protein When fat is
used, ketone bodies, an acid, appear in your urine and blood A large
number of ketones in your system can lead to a serious condition
called ketoacidosis

Bile Salts:
Bile salts and acids can be synthesized from cholesterol or extracted
from the bloodstream by the liver. They pass from the liver into the
small intestine, where they act as detergents to emulsify fat and reduce
the surface tension on fat droplets to prepare them for the action of
pancreatic and intestinal fat-splitting enzymes.
The salts are large, negatively charged ions that are not readily
absorbed by the upper region of the small intestine; consequently, they
remain in the small intestine until most of the fat is digested. In the
lower small intestine, the salts and acids are absorbed and passed back
into the bloodstream until they are once again extracted by the liver;
this cycle, from the liver to the small intestine and blood and then back
to the liver, is called enterohepatic circulation. ‫كميت االفراز‬
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

Some salts and acids are lost during this process; these are replaced in
the liver by continual synthesis from cholesterol. The rate of synthesis
is directly related to the amount of acids and salts lost. Bile salts do not
normally reach the colon; when they do, however, they may inhibit the
absorption of water and sodium, causing a watery diarrhea.
The role of bile and bile salts in the body is to:
1)aid digestion by breaking down fats
2)help absorb fat-soluble vitamins
3)eliminate waste products
People who don’t produce and store enough bile salts, possibly
because they’ve had their gallbladder removed, can experience:
1)diarrhea, 2)trapped gas, 3)bad-smelling gas, 4)stomach cramps
5)erratic bowel movements, 6)weight loss, 7)pale-colored stools

Lipase:
Lipase, any of a group of fat-splitting enzymes found in the blood,
gastric juices, pancreatic secretions, intestinal juices, and adipose
tissues. Lipases hydrolyze triglycerides (fats) into their component
fatty acid and glycerol molecules.
Initial lipase digestion occurs in the lumen (interior) of the small
intestine. Bile salts reduce the surface tension of the fat droplets so that
the lipases can attack the triglyceride molecules.
The fatty acid and glycerol molecules are then taken up into the
epithelial cells that line the intestinal wall, where they are
Assist. Lecturer Maryam A. Saib Lec.4+

resynthesized into triglycerides for transport to muscles and adipose

tissues.
At these sites lipases in the bloodstream hydrolyze the triglycerides,
and the resulting fatty acids and glycerol are taken up by the cells of
these tissues. In the adipose tissues triglycerides are re-formed for
storage until the energy needs of the animal increase under conditions
of stress or exercise. Lipases in the cells of adipose tissues break down
the triglycerides so that fatty acids can reenter the bloodstream for
transport to energy-requiring tissues.
The blood test for lipase is used to help diagnose pancreatitis
(inflammation of the pancreas) and other pancreatic diseases
Significantly low lipase levels can reveal permanent damage to the
pancreatic cells that produce lipase. This can result from long-term
disorders, such as chronic pancreatitis or cystic fibrosis.
Elevated lipase levels can indicate a number of conditions, such as:
 acute pancreatitis
 gallstones
 gastroenteritis, which occurs when a virus causes inflammation of
the stomach
 a problem with the bowel, such as a blockage
 an ulcer
 cholecystitis, or sudden inflammation of the gallbladder
 celiac disease
 cirrhosis
 pancreatic cancer
 kidney failure