ANL/ESD-17/4

Interconnection, Integration, and Interactive Impact

Analysis of Microgrids and Distribution Systems

Energy Systems Division

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 ANL/ESD-17/4

Interconnection, Integration, and Interactive Impact

Analysis of Microgrids and Distribution Systems

by
Ning Kang, Jianhui Wang, Ravindra Singh, and Xiaonan Lu
Center for Energy, Environmental, and Economic Systems Analysis
Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory

January 2017
 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................... viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... ix

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1

SECTION I – INTERACTION BETWEEN THE MICROGRID AND THE DMS UNDER

NORMAL AND FAULT CONDITIONS ...................................................................................... 3

1.1 OPERATIONAL MODES OF A MICROGRID............................................................. 3

1.1.1 Grid-Connected Mode ........................................................................................ 3
1.1.2 Grid-Connected to Island Mode Transition........................................................ 4
1.1.3 Island to Grid-Connected Mode Transition........................................................ 5
1.1.4 Island Mode ........................................................................................................ 6
1.2 OPERATION STRATEGIES OF MICROGRIDS.......................................................... 6
1.2.1 Single Microgrid................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 Multiple Microgrids ........................................................................................... 7
1.3 INTERACTIONS AND OPERATION IMPACTS IN MICROGRIDS AND
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS......................................................................................... 11
1.3.1 Information Exchange During Normal Conditions .......................................... 11
1.3.2 Information Exchange During Emergency Conditions .................................... 12
1.3.3 Summary of Information Exchange ................................................................. 12
1.3.4 Issues with Communicated Data ...................................................................... 14

SECTION II – INTERNAL OPERATION OF A MICROGRID THAT IMPACTS

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPERATION .................................................................................. 17

II-A INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MICROGRIDS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

UNDER NORMAL AND FAULT CONDITIONS ..................................................................... 17

2.1 USE CASES UNDER NORMAL OPERATIONS ....................................................... 17

2.1.1 A-1: Frequency Control with Supply and Demand Side Variations in
Both Microgrids and Distribution Systems ...................................................... 17
2.1.2 A-2: Coordinated Volt-VAR Control and Optimization .................................. 19
2.1.3 A-3: Short-term Operations Planning for Interchange Schedule ..................... 21
2.1.4 A-4: On/Off Schedule of DERs........................................................................ 22
2.1.5 A-5: Harmonic Monitoring and Compensation with Microgrid
Participation...................................................................................................... 24
2.1.6 A-6: Unbalance Compensation with Microgrid Participation .......................... 25
2.1.7 A-7: Microgrid Mode Transition from Intentional/Unintentional Island
Operation to Grid-Connected Operation .......................................................... 27

iii
 CONTENTS (CONT.)

2.1.8
A-8: Microgrid Mode Transition from Grid-Connected Operation to
Intentional Island Operation ............................................................................. 29
2.1.9 A-9: Coordinated Energy Management for Economic Dispatch ..................... 31
2.1.10 A-10: Microgrid Model Update and Verification for Different Grid
Operation Conditions ....................................................................................... 32
2.1.11 A-11: Distribution System Reconfiguration with Multiple Microgrids ........... 33
2.2 USE CASES UNDER EMERGENCY OPERATIONS ................................................ 35
2.2.1 B-1: Coordinated Load Shedding with Load and DER Variations in
Both Microgrids and Distribution Systems ...................................................... 35
2.2.2 B-2: Coordinated Microgrid Protection ........................................................... 36
2.2.3 B-3: Power Outage Mitigation Using Multiple Microgrids Integrated
with DMS ......................................................................................................... 38
2.2.4 B-4: Virtual Microgrid Implementation and Energy Management
Scheme for Emergency Power Support............................................................ 39
2.2.5 B-5: Fault Isolation for Grid-Side Faults ......................................................... 41
2.2.6 B-6: Post-fault Recovery for Grid-Side Faults ................................................. 42
2.2.7 B-7: Fault Isolation for Microgrid-Side Faults................................................. 44
2.2.8 B-8: Post-fault Recovery for Microgrid-Side Faults ........................................ 45
2.2.9 B-9: Microgrid Mode Transition from Grid-Connected Operation to
Unintentional Island Operation ........................................................................ 47
2.2.10 B-10: Fault Ride-Through Capability of Microgrids ....................................... 48

II-B POWER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS INTERNAL TO THE MICROGRID ............. 51

2.3 MICROGRIDS OPERATION QUANTITIES FOR ONLINE POWER
QUALITY MONITORING ........................................................................................... 51
2.4 IDENTIFICATION OF ONLINE MONITORING STRATEGIES FOR
MICROGRID POWER QUALITY ............................................................................... 52
2.4.1 Online Monitoring Strategy for Microgrid Harmonics .................................... 52
2.4.2 Online Monitoring Strategy for Microgrid Unbalance..................................... 53
2.4.3 Online Monitoring Strategy for Voltage Violations......................................... 53
2.5 EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE POWER QUALITY
MONITORING STRATEGIES ..................................................................................... 54

SECTION III – IMPACT OF MICROGRID OPERATION ON THE DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM AND DMS OPERATION ............................................................................................ 55

III-A POWER EXCHANGES BETWEEN MICROGRIDS AND DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS – ELECTRICITY MARKETS................................................................................... 55
3.1 DEFINITION OF MICROGRID POOLS PARTICIPATING IN JOINT
POWER DISPATCH ..................................................................................................... 55
3.2 MICROGRID DISPATCH RULES AND OPERATION STRATEGIES .................... 57
3.2.1 General Rules ................................................................................................... 57
3.2.2 Optimal Scheduling Strategy within the Microgrid ......................................... 58

iv
 CONTENTS (CONT.)

3.2.3 Dispatch Rules from Distribution Grid and Market ......................................... 59

3.3POWER DISPATCH INTERACTION BETWEEN MICROGRID POOLS,
DISTRIBUTION UTILITY AND MARKETS ............................................................. 59
III-B PROTECTION COORDINATION BETWEEN MICROGRIDS AND THE
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM .......................................................................................................... 61
3.4 PROTECTION SCHEMES OF DMS IN ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION
NETWORKS ................................................................................................................. 61
3.5 PROTECTION SCHEMES OF MICRO EMS .............................................................. 63
3.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR DMS AND MICRO EMS PROTECTION
FUNCTIONS TO FACILITATE COORDINATION ................................................... 64
3.6.1 Challenges of Distribution System Protection Due to Integration of
Microgrids ........................................................................................................ 64
3.6.2 DMS and Micro EMS Protection Function Requirements to Facilitate
Coordination ..................................................................................................... 66
3.7 ANALYSIS OF DMS AND MICRO EMS PROTECTION COORDINATION
IN VARIOUS EVENT SCENARIOS ........................................................................... 70
3.7.1 DMS and Micro EMS Protection Coordination for Grid-Side Faults .............. 70
3.7.2 DMS and Micro EMS Protection Coordination for Microgrid-Side Faults ..... 72

SECTION IV – TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR THE INTEGRATION OF

MICROGRIDS IN THE DMS – POWER FLOW AND FAULT ANALYSIS ........................... 75

4.1 MAJOR ADVANCED DMS APPLICATIONS AFFECTED BY

INTEGRATION OF MICROGRIDS ............................................................................ 75
4.1.1 On-line Power Flow ......................................................................................... 75
4.1.2 Short-Circuit Analysis ...................................................................................... 76
4.1.3 Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration .......................................... 76
4.1.4 Volt-VAR Optimization ................................................................................... 77
4.2 ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT ON INDIVIDUAL ADVANCED
APPLICATIONS FROM INTEGRATION OF MICROGRIDS .................................. 78
4.2.1 On-line Power Flow ......................................................................................... 78
4.2.2 Short-Circuit Analysis ...................................................................................... 79
4.2.3 Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration .......................................... 79
4.2.4 Volt-VAR Optimization ................................................................................... 80
4.3 REQUIREMENTS OF AND EFFECTIVE APPROACHES TO MODIFYING
ADVANCED APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT INTEGRATION OF
MICROGRIDS .............................................................................................................. 81
4.3.1 On-line Power Flow ......................................................................................... 82
4.3.2 Short-Circuit Analysis ...................................................................................... 83
4.3.3 Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration .......................................... 83
4.3.4 Volt-VAR Optimization ................................................................................... 84

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 85

v
 CONTENTS (CONT.)

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 87

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 89

FIGURES

1 Multiple Microgrid System ....................................................................................................... 8

2 Data Communication and Function Mapping between a Microgrid Controller

and a DMS. ............................................................................................................................. 13

3 Control Signals Generated by Advanced Applications to Adjust Operation of a

Microgrid. ............................................................................................................................... 14

4 Schematic of Microgrid Pools. ............................................................................................... 56

5 Distribution System Basic Protection Coordination Scheme. ................................................ 62

6 Sample Distribution System Integrated with Microgrids and DERs. ..................................... 71

TABLES

1 Dispatch Strategy for Multiple Microgrids ............................................................................. 58

2 Interaction and Information Exchange in Microgrid Scheduling ........................................... 60

3 Summary of Distribution System Protection Devices ............................................................ 62

4 Summary of Main Distribution System Protection Issues Due to Microgrid and

DER Integration ...................................................................................................................... 65

5 Solutions to Main Distribution System Protection Issues Due to Microgrid and

DER Integration ...................................................................................................................... 69

6 Interconnection System Response to Abnormal Voltages ...................................................... 91

7 Interconnection System Response to Abnormal Frequencies ................................................. 92

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report was prepared by UChicago Argonne, LLC, operator of Argonne National
Laboratory. Argonne’s work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under
contract DE-AC02-06CH11357.

The authors wish to acknowledge the sponsorship and guidance provided by Dan Ton of
the U.S. DOE Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability. We would also like to
extend our special appreciation to James Reilly for his advice throughout the project, and to
Jiyuan Fan from Southern State, LLC, for his valuable suggestions.

vii
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

AGC Automatic generation control

AMI Advanced metering infrastructure
APF Active power filter

DER Distributed energy resource

DERMS Distributed energy resources management system
DG Distributed generation
DMS Distribution management system
DSO Distribution system operator

EMS Energy management system

EPS Electric power system
ESS Energy storage system

FLISR Fault location, isolation, and service restoration

ICT Information communications technology

IED Intelligent electronic device

Micro EMS Microgrid energy management system

OLPF Online power flow

POI Point of interconnection

PQ Power quality
PV Photovoltaic

RAS Remedial action scheme

RES Renewable energy sources
RTU Remote terminal unit

SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition

SAIDI System average interruption duration index
SAIFI System average interruption frequency index
SOM Switch order management

UBLF Unbalanced load flow

VVO Volt-VAR optimization

viii
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Distribution management systems (DMSs) are increasingly used by distribution system

operators (DSOs) to manage the distribution grid and to monitor the status of both power
imported from the transmission grid and power generated locally by a distributed energy
resource (DER), to ensure that power flows and voltages along the feeders are maintained within
designed limits and that appropriate measures are taken to guarantee service continuity and
energy security. When microgrids are deployed and interconnected to the distribution grids, they
will have an impact on the operation of the distribution grid. The challenge is to design this
interconnection in such a way that it enhances the reliability and security of the distribution grid
and the loads embedded in the microgrid, while providing economic benefits to all stakeholders,
including the microgrid owner and operator and the distribution system operator.

The interconnection and integration of microgrids into distribution systems can be

facilitated, and the presence of microgrids better benefit all stakeholders, if appropriate tools are
developed to represent and control microgrids from within the DMS. Such microgrid models and
control tools will allow a detailed analysis of the impacts of microgrids on the feeders to which
they are connected and the distribution system in its entirety. The tools will also enable
interaction with the microgrid that benefits all stakeholders. The models will represent, among
other features, the aggregation of DERs and loads within the microgrid and the control functions
implemented by the microgrid controller.

This report deals with some of the technical issues related to integrating microgrids into a
distribution system and its DMS. It first describes elements of the operation of microgrids within
distribution systems, including possible modes of operation and interactions in normal and
faulted operating conditions (Section I). It provides background information, in the form of use
cases, on some of the internal modes of operation of microgrids that may impact the distribution
system, including normal and faulted operation (Section II). It then addresses operating modes in
which the microgrid interacts with the distribution system, including power exchanges under
normal operation and fault conditions as well as protection coordination (Section III). Finally, it
discusses power system analysis tools, such as power flow and fault analysis tools that can be
used to analyze the impact of the integration of microgrids in distribution systems (Section IV).

ix
x
 INTRODUCTION

This report lays the foundation for the studies and tools needed for the analysis of the
interconnection, integration and impact analysis of microgrids connected to distribution systems
in steady state, transient and fault conditions. It identifies the new issues that the connection of
microgrids poses for the operation of existing distribution systems. It indicates the tools available
for the studies, and details the modifications and additions needed to existing tools to manage the
specificity of microgrids as systems of systems.

This report is useful as the basis for detailed and quantified studies of the impact of
microgrids on distribution systems under different non-ideal operating conditions. It identifies
the specific considerations that the DMS should take into account in operating a system with
embedded microgrids under normal operation, including power exchanges, and under faulted
conditions, including detailed specification of the required protection schemes. It also establishes
the operational requirements of microgrids to enable them to meet distribution system
operational requirements and to facilitate coordination between the DMS and microgrids. In
addition, it identifies the considerations needed to develop detailed models of microgrids for
different studies related to their integration into the operation of the DMS.

The report is organized in four sections:

 Section I, Interaction Between the Microgrid and the DMS Under Normal and Fault
Conditions, deals with one of the more sensitive issues that arises when connecting any
new equipment or system to a distribution grid, the risk of a negative impact on the grid
and of jeopardizing its reliability, security, and power quality. We describe microgrid
modes of operation, including grid-connected and island modes, and the transition
between modes. Operating strategies of the microgrid under normal and abnormal or fault
conditions are discussed. Interactions between single and multiple microgrids and the
distribution system are presented, including the required information exchange.

 Section II, Internal Operation of the Microgrid That Impacts Distribution System
Operation, addresses the same concerns as Section I, but from the perspective of the
microgrid’s internal operation under normal and fault conditions, taking into account
embedded distributed energy resources and load management (demand response). The
impact of the control of these resources and loads, including curtailment, on voltage and
frequency are discussed. We address power quality issues, including harmonics, voltage
unbalance, and voltage violations resulting from the presence of DERs on microgrids and
the distribution grid. Related issues, such as coordinated energy management for
operating cost minimization, feeder reconfiguration, power outage mitigation, emergency
power support, fault isolation and post-fault recovery, and islanding are discussed. The
second part of this section deals with power quality issues within the microgrid, including
harmonics and unbalance, and with monitoring approaches.

 Section III, Impact of Microgrid Operation on the Distribution System and DMS
Operation, deals with operating issues of the microgrid that directly impact the

1
 distribution system, namely (a) the participation of the microgrid in electricity markets
and the microgrid resources that need to be internally dispatched to allow this
participation and the optimal scheduling of these resources, and (b) coordination between
the protection devices of the microgrids and the protection devices of the distribution
system and the associated DMS, and the requirements for facilitating the protection
coordination. Both issues — market participation and protection coordination — involve
the operation, control and protection of distributed energy resources. We consider
operating modes and scenarios, including fault scenarios on the distribution feeder, and
propose solutions to mitigate the impact of abnormal operation (faults). Grid-connected
and island modes are considered. Various protection coordination schemes are discussed,
including schemes with and without communication.

 Section IV, Tools and Techniques for the Integration of Microgrids into the DMS –
Power Flow and Fault Analysis, presents existing tools and discusses the changes and
adaptations required to accommodate the presence of microgrids. These tools
incorporated into the DMS calculate power flow and faults in the network. Power flow
calculations are used to determine loading on the distribution lines and the voltage at load
nodes, and are also used to identify abnormal operating conditions and determine
remedial action. Short-circuit calculations verify that equipment can interrupt the fault
currents and withstand short circuit currents. A function implemented in the DMS and
associated with faults is fault location, isolation and service restoration. This function
increases the reliability of the distribution system by allowing distribution feeder
reconfiguration. A function associated with load flow and node voltage regulation is volt-
VAR optimization, which activates equipment along the distribution feeders to regulate
the voltage. These DMS tools need to be adapted when interconnecting and integrating
microgrids. Some of the issues include (a) both the stochastic nature of the generation
present within a microgrid and the reverse power flow resulting from the contribution of
the generation within the microgrid in the case of power flow control, and (b) the fault
contributions of the microgrid for fault analysis. We propose approaches to tackle these
new issues. Similarly, the presence of microgrids will impact the two functions described
above: fault location, isolation and service restoration, and volt-VAR optimization. For
these two functions, the issues are described, new requirements identified and solutions,
in the form of new algorithms, proposed.

2
SECTION I – INTERACTION BETWEEN THE MICROGRID AND THE DMS UNDER
NORMAL AND FAULT CONDITIONS

According to the Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Microgrid Exchange Group, “A

microgrid is a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources within clearly
defined electrical boundaries that acts as a single controllable entity with respect to the grid. A
microgrid can connect and disconnect from the grid to enable it to operate in both grid-
connected or island mode.” While a microgrid can operate in either a grid-connected mode or in
an island mode, the safe and reliable operation of microgrids in both modes requires proper
planning, coordination, control and operation strategies. For example, in the grid-connected
mode, a microgrid has to be synchronized with the main distribution grid, and in the
disconnected (island) mode, a microgrid has to be able to maintain quality voltage and frequency
with effective load-following characteristics. It also has to be prepared for reconnecting to the
distribution grid through the synchronization process.

In this chapter, we will cover a) identification of the operation modes of microgrids for
connection to and disconnection from the distribution system, b) identification of the operation
strategies of microgrids for connection to and disconnection from the distribution system in
normal operation, emergency and faulted conditions, c) analysis of the interactions and operation
impacts in microgrids and the distribution system for connected and disconnected operation
modes, and d) identification of the communication requirements between the DMS and the
integrated microgrid energy management system (micro EMS).

1.1 OPERATIONAL MODES OF A MICROGRID

A microgrid can operate in three modes:

1. Grid-connected mode
2. Transition mode (transition from grid-connected mode to island mode and vice versa)
3. Island mode

1.1.1 Grid-Connected Mode

In grid-connected mode, a microgrid is connected with the main distribution grid and can
supply power to the main grid or receive power from the main grid, depending on the local
generation and energy storage capacities and local load demands of the microgrid, as well as the
committed power exchange schedules between the microgrid and the main grid. When local
generation capacity exceeds local demands, the microgrid can supply power to the main grid.
When local demand exceeds local generation, the microgrid can import power from the main
grid. System stability and energy balance, given the high fluctuations of DER output, are
particularly important for a microgrid in grid-connected mode. Operation in grid-connected
mode may also reduce the need for additional storage.

3
1.1.2 Grid-Connected to Island Mode Transition

A microgrid may need to disconnect from the main grid, either intentionally or
unintentionally. The microgrid controller will be responsible for managing its resources to ensure
a smooth transition from grid-connected to island operation mode, which may be intentional or
unintentional.

a) Intentional Islanding
An intentional islanding process may be initiated for many reasons, such as a scheduled
outage or maintenance on one or more sections of the main distribution system, a part of the
main grid experiencing a widespread disturbance, or a new dispatch request from the system
operator during normal operation. After the transition, every isolated microgrid will operate in
island mode and maintain its own energy balance and quality voltage and frequency, even during
time periods with disturbances.

According to IEEE Standard 1547, an intentional island is the result of “intentional

events for which the time and duration of the planned islanding are agreed upon by all parties
involved.” Intentional disconnection occurs when the microgrid responds to a command or
request from the distribution grid to operate in island mode. The disconnection should not induce
large voltage and frequency fluctuations in the microgrid and the distribution grid, and the
microgrid should maintain its power balance after disconnection. It is a common practice in the
transition process to ramp-down power exchanges at the point of interconnection (POI) to near
zero to ensure minimum impact on both sides during the transition. Additional control and/or
hardware devices can be deployed to alleviate voltage and current surges during the transition.
Intentional disconnection can be either planned or unplanned.

Planned intentional islanding involves ramping down the power flow at the POI to near
zero and then disconnecting the microgrid from the main grid. The process is carried out in a
planned manner, with the main grid operating in a normal operation mode. The transition process
is executed with a reasonable warning period, and can either be one of the following:

 Command planned islanding: The utility or operating entity requests that the microgrid
transition to island mode at a specific time in the future with sufficient time for planning.

 Scheduled planned islanding: A scheduled tariff transition or operating agreement

dictates that the microgrid transition to island mode at a specific time.

An unplanned/unscheduled intentional islanding will also need effective support from the
microgrid controller and will involve one of the following two scenarios:

 Outage driven: A confirmed grid outage is detected by the recloser or switch at the POI,
which opens and starts the unplanned/unscheduled islanding transition.

 Command driven: A triggering event is detected by the monitoring platform, which

directs the islanding recloser or switch at the POI to open and start the unscheduled
islanding transition. Alternatively, the utility operation center receives the triggering

4
 event(s) and uses DMS/SCADA to open the recloser. When the recloser at the POI is
opened, the battery inverter in the microgrid receives the recloser open status and
switches from the current-source mode to the voltage-source mode. At the same time, the
microgrid controller and the DMS/SCADA receive the recloser open status to update
their models. The microgrid controller may shed loads and use storage if generation is
inadequate, or curtail DER output if generation is excessive, thus instantly balancing the
power when the POI breaker is opened. As additional generation resources are brought
on-line later on, the shed loads can be restored.

b) Unintentional Islanding
In this mode transition, a section of the utility distribution grid may be disconnected
following a fault on the main grid.

According to IEEE Standard 1547, unintentional islanding can occur following

inadvertent events that are typically initiated by the loss of an area electrical power system (EPS)
or an equipment failure. The associated microgrids in the islanded part of the system may be
automatically disconnected from the main grid by anti-islanding protective schemes. When the
unintentional islanding process is triggered by such an event, the DMS and the corresponding
microgrids should be notified of the operation mode transition. Both the micro EMS and the
DMS should ensure the power balance in their own grids after the mode transition. Transient
frequency and voltage requirements should be satisfied for both the microgrids and the
distribution grid during the transition. Active devices in both the microgrids and the distribution
grid can be used to alleviate transient voltage/current spikes during operation mode transition.

The transient process of unintentional islanding should be accomplished within two

seconds, according to IEEE Standard 1547.

1.1.3 Island to Grid-Connected Mode Transition

Prior to the reconnection of the microgrid to the distribution grid, the synchronization
monitoring/control mechanism should ensure that the islanded microgrid and the distribution
system are ready for synchronization with the voltage, frequency, and phase angle difference
across the POI switch being within the limits defined by IEEE Standard 1547:
|∆ | 3, |∆ | 0.1 Hz and |∆ | 10 .

After a severe disturbance in the distribution grid that results in microgrid islanding, the
reconnection process shall not be initiated until the distribution grid voltage recovers back to
Range B of the American National Standards Institute/National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (ANSI/NEMA) Standard C84.1-2006. [1]

The synchronization control mechanism may further delay the reconnection for up to five
minutes after the distribution system voltage and frequency are recovered to the ranges identified
above. If the disconnection was triggered by an unknown event, the reconnection should not be
initiated until it is confirmed that the distribution system will be stable.

5
1.1.4 Island Mode

In the island mode of operation, the microgrid is fully independent of the main
distribution grid operation, and its local controller fully manages its energy resources and loads
in order to ensure the secure and stable operation of the microgrid. When in island operation, the
microgrid controller may periodically communicate with the DMS or the corresponding
upstream devices of the distribution network to be aware of the appropriate condition for
reconnection.

1.2 OPERATION STRATEGIES OF MICROGRIDS

In either grid-connected or island operation mode, a microgrid should meet specific

operation requirements under normal and abnormal operating conditions. The requirements
include maintaining an acceptable voltage profile, grid frequency, synchronization, and load
following. The operation strategy should consider not only the case of a microgrid connected
with the distribution grid, but also the case of multiple microgrids interacting together. The
following subsection describes the operation strategy of microgrids.

1.2.1 Single Microgrid

The requirements for a single microgrid under normal and abnormal conditions, based on
IEEE Standard 1547, are summarized below. Details are given in the Appendix and are also
available in References.[2], [3], [4]

a) Normal Conditions
 A microgrid must have a proper grounding scheme that should be well coordinated with
the distribution grid to avoid the occurrence of any possible overvoltage or safety issues
in the microgrid or the distribution grid.

 In grid-connected mode, a microgrid operates in parallel with the distribution grid

through a single active POI or multiple POIs. Voltage fluctuations should be within ±5
percent of the prevailing voltage level. The requirements for limiting voltage flicker
should also bemet.

 The microgrid must cease to energize the distribution grid at any POI when the grid is de-
energized.

 If the aggregated capacity at each POI is more than 250 kVA, its connection status may
be monitored, including the monitoring of real power output, reactive power output, and
voltage at the POI.

 When required by the distribution grid, isolation devices may be equipped with a circuit
breaker at each POI of the microgrid.

6
  The interconnection system must meet applicable surge and EMI standards.

b) Abnormal Conditions
 In the event of distribution grid faults, the microgrid should cease to energize the grid at
any POI.

 When a microgrid operates in island mode, it may be energizing a portion of the isolated
distribution grid through a POI.

 The microgrid should cease to energize the isolated portions of the distribution grid at
any POI before reconnecting to the distribution grid for grid-connected mode operation.

 Power balance inside the microgrid should be achieved before it is reconnected to the
distribution grid, and zero power exchange should be maintained after reconnection until
it is ready to start transaction schedules.

 The voltage at the POI of the microgrid should be continuously monitored. If the voltage
at the POI is within a range shown Table 6 of the Appendix, the microgrid should cease
to energize the distribution grid at the POI.

 When the system frequency falls within a range listed in Table 7 of the Appendix, the
microgrid should cease to energize the distribution grid at the POI.

 Reconnection of the microgrid can take place when the voltage is within the range of
88% to 110% of the base voltage, and the frequency is within the range of 59.3 Hz to
60.5 Hz. The reconnection at the POI should include an adjustable or a fixed delay
(e.g., five minutes).

1.2.2 Multiple Microgrids

We discussed a single microgrid operation strategy in connection and disconnection with

the main distribution grid in the previous section. The concept of multiple microgrids is
relatively new, and there is no clear definition for planning the operation and control of multiple
microgrids. In this section, we consider an architecture where multiple microgrids, configured in
the distribution grid, are directly connected with the main grid with no interconnection between
the microgrids (see Figure 1). Any exchange of power between two microgrids happens through
the distribution grid in coordination with the DMS. It is also assumed that each microgrid is
capable of operating in standalone mode. We refer to this system as a multiple microgrid system.
In this architecture, each microgrid controller can communicate with the DMS. Connections,
disconnections and power exchanges are coordinated through the DMS.

7
 Figure 1 Multiple Microgrid System

Based on the architecture shown in Figure 1, we will highlight some of the operation
strategies of a multiple microgrid system. Since a distribution grid is managed by a distribution
system operator (DSO), it is important to understand the interaction between multiple microgrids
and the DMS. One of the main challenges in operation strategies with multiple microgrids is the
presence of multiple microgrid controllers, which may need to coordinate with the DMS for the
secure and stable operation of the entire distribution grid under normal and emergency
conditions.

a) Coordination of Tie-line Power

Each microgrid should maintain its scheduled tie-line power with the main distribution
grid under normal operation and support power exchange via tie-lines during abnormal
operation. Power exchange between multiple microgrid systems as a single entity and the
distribution grid should be coordinated among the individual microgrid controllers and the DMS.

b) Synchronization
Under normal operating conditions, all microgrids are synchronized with the main grid at
the POIs. During the process of interconnection, the requirements for voltage, frequency and
phase angle should be met. A microgrid operating in island mode should have enough lead time

8
for synchronization with the main grid. This means that an islanded microgrid should be able to
operate in standalone mode for that amount of time and should be able to balance its energy
locally. Each microgrid controller should coordinate with the DMS for the purpose of
synchronization.

c) Voltage/VAR Support
One of the main concerns with multiple microgrids is the voltage rise effect caused by the
presence of multiple DERs in microgrids. Each microgrid in the multiple microgrid system
should locally manage its voltage as well as coordinate with the DMS and other microgrids for
reactive power support. Thus a two-level coordinated voltage control action between the DMS
and individual microgrids is required, functioning through the management of available
resources such as microgrids, distributed generation (DG) units directly connected at the medium
voltage (MV) level, voltage regulators (VRs) and on load tap changer (OLTC) transformers, and
other reactive power support devices, such as capacitor banks or static VAR compensators
(SVCs).

d) Load Shedding
Load shedding is required to maintain system frequency and voltage within limits when
there is less generation than demand. Each microgrid should determine what loads need to be
disconnected at a given time following the variations in load and DER output. Similarly, the
DMS in coordination with other microgrids should determine if load shedding should be
triggered based on the monitoring data and the predicted data for both sources and loads.

e) Black Start
“Black start” is the restoration process after a blackout — a set of rules to be followed for
system restoration. In a multiple microgrid architecture, local self-healing techniques can be
exploited, since a substantial number of microgrids and other DG units connected to the network
can provide service restoration in their areas of influence. Multiple microgrid black start
capabilities can be used to reduce the customer service interruption, so the multiple microgrid
restoration procedure should aim to supply consumers as soon as possible while satisfying
system operation conditions. The following sequence of actions should be carried out in order to
restore the low voltage distribution grid after a general blackout: [5]

 Disconnect all loads, sectionalize the corresponding medium-voltage/low-voltage

(MV/LV) transformers, and switch off the reactive power sources in order to avoid large
frequency and voltage deviations.

 Sectionalize the multiple microgrid around each microgrid and around each DG unit with
black start capability to create small islands within the multiple microgrid system.

 Energize a part of the MV network using black-start-capable energy resources, such as

diesel generators.

 Synchronize the islands within the multiple microgrid system with the MV network
according to synchronization criteria in order to avoid large voltage and frequency
deviations.

9
  Connect a certain amount of controllable load in the MV network, depending on the
available capacity of storage and total generation.

 Synchronize the islanded microgrid with the main grid.

 Energize the remaining MV branches and the MV/LV transformers upstream of the
microgrid. At this stage, the islands containing isolated DG units are already
synchronized and the multiple microgrid is strong enough to energize the remaining
branches of the MV network.

 Restore loads. At this stage, the MV network is fully energized, and some loads can be
connected depending on the generation capacity.

 Connect the non-controllable energy sources (i.e., photovoltaic [PV] and wind) without
battery storage capability.

 Increase load. In order to feed as much load as possible, other loads can be connected.

 Activate the automatic frequency control to ensure that the multiple microgrid system
frequency is near its nominal value while in island mode.

 Reconnect multiple microgrids to the upstream high voltage (HV) network when it
becomes available. The synchronization conditions should be verified again.

f) Power Outage Mitigation

If a power outage takes place in a segment of the network following a fault condition, the
multiple microgrids in coordination with the DMS can help in mitigating it. When the outage is
detected, the DMS should be able to determine an alternate path for rerouting the supply through
other microgrids in the system. The microgrid controllers in each microgrid should work with the
DMS to isolate the fault area and restore the service. During the process, the desired frequency
and voltage throughout the system should be ensured, and the availability of DERs for
emergency power support should be identified. The necessary data exchange between the micro
EMS and the DMS during power outage mitigation should be identified and the power balance
inside each microgrid must be ensured.

g) Coordinated Microgrid Protection

The protection of a microgrid should consider the fault current contribution from the
individual microgrid side and from the distribution system side, which requires coordination
between the microgrid controllers and the DMS. For the protection of the circuits and devices
inside the microgrid, different operation modes should be considered, and the relay settings
should be adjusted accordingly. In particular, for grid-connected operation mode the relay
settings should be larger, since the fault current is contributed by DERs, other microgrids in the
system, and the upstream distribution system. On the other hand, in the island operation mode
the fault current is solely contributed by the DERs, so the fault current level is much lower than
in the grid-connected mode. The relay settings should be lower. Also, in this mode of operation,
other microgrids in the system should not contribute to the fault currents of islanded microgrid.

10
Each microgrid controller should be capable of detecting any internal fault occurring anywhere.
When an internal fault is detected, the microgrid should disconnect itself from the rest of the
system to ensure that the fault will not cause an operation problem to the distribution grid. Power
balancing within the microgrid should be done after isolating the faulted section or disconnecting
from the distribution grid.

h) Distribution System Reconfiguration

Reconfiguration with multiple microgrids is particularly useful for grid resiliency in the
event of a natural disaster or fault condition that isolates multiple segments of the network.
Multiple microgrids provide an alternate power rerouting scheme that maximizes distributed
generation output power, reduces network power losses, or restores loads not supplied in a fault
scenario. Rerouting can be performed through multiple switching operations. The DMS, in
coordination with other microgrid controllers, can determine the optimal network reconfiguration
based on available power from both feeders and microgrids. Short-term DER and load
forecasting data can be used to support the network reconfiguration. The available power should
be supplied by each of the feeders and by the microgrids with high available power. The power
balance after the network reconfiguration should be ensured, and no new loops should be
reformed after the reconfiguration.

1.3 INTERACTIONS AND OPERATION IMPACTS IN MICROGRIDS AND

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

As discussed above, a microgrid can operate in either a grid-connected or a grid-

disconnected (island) mode. The integration of DMS and micro EMS needs to ensure that both
the distribution grid and the microgrids can maintain reliable operation under normal operation
and contingency conditions, as well as make a seamless transition from one mode to the other.

When connected to the distribution grid, a microgrid should have the necessary data
communication with the DMS for operation coordination under normal operation and emergency
conditions.

1.3.1 Information Exchange During Normal Conditions

 The DMS needs to receive information on the energy interchange and voltage/VAR
support schedules between the microgrid and the distribution grid at the POI.

 The DMS needs to receive real-time data including phase voltages, currents, kWs, and
kVARs at the active POIs.

 Each microgrid should also provide a simplified internal operation topology to the DMS
to indicate whether it forms wheeling paths to the distribution grid if more than one POI
is active. Wheeling paths and their impact are described in “Guidelines for Implementing
Advanced Distribution Management Systems: Requirements for DMS Integration with
DERMS and Μicrogrids.”[3]

11
1.3.2 Information Exchange During Emergency Conditions
 In emergency conditions, whether initiated from a microgrid or from the distribution grid
in the grid-connected mode, emergency energy interchange and voltage/VAR support
may be needed from the other party (or other microgrids in the case of multiple microgrid
system).

 The request for emergency support should be forwarded to the other party and confirmed
quickly to effectively relieve the emergency.

 In the event of severe fault conditions in either the distribution grid or the microgrid,
POIs should be disconnected by the relay protections. This type of disconnection is
classified as unintentional disconnection. The DMS should inform other impacted
microgrids in the network about the fault condition and instruct them to disconnect from
the affected segment of the network. The interaction between various actors and
information exchange for unintentional disconnection is shown in the table in
subsection 2.2.9.

 For intentional disconnection, the DMS should instruct the microgrids to prepare for the
disconnection, including reducing the energy interchange to near zero at the POI and re-
optimizing the grid voltage profiles. These steps can be done by balancing real and
reactive demands in their respective grids. The interaction between different actors and
content for information exchange during intentional disconnection is summarized in the
table in subsection 2.1.8.

 To reconnect to the grid, the microgrid should notify the DMS and receive a confirmation
message. Once confirmation is received, the microgrid can start the resynchronization
process. The information exchange between different actors during reconnection is
summarized in the table in subsection 2.1.7.

1.3.3 Summary of Information Exchange

Figure 2 [3] is a summary of data communication and function mapping between a micro
EMS and a DMS to highlight the different functions in each under both normal and fault
conditions. As shown in Figure 2, in the grid-connected operation mode, the functions in the
micro EMS and DMS are coordinated with each other to ensure effective integration between the
two control systems.

Considering the data communication and interactive control functions between a micro
EMS and a DMS, the microgrid can be seamlessly integrated and treated as an energy asset to
improve the operation of the distribution grid. Control signals are generated by different
advanced applications in the DMS to change the status of the microgrid according to the
operation condition and requirements, as shown in Figure 3.[3]

12
Figure 2 Data Communication and Function Mapping between a Microgrid Controller
and a DMS.

13
 Figure 3 Control Signals Generated by Advanced Applications to Adjust
Operation of a Microgrid.

1.3.4 Issues with Communicated Data

The quality and availability of the data to be exchanged between the field devices or
sensors and the controllers are the major issues associated with the data communication. The
main challenges include data loss, latency and bad data. Missing data and latency may cause the
system to lose observability. Bad data can also cause the system to become non-observable when
it is rejected by the bad data detection algorithm. In addition, bad data can lead to significant
impact to the system stability. Undetected bad data can cause an incorrect control action by the
controller, which in turn may result in system instability. In view of this, both the DMS and
microgrid controller functions should be robust against bad data, data loss, and data latency and
should meet the following requirements:

1. Controllers should have adequate data buffer to execute different functions. The life span
of buffer data should be capable of spanning milliseconds to minutes, depending on the
time criticality of the control (primary, secondary etc.)

2. Controller functions and algorithms should be able to compensate for data latency by
using, for example, a compensator or Padé approximation.

3. Data should be preprocessed using statistical characteristics to identify bad data.

14
4. The elimination of bad data or missing data due to communication errors should not
cause any observability issue, and measurement redundancy should be included to ensure
system observability.

5. If required, the controller should be equipped with a system state observer or state
estimator, such as a Kalman filter, so that missing data can be estimated.

6. The controller needs to be properly tuned to address the issues of missing data, delay or
bad data.

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16
 SECTION II – INTERNAL OPERATION OF A MICROGRID THAT IMPACTS
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPERATION

II-A INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MICROGRIDS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

UNDER NORMAL AND FAULT CONDITIONS

An advanced microgrid is considered to be a sub-power system comprising distributed

generation/storage and load. It uses its internal controlling devices for different control and
operation objectives, such as different step-wise and/or continuous voltage and VAR controllers
(VVC), remedial action schemes (RAS), under-frequency/voltage load shedding, and elements of
information communications technology (ICT). An advanced microgrid can operate in grid-
connected mode or in island mode. It can also provide various ancillary services. The operation
of microgrids in different modes has a significant impact on the operation of the DMS and the
distribution networks, and we analyze this impact through the identified twenty-one use cases in
this chapter. The use cases generally fall into two categories: normal operation (Category A) and
emergency operation (Category B). Detailed analyses for each identified use case include the
operation rules and control strategies of microgrids and micro EMS, the operation rules and
control strategies for distribution system and DMS, and the interactions and operation impacts on
both microgrids and distribution systems.

2.1 USE CASES UNDER NORMAL OPERATIONS

2.1.1 A-1: Frequency Control with Supply and Demand Side Variations in Both
Microgrids and Distribution Systems

A. Description
This use case analyzes system frequency regulation in both microgrids and distribution
systems, taking into account the impact of both supply and demand side variations. Note that the
supply and demand sides are defined in both distribution systems and microgrids. The supply
side represents the energy sources in either system, such as DERs, while the demand side
represents loads, including common loads and distributed loads. The critical components
responsible for regulating the system frequency will be identified and the corresponding
controllers with effective impact to the performance of frequency regulation will be discussed.

With the connection of microgrids to the distribution grid, system frequency regulation
can no longer rely solely on the upstream transmission system. The microgrids, as active sub-
networks in the modern distribution system, can participate in system frequency regulation or
support in certain operation modes. Both DER and load variations in the microgrid and
distribution system are taken into account. When the microgrid operates in grid-connected mode,
its DERs may participate in frequency regulation although system frequency is dominated by the
distribution system and relies mainly on the frequency regulation of the upstream transmission
system.

17
 When the microgrid operates in island mode, the energy storage systems (ESSs) in the
microgrid can operate in droop control mode and can thus be responsible for regulating the
frequency. In some cases other DERs, such as photovoltaics (PVs) or wind turbines, can also be
used to regulate the microgrid frequency.

An energy storage system (ESS) can be employed to resolve intermittency issues.

Secondary control for DER generation, or automatic generation control (AGC) for maintaining
the area frequency error close to zero, should be considered as well. DER scheduling or load
shedding can be utilized if necessary.

B. Technical Details
Contents of Information for
Actor & Actor Type Action
Exchange
 AGC (control  Upload monitoring data from  Supply side monitoring data
system) supply and demand sides to  Demand side monitoring
 DER interface micro EMS and DMS. data
inverter  Use AGC and DER interface  Area frequency
controller1 controller to maintain area  Frequency control command
(control system) frequency control error close to
 Microgrid energy zero.
management  Schedule DER or load shedding
system (micro in emergency conditions if
EMS) (control necessary.
system)  Send frequency control
 Distribution command to the devices.
management
system (DMS)
(control system)

C. Impact Analysis
The interconnection of microgrids will have an impact on the system frequency
regulation mechanism of conventional distribution systems, which is commonly dominated by
the upstream transmission system and usually not reachable by the DMS. However, with the
integration of microgrids, system frequency can be manipulated in certain levels with the active
devices in microgrids, depending on their total generation capacity.

Frequency regulation applies to both grid-connected and island operation modes. In grid-
connected operation mode, the capacity of a microgrid might not be significant compared to that
of the distribution system in most cases. Thus the frequency of the combined system is mainly
maintained by the distribution system, while the microgrids may only be able to provide limited
help. In fact, the active devices in microgrids, such as PVs, wind turbines, and ESSs, usually
follow the distribution grid frequency in grid-connected mode and may not actively participate in
frequency regulation in most cases.

1
DER interface inverter refers to conventional inverters that are used for DERs, including battery inverters, PV
inverters, etc.

18
 When a microgrid is disconnected from the distribution system, it will switch to an
autonomous operation mode in which the frequency of the microgrid is regulated by the active
devices within it, such as ESSs. These active devices are usually used for frequency regulation
and have stable output that is not significantly influenced by external conditions. ESSs and DERs
with relatively large capacity are good candidates for this purpose. In some cases PVs, wind
turbines and other DERs may also be considered for frequency regulation. However, these
devices’ inevitable intermittence problem must be properly tackled to avoid severely degrading
system operation reliability.

2.1.2 A-2: Coordinated Volt-VAR Control and Optimization

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of coordinated volt-VAR optimization (VVO)
functions with microgrid controllers on distribution system operation. In addition, this use case
will determine the requirements for information exchange between the microgrid and EPS
operators for the coordinated VVO.

VVO is a very important application in a DMS. It is used to adjust the feeder voltage
profile and reactive power flow during normal operation. VVO usually refers to the integrated
control of conventional controllable devices, such as capacitor banks in a substation and along a
feeder, on-load tap changers (OLTC) of substation transformers, voltage regulators on feeder
sections, and smart inverter interfaced DERs. VVO usually executes at 5-, 10- or 15-minute
intervals. For each control cycle, the VVO solves an optimization problem: determining the
optimal control settings for each of the controllable devices. Specifically, this use case will use
an aggregated microgrid model to identify the reactive power support capability of each
microgrid to achieve the coordinated VVO objectives with the micro EMS and the conventional
controllable devices.

Volt-VAR optimization involves multiple types of conventional controllable devices,

such as substation transformer load tap changers, capacitor banks, voltage regulators, and smart
inverter interfaced DERs, and an aggregated microgrid model is used to identify the reactive
power support capability of each microgrid. The operation of microgrid and conventional
controllable devices and smart inverter interfaced DERs should be coordinated for voltage
profile regulation, and interactive operation between micro EMS and DMS should be achieved.

19
B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Controllable  Upload monitoring data to micro  Local voltage amplitude
devices, e.g., EMS and DMS.  Local current amplitude
load tap  Run the VVO algorithm in DMS.  Local power factor
changer,  Send control commands to each  Local real/reactive power
capacitor bank, controllable device.  Command signals for
smart inverter,  Conventional devices respond to reactive power control
etc. (power the control commands.  Generation and load forecast
hardware  Micro EMS coordinates its data
devices) sources and loads in the
 DER interface microgrid and generates required
inverter amount of reactive power at its
controller POI.
(control
system)
 Micro EMS
(control
system)
 DMS (control
system)

C. Impact Analysis
With the microgrids’ connections to the distribution grid, the voltage profile of a feeder
circuit will be impacted not only by the OLTC, voltage regulators, and capacitor banks, but also
by the active and reactive power outputs from the DERs and microgrids at different locations
along the feeder circuit. The impact of microgrids on the VVO function will be discussed
separately and depends on whether the micro EMS is able to dispatch its internal DERs or not.
Dispatchable DERs are either DERs paired with energy storage units or distributed generators,
such as diesel generators or micro turbines.

In island mode, a microgrid is disconnected from the distribution grid and, therefore, will
have no impact on the VVO function of the distribution grid other than the microgrid’s own
voltage control.

In grid-connected mode, the micro EMS can provide the aggregated schedule of its active
power and offer its reactive power capacity to the DMS for the overall VVO of the distribution
grid. The VVO formulation can treat the power factor of each microgrid as a decision variable in
addition to the conventional decision variables. The DMS can send out the power factor or
reactive power set-point for each microgrid to maintain at the individual point of interconnection
(POI) by controlling its internal DERs.

20
2.1.3 A-3: Short-term Operations Planning for Interchange Schedule

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of the presence of microgrids on the distribution
system’s short-term planning. More specifically, this use case will use aggregated microgrid
models to identify the aggregated DER and load for each microgrid in order to achieve short-
term power interchange that mitigates the intermittency caused by renewable energy sources
(RES). In addition, this use case will determine the requirements for information exchange
between the microgrid and EPS operators for short-term planning.

A microgrid can be used as an energy resource in short-term distribution system

operation planning to mitigate the intermittency caused by the increasing penetration of DERs.
The following points need to be considered for short-term operation planning for interchange
schedules.

 Short-term planning is used for mitigating the influence of intermittency caused by RES.

 DERs in both microgrids and distribution systems should be taken into account.

 An aggregated model of each microgrid is used for short-term planning.

 DER and load forecasting should be considered for each microgrid and the distribution
grid.

 Power interchange should be scheduled based on the predicated DER and load trends.

B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Device level  Upload monitoring data to micro  Model update information of
on/off switch EMS and DMS. microgrids
(power  Conduct source and load  DER and load side data
hardware prediction in both microgrids and monitoring
device) distribution systems.  Device level forecasting data
 DER interface  Update predicted power  On/off command signals for
inverter availability of microgrids in DERs and loads
controller DMS.
(control  Schedule power interchange
system) when necessary based on
 Micro EMS predicated DERs and load trends.
(control
system)
 DMS (control
system)

21
C. Impact Analysis
The interconnection of microgrids will affect the short-term operational planning of a
distribution system by mitigating the intermittency induced by RES. Two scenarios will be
discussed: when the intermittency issue is originated from the microgrid side and when the issue
is originated from the distribution grid side. The distribution grid can provide support to mitigate
the intermittency in a microgrid and vice versa. For example, if the distribution grid forecasts a
large increase in its DER generation, a microgrid can be scheduled to export less power to or
import more power from the distribution grid to mitigate the intermittency issue. The microgrid
can do so by sending out control commands to turn off some of its DERs, start charging its
batteries, and so on. On the other hand, if the distribution side forecasts a large decrease in its
DER generation, the microgrid may be scheduled to export more power to or import less power
from the distribution grid to alleviate the intermittency. The microgrid can do so by turning on its
own DERs, shedding some of its non-critical load, or starting to discharge EES batteries to meet
the schedule.

Similarly, if the microgrid side forecasts a large increase in its DER output, the
distribution grid can be scheduled to export less power to or import more power from the
microgrid to mitigate the intermittency issues. The distribution grid can send out control
commands to turn off some of its DERs, start charging its ESS batteries, and so on. If the
microgrid forecasts a large decrease in its DER output, the distribution grid can be scheduled to
export more power to or import less power from the microgrid to alleviate the intermittency. The
distribution grid can turn on its own DERs, shed some of its non-critical load, or start to
discharge its ESS batteries to meet the schedule.

2.1.4 A-4: On/Off Schedule of DERs

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of microgrids on the on/off schedule of DERs, which
are used to balance power within each microgrid and throughout the entire distribution system.
The following considerations need to be taken into account when scheduling DERs in microgrids
and in the distribution system:

 The system frequency and the voltage profile throughout the system should be
maintained within the acceptable range.

 Sufficient spinning reserve should be provided as ancillary services.

 Power balance in the individual microgrids and the distribution grid must be ensured.

 Short-term planning results should be considered for the on/off schedule of DERs.

22
B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Device level  Upload monitoring data to micro  DER and load side data
on/off switch EMS and DMS. monitoring
(power  Conduct source and load  Generation and load forecast
hardware prediction in micro EMS and data
device) DMS.  On/off command signals for
 DER interface  Micro EMS determines the on/off DERs
inverter schedule of DERs inside
controller microgrid.
(control  DMS determines the on/off
system) schedule of DERs outside
 Micro EMS microgrids.
(control
system)
 DMS (control
system)

C. Impact Analysis
The interconnection of microgrids can have a significant impact on the on/off schedule of
DERs. The micro EMS and DMS need to plan and commit the on/off schedule for dispatchable
DERs, based on load and energy resource forecasting, as well as coordinate with the committed
interchange schedules of the distribution grid and the microgrids. We will discuss the impact of a
large load change predicted on both the microgrid side and the distribution grid side.

When the distribution side forecasts a large load decrease, the microgrid can be scheduled
to shut down some of its DERs exporting power to the distribution grid. The microgrid can send
out control commands to turn off some of its DERs, start charging its ESS batteries, and so on.
DERs in the distribution system side may be scheduled to be off to help balance the power. If the
distribution side then forecasts a large load increase, the microgrid can be scheduled to turn on
new DERs to export more power to the grid or to import less power from the grid to help balance
the power in the distribution grid. The microgrid can turn on its own dispatchable DERs and/or
discharge ESS batteries to meet the schedule. The distribution system can also turn on its
dispatchable DERs to maintain the power balance.

If the microgrid side forecasts a large load decrease, the distribution grid can schedule
some of its DERs to export less power to or import more power from the microgrid. The
distribution grid can send out control commands to turn off its DERs, start charging its ESS
batteries, and so on. The microgrid may also turn off its own DERs to help balance the power. If
the microgrid then forecasts a large load increase, the distribution grid can be scheduled to export
more power to or import less power from the microgrid. The distribution grid can turn on its own
dispatchable DERs and/or discharge its ESS batteries to meet the schedule. The microgrid may
also turn on its dispatchable DERs to maintain the power balance.

23
2.1.5 A-5: Harmonic Monitoring and Compensation with Microgrid Participation

A. Description
This use case analyzes the harmonic distortion and compensation in distribution system
with microgrids. Different mechanisms will be discussed in terms of harmonic characteristics in
conventional distribution system and modern distribution system with microgrids and the
harmonic compensation approaches will be investigated.

With the increasing penetration of inverter-interfaced DERs, the harmonic distortion

problem in the modern distribution systems is dramatically reduced. Harmonic compensation is
an interactive function that is achieved by both the micro EMS and local controller/power
hardware devices. Harmonic monitoring and compensation should be achieved in a coordinated
way by considering impacts from both conventional devices and interface inverters. The
following should be taken into account:

 The harmonic sources in both microgrid and distribution system should be identified and
analyzed.

 Harmonic mitigation for critical loads takes priority over mitigation for non-critical loads.

 The harmonic content after compensation should comply with the relevant industry
standards, e.g., IEEE Standard 1547.

 Stability in both microgrid and distribution system during harmonic compensation should
be guaranteed.

B. Technical Details
Contents of Information for
Actor & Actor Type Action
Exchange
 Active devices,  Upload monitoring data,  Device level data
e.g., active power especially for low-order monitoring
filter (APF) harmonics, to micro EMS.  Command signals for active
(power hardware  Micro EMS and DER interface devices
device) inverter controller work
 DER interface together to eliminate harmonics.
inverter  If necessary use hardware
controller devices, e.g., APFs, to alleviate
(control system) local harmonics for critical
 Micro EMS loads.
(control system)  Compare harmonic contents
 DMS (control with certain standards to check
system) whether they meet
requirements.

24
C. Impact Analysis
In conventional distribution systems, harmonic sources include mainly industrial loads
with relatively large power and non-linear characteristics, such as steel mills and arc furnaces.
Harmonic compensation is usually implemented by installing local harmonic compensation
devices, such as active power filters (APFs). However, with the integration of microgrids, the
harmonic characteristics in a distribution system are significantly changed. Since many of the
various types of DERs in microgrids are interfaced by using power electronic inverters, the
microgrids themselves are potential harmonic sources due to the high-frequency switching nature
of power electronic inverters. However, since smart interface inverters are generally highly
controllable, they can play a significant role in eliminating harmonic distortion, and the
harmonics inside microgrids can usually be compensated locally by using smart interface
inverters. Interactive operation between local inverter controllers and a high-level controller,
such as a micro EMS, should be also achieved to ensure that a wide harmonic frequency range
can be reduced to an acceptable level.

The emerging harmonic compensation schemes in the local interface inverters, when
coordinated with conventional harmonic compensating devices, such as APFs, can eliminate
overall harmonic distortion throughout the distribution system. Harmonic compensation should
comply with the corresponding industry standards, such as IEEE Standard 1547. Note that since
the control scheme is modified to add the additional control function of harmonic compensation,
operation stability should be maintained to guarantee that harmonic compensation does not
conflict with conventional control and operation requirements.

2.1.6 A-6: Unbalance Compensation with Microgrid Participation

A. Description
This use case investigates unbalance characteristics and corresponding compensation
approaches in distribution systems with microgrids, and identifies the differences in unbalance
distortion between a conventional distribution system and the modern distribution system with
microgrids.

Unbalance in distribution systems is mainly attributed to uneven load distribution among

the three phases of a three-phase power system. The increasing penetration of DERs makes the
unbalance issue more complicated than in conventional passive distribution systems. Unbalance
compensation can be achieved by optimally placing sources and loads among three phases and
implementing local unbalance mitigation strategies, taking the following into account:

 Unbalance compensation is an interactive function that is achieved by both the micro

EMS and local controller/power hardware devices.

 Unbalance mitigation for the critical loads has priority over mitigation for non-critical
loads.

 Voltage/current unbalance after compensation should meet the corresponding industry

standards.

25
  Constant asymmetrical voltage/current (usually with a small unbalance ratio) and
transient asymmetrical voltage/current (usually with a large unbalance ratio) should be
differentiated.

 Stability in both the microgrid and the distribution system during unbalance
compensation should be guaranteed.

 The asymmetry problem should be mitigated by using the interface inverters and placing
the sources and loads as evenly as possible among three phases.

B. Technical Details
Contents of Information for
Actor & Actor Type Action
Exchange
 DER interface  Upload monitoring data,  Device level data
inverter controller especially for voltage and monitoring
(control system) current unbalance, to micro  Command signals for active
 Micro EMS EMS. devices
(control system)  Distinguish constant
 DMS (control asymmetrical voltage/current
system) unbalance and transient
asymmetrical voltage/current
unbalance.
 Micro EMS and DER interface
inverter controller work together
to eliminate voltage/current
unbalance.
 Check whether voltage/current
unbalance should meet
requirements of certain
standards.

C. Impact Analysis
Voltage or load unbalance is a common problem in both conventional and modern
distribution systems. It is generally attributed to the unbalanced distribution of loads and/or DER
resources among the three phases of a three-phase power system. When microgrids are integrated
into a distribution system, the unbalance issue could be further exacerbated, since both
distributed energy resources and loads may be connected in an unbalanced way among the three
phases.

The conventional approach to compensating system unbalance is to place the resources

and loads as evenly as possible among phases, an approach also feasible in the modern
distribution system with microgrids. Meanwhile, since more active devices with interface
inverters are connected to the system, local unbalance compensation can also be achieved in the
control scheme of the interface inverters themselves. Thus interactive unbalance compensation
can be realized with local controllers of DER interface inverters and with a high-level central
controller, such as a micro EMS. As with harmonic compensation, since the control scheme of

26
interface inverters is modified to add the additional control function of unbalance mitigation,
system stability should be still maintained to make sure that this additional control objective does
not conflict with conventional operation requirements.

2.1.7 A-7: Microgrid Mode Transition from Intentional/Unintentional Island Operation to

Grid-Connected Operation

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of microgrid mode transition from island mode to
grid-connected mode. For a seamless transition, the microgrid must be synchronized as closely
as possible with the main grid before the interconnection, and the synchronization criteria should
meet IEEE Standard 1547 requirements. Active devices can be used to alleviate the transient
voltage/current spikes during operation mode transition.

The microgrid and DMS should ensure that the following steps take place during the
transition process:

 The DMS and micro EMS coordinate with each other to perform interactive actions
during microgrid mode transition.

 The DMS is aware of microgrid mode transition.

 The model of microgrid should be updated in DMS for their different operation modes.

 The transition process should meet the transient voltage and frequency requirements.

 Power balance in both microgrid and distribution system should be maintained before and
after microgrid mode transition.

27
B. Technical Details
Details of the various actors, their roles and the information exchange among them are
summarized in the following table.
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Static switch  Micro EMS sends request of  Microgrid mode transition
at the connecting microgrid to signal
microgrid distribution system to DMS.  Transient frequency and
POIs (power  DMS evaluates current status voltage signals
hardware based on monitoring data and  Device level data monitoring
device) approves request for mode to meet the requirements of
 Protection transition. power balancing
relay (power  DMS sends control command to  Control signals for active
hardware) static switch at microgrid POI to devices (optional)
 POI circuit trigger mode transition.
breaker  Alternatively, POI relay
(power performs a sync check and sends
hardware) control command to POI breaker
 DER interface to close circuit breaker.
inverter  Micro EMS coordinates devices
controller inside microgrid to ensure
(control smooth mode transition.
system)  Micro EMS updates status of
 Micro EMS mode transition to DMS.
(control  DMS updates model of
system) microgrid after mode transition if
 DMS (control necessary.
system)  DMS triggers on/off changes of
 Active devices sources and loads to balance
to alleviate power if necessary.
transient
spikes
(optional)
(power
hardware
device)

C. Impact Analysis
In the process of mode transition from islanded mode to grid connected mode, the
microgrid needs to be resynchronized with the main grid. This impacts the operation of the
microgrid. One of the main impacts is the change of microgrid operation control from droop
control mode to PQ control mode. This is mainly because the microgrid will be tied with grid
frequency and grid voltage after the interconnection. Another impact is that the microgrid needs
to respond to the external faults according to IEEE Standard1547 requirements. Transition may
also require a provision for black start. Moreover, the functions of load balancing and/or DER
curtailment cannot be facilitated by the micro EMS because the power change in the microgrid

28
can be balanced by drawing from or supplying to the main grid. In addition to this, the battery
energy storage can be optimized and the need for energy storage can be reduced. Overall stability
of microgrid is improved because it becomes part of the main grid electrically. However, during
mode transition, severe electrical transients may occur if the control process is not properly
executed. Unless all loads in a microgrid are critical, the grid connected operation may allow for
reduced investment in local generation to cover only the sensitive industry loads for maintaining
continuous and uninterrupted power supply in the island mode.

2.1.8 A-8: Microgrid Mode Transition from Grid-Connected Operation to Intentional

Island Operation

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of microgrid mode transition from grid-connected
operation to intentional island operation. Intentional islanding is the process in which one or
more sections of a utility distribution system are purposely isolated from the distribution grid
following a widespread disturbance in the utility distribution grid or to fulfill a dispatch order
during normal operation. Each of the isolated microgrids can operate in island mode and
maintain its own power balance.

Intentional islanding can be formed because of a scheduled maintenance/dispatch order

or scheduled load/generation shedding. To ensure a smooth mode transition, the DSO should
notify each microgrid to be islanded to prepare itself, maintaining its own energy balance as well
as optimizing its DERs’ operation. Active devices are used to alleviate the transient
voltage/current spikes during operation mode transition if necessary.

The following steps are required during this mode transition.

 The DMS and micro EMS should coordinate with each other to perform an interactive
process during microgrid mode transition.

 The model of the microgrid should be updated in DMS for the operation mode change.

 The transition process should meet the transient voltage and frequency requirements.

 Power balance in both microgrid and distribution system should be maintained before and
after microgrid mode transition.

29
B. Technical Details
Various actors, their roles and the content of information exchange to achieve this mode
transition are shown in the following table.
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Static switch  DMS evaluates current status  Microgrid mode transition
at microgrid based on monitoring data and signal
POIs (power schedules intentional mode  Transient frequency and
hardware transition of microgrid. voltage signals
device)  DMS notifies micro EMS and  Device level data monitoring
 DER interface sends control command to static to meet requirements of
inverter switch at microgrid POI to power balancing
controller trigger mode transition or let  Control signals for active
(control micro EMS start mode transition. devices (optional)
system)  Micro EMS coordinates devices
 Micro EMS inside microgrid to ensure
(control smooth mode transition.
system)  Micro EMS updates status of
 DMS (control mode transition to DMS.
system)  DMS updates model of microgrid
 Active devices after mode transition if
to alleviate necessary.
transient  DMS triggers on/off changes of
spikes sources and loads to balance
(optional) power if necessary.

C. Impact Analysis
Intentional islanding allows system operators to flexibly control and manage the grid
operation, which can improve system reliability and reduce the chances of emergency outages
and customer interruption time due to unintentional loss of supply.

Intentional islanding requires each islanded microgrid to maintain its own voltage and
frequency, which requires the microgrid to change its control mode from PQ control to droop
control mode. Before islanding is initiated, it should be confirmed that critical loads can be
served and DERs can be coordinated to balance the energy within the microgrid after it is
disconnected from the distribution grid. It should also be ensured that any disconnection of loads
or connection of DERs during the transition will not cause dynamic stability problems. In the
case of excessive generation, i.e., there is not enough load to serve or energy storage capacity to
store the excess energy, corresponding output from the DERs will be curtailed. In the case of
insufficient power output from the DERs, the load shedding scheme can be triggered to balance
the power after islanding. This may result in disconnection of critical loads and additional outage
cost.

Island mode operation increases the need for storage to compensate for the impact of
intermittent power output from the DERs. Maintaining storage has a significant economic impact
on microgrid and distribution system operations.

30
2.1.9 A-9: Coordinated Energy Management for Economic Dispatch

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of coordination between different energy resources
for economic dispatch. The impact will be analyzed for both grid-connected and island modes of
operation.

Coordinated energy management in economic dispatch of microgrid resources minimizes

the overall operation cost of the microgrids. The coordinated energy management problem in
economic dispatch is formulated with the objective of minimizing the overall operation cost of
the participated microgrids and the distribution grid by meeting load requirements over a period
of time and satisfying specific operational and physical constraints (i.e., generation constraints,
ramping constraints, and energy storage constraints). Coordinated energy management is a two-
level dispatch problem: level one is at the system level, in which each microgrid can be modeled
as an aggregated unit, and level two is how to dispatch the individual DERs in each microgrid
based on its target, defined in level one. The solution of the level one problem determines the
dispatch from each microgrid at the system level, and the optimal solution of the level two
dispatch problem includes both how much power each DER needs to generate at a given time
interval and how much power needs to be taken from or supplied to the energy storage and
power grid. Coordination between the energy resources should take into account the following:

 Economic dispatch is achieved with the interaction between the micro EMS and DMS.

 The sources and loads in a microgrid are regarded as an aggregated unit for coordinated
energy management.

 Available power and load demand in the microgrid and distribution system should be
taken into consideration.

 Data communication between DMS and micro EMS should be used to achieve
coordinated energy management.

 The assets in each microgrid and distribution system should be managed in coordination
to achieve economic dispatch.

31
B. Technical Details
The role of actors, their types, action taken and content for information exchange for
coordinated energy management are shown in the table.
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Micro EMS  Upload monitoring data to DMS.  Device level data monitoring
(control  DMS schedules economic in both microgrids and
system) dispatch. distribution system
 DMS (control  DMS runs optimization algorithm  Commands for economic
system) and sends control signals to dispatch
devices, including microgrids.
 Micro EMS coordinates its
sources and loads to deliver
required power.

C. Impact Analysis
Coordinated energy management is essential for optimal utilization of energy resources.
With optimal energy management, the DSOs and microgrid owners can determine how much
power each DER should generate and how much energy should be taken from or supplied to
storage and/or the distribution grid in a given time interval. Without optimal energy
management, the overall operation cost of the microgrids could be excessively high, and without
coordination, the capacities of DERs may not be fully utilized in satisfying the operational
constraints of the microgrids. DSOs and microgrid owners can maximize their profit in
transactive energy markets by optimally scheduling their resources through coordination between
them. Optimal energy management of resources can reduce the need for storage, resulting in
lower storage costs.

2.1.10 A-10: Microgrid Model Update and Verification for Different Grid Operation
Conditions

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of microgrid model update and verification on
different grid operating conditions. It is particularly important in determining the appropriate
control actions to deal with changes in system operating conditions.

Model update and verification is an important requirement for secure and reliable
operation of the microgrid and the distribution system. If microgrid models are not updated
according to their changes in system operating conditions, incorrect control actions by the
controller and system instability may result. Typically, models can be updated using the field
measurements. In the case of “brown field” sites, where the parameters of different components
are unknown, a system identification technique can be adopted to identify the system parameters
and update the models. The following are key for model update and validation:

 A simplified model of each microgrid is necessary in the DMS to enable it to perform

certain functions, such as frequency control, volt-VAR optimization, etc.

32
  This simplified microgrid model should be updated if grid operation condition changes.

 Potential wheeling paths caused by the microgrid should be visible in DMS.

B. Technical Details
The technical details of this use case describing the role of different actors along with
information exchange is given in the following table.
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Micro EMS  DMS determines changes in grid  Models of microgrids
(control operation conditions based on  Operation mode changes
system) monitoring data.  Potential wheeling loops
 DMS (control  DMS updates microgrid model between microgrids and
system) according to different operation distribution system
conditions.
 Identify and highlight potential
wheeling paths in distribution
systems

C. Impact Analysis
Managing the control and operation of the distribution systems in the DMS requires the
DMS to know the current operation status and corresponding simplified models of each
microgrid. When the operation modes of the microgrids change, these simplified models in the
DMS should be updated accordingly to reflect the current status. It should be noted that rather
than focusing on detailed dynamic responses, these simplified microgrid models are used to
show basic operation information, including simplified microgrid topologies, aggregated DER
capacity curves, dispatchable load information, etc. It is important for the DMS to use these
simplified microgrid models to fully understand the operation status of each microgrid and
analyze its impact on the distribution system. One example is using the simplified microgrid
model to identify potential wheeling loops in distribution systems when multiple microgrids are
connected to the distribution feeder simultaneously. If no accurate microgrid models are used in
the DMS, these wheeling loops may not be visible and may cause damage in the distribution
system.

2.1.11 A-11: Distribution System Reconfiguration with Multiple Microgrids

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of distribution system reconfiguration when multiple
microgrids are connected to the distribution grid. Network reconfiguration with multiple
microgrids connections is particularly useful for enhanced power quality, reduced network power
losses, and improved grid resiliency in the event of natural disasters or fault conditions by
isolating the faulted segments of the network.

Reconfiguring a distribution system with multiple microgrids provides an alternate power

rerouting scheme in order to maximize DER output power, reduce network power losses, or

33
restore loads interrupted in a faulted scenario. The rerouting is performed through multiple
switching operations. The following points need to be taken into consideration for network
reconfiguration with multiple microgrids:

 When multiple microgrids are connected to the distribution system, consider their impact
and contribution to the optimal network reconfiguration.

 Short-term DER and load forecasting data can be used to support the network
reconfiguration.

 Available power is supplied not only by feeders but also by connected microgrids with
high available power.

 Ensure power balance after network reconfiguration, and ensure that no new loops are
formed and no new segments are de-energized after the reconfiguration.

B. Technical Details
The role of actors, actions to be taken and contents of information exchange in this use
case are summarized in the following table.
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Micro EMS  Upload monitoring data to DMS.  Network configuration
(control  DMS determines if network  Device level data monitoring
system) reconfiguration is necessary.  Device level forecasting data
 DMS (control  DMS determines optimal network  Control signals to smart
system) reconfiguration considering switches (optional)
 Smart available power from both feeders
switches and microgrids.
(power  DMS sends control signals to
hardware trigger optimal network
devices) reconfiguration.
(optional)  Adjust the status of smart switches
if necessary to enhance flexibility
of network reconfiguration.

C. Impact Analysis
Network reconfiguration may provide the best alternative paths for uninterrupted power
supply to parts of the network with excessive power losses and/or poor voltage profile or that are
isolated from the main grid due to faults or natural events. A distribution system reconfiguration
scheme with multiple microgrids can help improve the resiliency of the system in such cases. In
the event of natural disasters, it can help restore power for critical loads such as transportation,
hospitals, supermarkets, fire stations, etc. The absence of a network reconfiguration scheme
where multiple microgrids are connected may lead to detrimental impacts on the operation of the
distribution network. For example, some critical loads may not be served, or part of the network
may have bad voltage quality or excessive power losses. All these can lead to reduced revenue
and increased customer interruption time for DSOs.

34
2.2 USE CASES UNDER EMERGENCY OPERATIONS

2.2.1 B-1: Coordinated Load Shedding with Load and DER Variations in Both Microgrids
and Distribution Systems

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of coordinated load shedding in microgrids and
distribution systems considering the significant variations in loads and DERs.

Load shedding is required to maintain system frequency and voltage within their limits
when there is a generation deficit in the system. Coordinated load shedding can determine how
many and which loads need to be disconnected at a given time following an event of major
variation in load and/or DER output. The following points need to be taken into consideration for
coordinated load shedding.

 The purpose of load shedding is to maintain the frequency stability throughout the
distribution system.

 The DMS and micro EMS should cooperate interactively to perform proper load
shedding.

 Power balance in both microgrids and distribution system must be maintained.

B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 AGC (control  Upload monitoring data to DMS.  Supply side monitoring data
system)  DMS determines if load shedding  Demand side monitoring data
 Device level should be triggered based on  Frequency signals
on/off switch monitoring data and predicted  On/off status of devices
 Micro EMS data for both sources and loads.
(control  If emergency load shedding is
system) triggered, DMS sends control
 DMS (control commands to micro EMS and
system) individual devices to disconnect
load.
 If micro EMS receives load
shedding command, it sends
commands to device level on/off
switches to disconnect certain
devices based on their power
availability.

35
C. Impact Analysis
Load shedding is essential for stable operation of the power network when there is not
enough generation to supply the load. Coordinated load shedding ensures that critical loads are
given priority. Lack of proper coordination in the load shedding scheme can interrupt the supply
to critical customers, which can lead to severe consequences for the customers and high penalties
for the utility. If the load shedding scheme is not well coordinated, based on load demand and
generation availability, it may cause the grid to collapse.

2.2.2 B-2: Coordinated Microgrid Protection

A. Description
This use case investigates coordinated protection schemes in distribution systems with
microgrids. It is commonly known that microgrid protection is significantly different from the
protection schemes in the conventional distribution grid due to the existence of inverter-
interfaced DERs.

Conventional protection schemes for distribution systems are generally not suitable for
modern distribution systems with DERs and microgrids connected, primarily because of the low
fault current contributed by the inverter-interfaced DERs in the microgrids and the distribution
grid. The operation modes of microgrids should be considered in identifying suitable protection
schemes:

 Protection of a microgrid is more challenging than conventional protection schemes for

distribution systems due to the considerably lower fault current.

 Protection of microgrids must consider the fault current contribution from both the
microgrid side and the distribution system side, which requires coordination between
micro EMS and DMS.

 Diversified protection schemes and directional protective relays should be used in the
protection schemes of microgrids.

36
B. Technical Details
Contents of Information for
Actor & Actor Type Action
Exchange
 Protective relay  Depending on fault location,  Device level data
(power hardware either micro EMS or DMS monitoring (mainly
device) identifies fault. localized monitoring for
 Micro EMS  Protective devices triggered protection purpose)
(control system) automatically to isolate fault.  Microgrid and distribution
 DMS (control  Use different types of protection system condition (normal or
system) schemes, e.g., current-based fault condition)
protection as the primary
protection scheme and voltage
protection as the backup
protection scheme.
 Update relay settings in
different microgrid operation
modes.
 Send status of fault occurrence
and isolation to micro EMS and
DMS.
 If necessary, trigger follow-up
behaviors in DMS, e.g., service
restoration enabled by FLISR,
etc.

C. Impact Analysis
The two-direction fault current contribution is the key feature of the protection schemes
in distribution systems with DERs and microgrids. In conventional distribution systems, the fault
current is always one-way and solely from the upstream feeder; no fault current is from the
downstream feeder sections. Since the short-circuit capacity at the main feeder is very large, the
settings of downstream protective relays are usually set accordingly: non-directional with
relatively large values. However, DERs and microgrids as active sources can also contribute
fault current from the downstream side to the fault, but with much lower fault current compared
with that from the upstream feeder. With lower fault currents from the DERs and non-directional
high relay settings, the existing protection scheme will not be not able to isolate the fault in the
distribution grid.

Coordinated microgrid protection should consider the maximum fault current capabilities
of different DER devices and fault current flows and change the protective relay settings
accordingly.

Meanwhile, for the protection of the circuits and devices inside the microgrid, different
operation modes should be considered when determining the relay settings. In particular, for
grid-connected operation mode, the relay settings should be directional, with different values for
each direction, since the fault current is contributed in two ways by both DERs and upstream
distribution system. In island operation mode, the fault current is solely contributed by the DERs.

37
The fault current may still be two-way, but at a lower level in each direction compared with the
grid-connected mode, and thus different relay settings should be used.

Coordinated protection of distribution systems with microgrids should consider multiple

functionalities and be implemented as an integrated solution. The fault ride-through capability of
DER interface inverters and the protection relays inside and outside the microgrids should be
coordinated to avoid malfunction of the protection schemes.

2.2.3 B-3: Power Outage Mitigation Using Multiple Microgrids Integrated with DMS

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of multiple microgrids integrated with a DMS in
mitigating power outages. When a fault in a segment of the network is detected, the DMS can
isolate the faulted segment and coordinate with its microgrids to supply power to the faulted
segment. The following steps can be taken to ensure effective power outage mitigation using
multiple microgrids.

 Microgrids can be used as effective assets to mitigate the impact of a power outage.

 The micro EMS in each microgrid should work in a coordinated way with the DMS to
isolate the fault area and restore service.

 The desired voltage profile and system frequency throughout the system should be
maintained within limits if the affected feeder segments are islanded with one or more
microgrids.

 The availability of DERs for emergency power support should be identified.

 The necessary data exchange between micro EMS and DMS during power outage
mitigation should be identified.

 Power balance inside each microgrid must be ensured.

38
B. Technical Details
The details of various actors, their roles and information required are given in the
following table.
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 DER  Detect power outage and inform  Device level data monitoring
interface DMS of fault area.  Power outage information,
inverter  DMS runs optimization algorithm e.g., location, severity, etc.
controller to isolate areas with faults and  Control commands for each
(control uses microgrids as assets for microgrid.
system) restoration.
 Micro EMS  DMS sends out control
(control commands to each microgrid and
system) other devices.
 DMS (control  Store and update status of power
system) outage and service restoration in
DMS.

C. Impact Analysis
If a power outage takes place in a segment of the network, multiple microgrids in
coordination with the DMS can help mitigate it. When an outage is detected, the DMS can
determine an alternative path for rerouting the supply through other microgrids in the system.
This rerouting helps in the resilient operation of the grid, reduces customer service interruption
time, enables the efficient use of energy resources, and ensures the power supply to critical loads.
All these help mitigate outage impacts and improve the power delivery service of the utility, as
well as reduce the overall cost of additional backup generations in the microgrids.

2.2.4 B-4: Virtual Microgrid Implementation and Energy Management Scheme for
Emergency Power Support

A. Description
This use case investigates an emergency service restoration approach: using virtually
formulated microgrids when a fault occurs in the distribution system. These virtually formulated
microgrids are used to isolate the fault and prevent possible further cascading of the power
outage to a wider area.

Using virtual microgrids to enhance the resilience of a distribution system is an emerging

approach and is achieved by dynamically configuring the distribution system to isolate the faults
and then facilitating a service restoration strategy. Several microgrids can be dynamically formed
into a virtual microgrid to supply power and maintain the frequency and voltage stability of the
islanded part of the distribution network. The interactions between the micro EMS and DMS are
used to determine the location and size of each virtual microgrid.

These microgrids can be virtually implemented, i.e., with dynamic boundaries based on
the location and severity of the power outage. When the power outage is cleared, the virtual

39
microgrids can be reconnected to form the original distribution system configuration. The
following should be considered:

 Decentralized energy management for each virtual microgrid should be achieved.

 Necessary data exchange between the micro EMS and DMS should be identified during
power outage mitigation.

 Power balance inside each microgrid must be ensured.

 The frequency and voltage throughout the system should be maintained in the acceptable
range.

B. Technical Details
Contents of Information for
Actor & Actor Type Action
Exchange
 Smart switches  Detect power outage and inform  Device level data
(power hardware DMS of fault area. monitoring
device)  DMS runs optimization  Power outage information,
 DER interface algorithm to form several virtual e.g., location, severity, etc.
inverter controller microgrids to isolate fault and  Control commands for
(control system) restore service. smart switches
 Micro EMS  DMS sends control signals to  Local frequency and voltage
(control system) corresponding smart switches to information for
 DMS (control form dynamics microgrids. disconnection and
system)  Monitor frequency, voltage and resynchronization
other critical indices throughout
distribution system to determine
if the power outage has been
successfully cleared.
 When power outage is
successfully cleared, DMS
sends control signals to smart
switches to reconnect virtual
microgrids and form the original
distribution system
configuration.

C. Impact Analysis
Virtual microgrids can be regarded as an emergency application of microgrids for fault
isolation and service restoration in distribution system. These virtually formulated microgrids
can significantly improve the reliability and resilience of a distribution system: When a fault
occurs in a distribution system, multiple microgrids will be implemented to isolate the fault and
prevent the further power outage in a wider area. When the fault is cleared, these virtual
microgrids can be re-combined to form the original distribution system configuration, thus
providing a flexible way to maintain service in a distribution system.

40
 When formulating the virtual microgrids, the power in each microgrid must be balanced
to maintain the frequency and voltage stability in each section of the system. Meanwhile, to
facilitate the interconnection of the microgrids, smart switches are used to detect the fault
occurrence and conduct the effective disconnection and resynchronization.

2.2.5 B-5: Fault Isolation for Grid-Side Faults

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of connected microgrids on fault isolation of grid-side
faults. Connection of microgrids and DERs to the distribution system complicates the fault
isolation process for permanent grid-side faults. Proper coordination is needed between the
microgrid protection devices and distribution grid protection devices. The following points
should be considered when isolating grid-side faults:

 The DMS is the main actor in detecting and isolating the faults occurring at the grid side.

 Fault location, isolation, and service restoration (FLISR) and other applications in DMS
should be used to support the fault isolation.

 The microgrids should participate in the fault isolation process.

 Frequency and voltage in each microgrid and the distribution system should be
maintained within the acceptable ranges.

B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Protective  Upload monitoring data to DMS.  Device level data monitoring
relay (power  When fault occurs, protective  Present condition of
hardware devices should isolate fault microgrid and distribution
device) automatically, then local devices system
 Micro EMS should inform micro EMS and
(control DMS of fault occurrence.
system)  DMS utilizes FLISR or other
 DMS (control applications to prevent further
system) fault propagation.
 Micro EMS receives command
from DMS to participate in fault
isolation.
 Microgrids should be
disconnected if they are in faulted
feeder section.

41
C. Impact Analysis
The interconnection of microgrids will have an impact on fault isolation for permanent
grid-side faults. The short-circuit protection devices on the grid side should coordinate with
microgrid interconnection switches and their own protection schemes to help isolate grid-side
faults.

Which mechanism to be used regarding how a microgrid will participate in the grid-side
fault isolation process depends mainly on its location relative to the actual fault location —
upstream, in the middle, or downstream of the faulted section (bounded by two adjacent switches
of the fault location).

When a fault occurs, the closest upstream protection device on the distribution grid side
interrupts the fault. The microgrids and DERs on the faulted section and downstream of the
faulted section will be disconnected from the grid triggered by their own protection schemes.
The adjacent switches of the faulted section will then be opened automatically by the FLISR to
isolate the fault. The microgrids and DERs on the faulted section will remain disconnected until
the crew repairs the faulted component. Throughout the isolation process, via their own
protection schemes, the DERs and microgrids upstream of the faulted section will ride through
the fault and remain connected without any service interruption.

2.2.6 B-6: Post-fault Recovery for Grid-Side Faults

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of microgrids on post-fault recovery for permanent
grid-side faults. microgrids and DERs can be used as resources for post-fault recovery for
permanent grid-side faults. While the DMS is the main actor in detecting and isolating faults
occurring on the grid side, and the FLISR in the DMS is the main application in post-fault
recovery for grid-side faults, microgrids should also participate in restoring the service. The
following points should be considered during the post-fault recovery process:

 The frequency and voltage in each microgrid and the distribution system should be
maintained within the acceptable range.

 Effective data communication between DMS and micro EMSs should be ensured to
coordinate the operation of the microgrids and the distribution system during fault
isolation and service restoration.

 DERs inside and outside of microgrids should be used to balance power demand during
post-fault recovery procedure.

42
B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Micro EMS  Upload monitoring data to DMS.  Device level data monitoring
(control  DMS uses FLISR to restore  Present condition of
system) service in post-fault procedure. microgrid and distribution
 DMS (control  Microgrid participates in service system
system) restoration as an aggregated asset.
 Micro EMS coordinates sources
and loads inside microgrid during
service restoration.
 Notify interrupted microgrids to
reconnect to the distribution grid if
corresponding feeder sections are
reenergized by FLISR.

C. Impact Analysis
The interconnection of microgrids will have some impact on post-fault recovery for
permanent grid-side faults, as short-circuit protection devices on the grid side should coordinate
with microgrid interconnection switches and their own protection schemes to isolate grid-side
faults and restore service to customers as quickly as possible.

Which mechanism to be used regarding how a microgrid will participate in grid-side fault
isolation and post-fault recovery depends mainly on its location relative to the actual fault
location — upstream, in the middle, or downstream of the faulted section (bounded by two
adjacent switches of the fault location).

When a fault occurs, the closest upstream protection device on the distribution grid side
interrupts the fault. The microgrids and DERs on the faulted section and downstream of the
faulted section will disconnect from the grid, triggered by their own protection schemes. The
adjacent switches of the faulted section will then be opened automatically by the FLISR to
isolate the fault. Then the normally open tie switch connecting to the adjacent feeder will be
closed by the FLISR to restore service to the customers downstream of the faulted section. All of
the DERs and microgrids downstream of the faulted section that were previously disconnected
by their own protection schemes can then reconnect back to the grid. The microgrids and DERs
on the faulted section will remain disconnected until a crew repairs the faulted component and
the feeder section is re-energized. Throughout the entire isolation and restoration process, via
their own protection schemes, the DERs and microgrids upstream of the faulted section will ride
through the fault and remain connected without any service interruption.

Since feeder configurations are changed due to fault isolation and service restoration, the
power inside and outside the microgrids need to be re-balanced, and the frequency and voltage in
each microgrid and the distribution system should be maintained within acceptable range. The
DMS and energized microgrids should communicate among each other to coordinate the DERs
and loads inside and outside the microgrids and balance the power demand during the post-fault
recovery procedure.

43
2.2.7 B-7: Fault Isolation for Microgrid-Side Faults

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of connection to the distribution system on fault
isolation for permanent microgrid-side faults. Proper coordination between microgrid protection
devices and distribution system protection devices is needed. The micro EMS is the main actor in
isolating microgrid-side faults, and the FLISR and other applications in the DMS prevent further
fault propagation. The following points should be considered when isolating microgrid-side
faults:

 The frequency and voltage in each microgrid and the distribution system should be
maintained within the acceptable range.

 Effective data communication between the DMS and the micro EMS should be ensured
to coordinate the operation of the microgrids and the distribution system during fault
isolation.

 The microgrid with the fault should be disconnected if necessary.

B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Protective  Upload monitoring data to DMS.  Device level data monitoring
relay (power  When fault occurs, protective  Present condition of
hardware devices should isolate fault microgrid and distribution
device) automatically, and then local system
 DER interface devices should inform micro EMS
inverter and DMS of fault occurrence.
controller  Micro EMS coordinates sources
(control and loads inside microgrid to
system) maintain power balance.
 Micro EMS  FLISR application in DMS is used
(control to prevent fault propagation.
system)  Prepare DMS to provide
 DMS (control emergency power support to
system) maintain frequency and voltage
stability inside microgrids.

C. Impact Analysis
Short-circuit protection devices from the grid side should coordinate with the microgrid
interconnection switch and protection devices to help isolate permanent microgrid-side faults.

When a fault occurs in a microgrid, the local protection schemes of the microgrid should
trip the corresponding switch automatically to interrupt the fault current and notify its micro
EMS and the DMS of the fault occurrence with the corresponding switch operations. With
proper protection coordination, the microgrid protection devices will be activated first while the

44
protection devices on the distribution side will not operate, and thus other microgrids and all the
DERs connected to the distribution system side will remain connected. The micro EMS will then
apply a FLISR-like function to isolate the faulted section within the microgrid.

If the protection device that interrupts the microgrid internal fault happens to be the
circuit breaker at the microgrid’s POI, the microgrid will be disconnected from the main grid.
The protection devices and the operated circuit breaker will notify the micro EMS and DMS of
the fault occurrence. The micro EMS then will start its unintentional islanding process and
isolate the faulted segment. Due to the designed fast action of the microgrid protection devices,
the protection devices on the distribution side will not operate, and thus other microgrids and all
the DERs connected to the distribution system side will remain connected.

If the responsible nearest switches fail to isolate the faulted section within the microgrid,
the backup protection scheme in the distribution grid may react to isolate the feeder section on
which the microgrid is connected. The distribution system protective devices will then notify the
micro EMS and DMS of its operation. At the same time, the micro EMS will disconnect the
interconnection switch between the microgrid and the distribution system and go out of service.

2.2.8 B-8: Post-fault Recovery for Microgrid-Side Faults

A. Description
This use case analyzes the impact of connection to a distribution system on post-fault
recovery for permanent microgrid-side faults. In post-fault recovery for microgrid-side faults, the
micro EMS is the main actor in detecting and isolating the fault, and the FLISR in the DMS
participates in post-fault recovery. The following points should be considered:

 The frequency and voltage in each microgrid and distribution system should be
maintained within the acceptable range.

 Data communication between the DMS and micro EMS should be ensured to coordinate
operation between multiple microgrids and distribution system during fault isolation.

 DERs inside and outside microgrids should be used to balance the power demand during
post-fault recovery procedure.

45
B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 DER interface  Upload monitoring data to micro  Device level data monitoring
inverter EMS.  Present condition of
controller  Micro EMS coordinates sources microgrid and distribution
(control and loads inside microgrid to system.
system) balance power and maintain
 Micro EMS frequency and voltage stability.
(control  DMS supports microgrid for
system) service restoration if necessary.
 DMS (control
system)

C. Impact Analysis
Short-circuit protection devices from the grid side should coordinate with the microgrid
interconnection switch and protection devices to isolate permanent microgrid-side faults and
carry out post-fault service restoration.

When a fault occurs in a microgrid, its local protection schemes should trip the
corresponding switch automatically to interrupt the fault current and notify its micro EMS and
the DMS of the fault occurrence with the corresponding switch operations. With proper
protection coordination, the microgrid protection devices will be activated first while the
protection devices on the distribution side will not operate, and thus other microgrids and all the
DERs connected to the distribution system side will remain connected. The micro EMS will then
apply its FLISR-like function to isolate the faulted section within the microgrid. When the
faulted section is isolated, the micro EMS will reconfigure the circuit and coordinate its sources
and loads to maintain power balance. In case of an emergency, the DMS may provide emergency
power support to maintain power balance and voltage quality in the microgrid. If the power
imbalance and/or voltage violation in the microgrid persists, it will be disconnected from the
distribution system.

If the protection device that interrupts the microgrid internal fault happens to be the
circuit breaker at the microgrid POI, the microgrid will be disconnected from the grid and the
protection devices and operated circuit breaker will notify the micro EMS and DMS of the fault
occurrence. The micro EMS will then start its unintentional islanding process, isolate the faulted
segment and restore service to the rest of the microgrid. Due to the designed fast action of the
microgrid protection devices, the protection devices on the distribution side will not operate, and
the other microgrids and all the DERs connected to the distribution system side will remain
connected. The DMS and remaining micro EMSs then maintain the voltage and frequency in
each remaining microgrid and the distribution system.

If the nearest responsible switches fail to isolate the faulted section within the microgrid,
the backup protection scheme in the distribution grid may react to isolate the feeder section to
which the microgrid is connected. The distribution system protective devices will then notify the
micro EMS and DMS of its operation. At the same time, the micro EMS will disconnect the

46
interconnection switch between the microgrid and the distribution system, and the microgrid will
go out of service. The DMS will then restore service to the isolated section by closing the
operated switches. The DMS and remaining micro EMSs will then coordinate their sources,
including DERs, and loads to maintain the voltage and frequency in each remaining microgrid
and the distribution system.

2.2.9 B-9: Microgrid Mode Transition from Grid-Connected Operation to Unintentional

Island Operation

A. Description
This use case determines the impact of a microgrid mode transition from grid connected
mode to island mode when a section of the utility distribution grid is disconnected from the main
grid following a fault on the main grid side.

Unintentional islanding is usually triggered by a fault condition, such as anti-islanding

protection. The DMS should be aware of the operation mode transition and the cause for the
unintentional islanding operation. The micro EMS and DMS should ensure power balance in the
islanded microgrid and the distribution system, respectively, after mode transition.

The following steps needs to be considered for this use case:

 The transient frequency and voltage requirements for operation mode transition should be
met.

 Active devices should be used to alleviate the transient voltage/current spikes during
operation mode transition if necessary.

47
B. Technical Details
Actor & Actor Contents of Information for
Action
Type Exchange
 Static switch  Protective behavior triggers  Microgrid mode transition
at the operation mode transition from signal
microgrid grid-connected to unintentional  Fault information that triggers
POIs (power island mode. unintentional microgrid
hardware  Micro EMS conducts mode islanded operation
device) transition and informs DMS of  Transient frequency and
 DER interface cause for unintentional behavior. voltage signals
inverter  Micro EMS coordinates sources  Device level data monitoring
controller and loads inside microgrid to to meet requirements of
(control keep power balance. power balancing
system)  DMS maintains power balance  Control signals for active
 Micro EMS throughout the distribution devices (optional)
(control system and updates microgrid
system) model if necessary.
 DMS (control
system)
 Active devices
to alleviate
transient
spikes
(optional)
(power
hardware
device)

C. Impact Analysis
Unintentional islanding may result in a power imbalance in the microgrid, which may
cause microgrid instability or blackout and damage the devices inside the microgrid. The
unintentional islanding operation requires a microgrid with sufficient energy storage capacity to
balance power during the mode transition and persistent islanding operation, which is an
additional cost to the microgrid owner. During the transition, the micro EMS may shed non-
critical loads to balance the power within the microgrid. Another impact of unintentional
islanding is possible end-user equipment damage due to abnormal voltage and frequency
violations during the islanding. Crew safety can be significantly impacted by unintentional
islanding — the repair crew may be exposed to unexpected live wires.

2.2.10 B-10: Fault Ride-Through Capability of Microgrids

A. Description
This use case investigates the fault ride-through capability of microgrids. The
requirements of fault ride-through capability should coordinate with the conventional protection
scheme throughout the distribution system.

48
 Conventionally, microgrids are usually disconnected from the grid to stop energizing the
distribution system when a fault occurs; however, the microgrid need not be always disconnected
in emergency conditions to achieve a resilient distribution system. Implementing the fault ride-
through capability on microgrids can enable some desirable responses for different types of
faults, avoiding unnecessary disconnection and resynchronization. The microgrid should be
capable of identifying the type of fault and determine whether to trigger a disconnection or ride
through the fault. The following points should be considered:

 The system stability of microgrid and distribution system should be guaranteed during
fault ride-through.

 The micro EMS should be used to coordinate the devices inside microgrid to ride through
the fault.

 Frequency and voltage must be kept within the acceptable range during fault ride-
through.

B. Technical Details
Contents of Information for
Actor & Actor Type Action
Exchange
 DER interface  Micro EMS and DMS detect  Device level data
inverter controller fault and determine type of monitoring
(control system) fault.  System condition
 Micro EMS  If disconnection of microgrid (microgrid or distribution
(control system) should be triggered, send system) in case of longer
 DMS (control control command to static term fault (identified based
system) switch at microgrid POI to on the standard)
transfer to island operation
mode.
 If fault is not severe and only a
fault ride-through is required,
micro EMS sends out
commands to DER interface
inverter controllers to trigger
fault ride-through control
algorithm so that fault influence
can be mitigated.

C. Impact Analysis
The fault ride-through capability of microgrids can be regarded as an enhanced feature,
making the system operate in an intelligent way without involving unnecessary disconnection
and reconnection. Conventionally, a microgrid may have to disconnect from the distribution
system when a fault occurs either on the microgrid side or the distribution system side because it
lacks fault ride-through capability. When the fault is cleared, the microgrid will be reconnected
and resynchronized to the distribution system. By implementing the fault ride-through function,

49
the microgrid is able to identify the type of fault and its relative location to the fault and decide
whether to ride through it or disconnect itself from the distribution system. Since most of the
faults in distribution system are single-phase and temporary faults, the micro EMS should be
able to identify such faults and ride through them with very limited fault current contribution. If
certain types of severe or permanent faults are detected, e.g., three-phase faults, the micro EMS
can disconnect the microgrid from the grid instantaneously, via the corresponding protection
scheme, to prevent the fault from damaging devices inside the microgrid. If the microgrid is
upstream of the fault, it should coordinate with the FLISR to ride through the fault.

50
 II-B POWER QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS INTERNAL TO THE MICROGRID

There is a growing interest in online power quality monitoring and analysis that will
enable microgrids to collect high-resolution voltage and power quality data and perform forensic
engineering analysis with it. One reason for this increased emphasis on power quality is the
growing penetration of electrical and electronic devices whose operation may be adversely
impacted by the presence of harmonics and nonlinear voltage waveforms. The foreseeable
increasing penetration of inverter-interfaced DERs will no doubt aggravate power quality
problems in microgrids and the distribution grid. As a result, new power quality sensors may be
added at critical locations, along with analytical tools for processing the data from the sensors to
form actionable information.

This chapter includes the following analyses: a) identification of operation quantities for
online microgrid power quality monitoring, b) identification of online monitoring strategies for
microgrid power quality, and c) evaluation of the effectiveness and efficiency of online
monitoring strategies.

2.3 MICROGRIDS OPERATION QUANTITIES FOR ONLINE POWER QUALITY

MONITORING

The most critical power quality indices that will be monitored in real time are as follows:

 Harmonics. The dominance of inverter-interfaced DERs may result in harmonic

distortion or high-frequency disturbance induced by pulse width modulation in the
microgrid. The wide use of inverters can potentially activate interaction with other
devices and possibly trigger resonances.[6] Depending on the number of paralleled DER
inverters, the resonant frequencies may vary in a wide spectrum.

 Unbalance. A major source of voltage unbalance is the connection of unbalanced loads,

i.e. single-phase load connection between two phases or between one phase and the
neutral. In addition, most DERs, such as PVs, are interconnected to the microgrids in an
unbalanced way. Most DERs are subject to weather conditions, such as cloud cover, solar
irradiation and ambient temperature. The stochastic nature of weather conditions creates
significant volatility in the DER output. As a result, intermittent DER power output can
exacerbate voltage unbalance among the three phases, especially with a large number of
single-phase DERs connected to the microgrid. Voltage unbalance can cause adverse
effects on equipment such as induction motors, power electronic converters and
adjustable speed drives (ASDs). In addition, under unbalanced conditions, the microgrid
will be subject to more losses and be less stable. [7]

 Voltage Violations. With the increasing penetration of DERs, especially residential PVs,
the voltage profile in a microgrid will be influenced not only by the loading condition but
also by the generation of DERs. However, the intermittent nature of DERs may induce
voltage violations, such as voltage sags and swells, which may cause power equipment

51
 and/or abnormal load trips. In addition, a rapid change in power flow direction due to
fluctuating DER output may cause excessive operation of the voltage regulating devices,
such as the voltage regulator and switched capacitor banks, shortening their life spans and
increasing maintenance requirements.

With the challenges that large-scale integration of DERs may inflict on microgrids, the
online monitoring of power quality for microgrids must include harmonics, unbalance, and
voltage violations.

2.4 IDENTIFICATION OF ONLINE MONITORING STRATEGIES FOR

MICROGRID POWER QUALITY

To guarantee that the microgrid controller can effectively monitor and evaluate the
impact of DERs on power quality, it should be capable of gathering power quality status
information from DERs directly. Effective approaches to eliminating power quality problems
from DERs should be deployed in the microgrid controller to alleviate the DER’s influence and
comply with related standards (e.g., IEEE Standard 1547). Meanwhile, individual DERs should
have the ability to mitigate the impact of power quality issues by themselves. To effectively
enhance the power quality in microgrid operations, the power quality data acquisition and
analysis system should adopt a hybrid architecture in which some components may be
decentralized and some others centralized. Online monitoring strategies for the three identified
power quality problems, harmonics, unbalance and voltage violations, will be separately
discussed in the following subsections.

2.4.1 Online Monitoring Strategy for Microgrid Harmonics

We propose a hybrid harmonics monitoring and compensation scheme that utilizes both
local device controllers and the central controller. On the device level, local harmonics are
monitored and compensated at both critical loads and DER interface inverters. Critical loads may
include industrial loads with relatively large power and non-linear characteristics that can be
major harmonic sources. High-fidelity PQ sensors can be installed at those critical loads, and the
harmonics can be locally compensated by installing harmonic compensation devices, such as
APF. Another major harmonic source in microgrids is inverter-interfaced DERs, because of their
high frequency switching behaviors. Because the controllability of the interface inverters is high
enough to achieve harmonic compensation, they can also play a significant role in eliminating
harmonic distortion in microgrids. As a result, the harmonics induced by DERs are usually
locally monitored and compensated by the interface inverters.

Central power quality monitoring, analysis and control systems perform the following
functions:

a) Interact with local harmonic monitoring and compensation systems

b) Coordinate the inverter controllers and conventional harmonic compensation devices such
as APF

52
 The central microgrid power quality monitoring, analysis and control system employs a
secondary harmonic compensation scheme to avoid the “whack-a-mole” problem in harmonic
distortion, i.e., the elimination of certain orders of harmonics leading to the rise of other orders of
harmonics. The hierarchical harmonic monitoring and control system design ensures that overall
harmonic distortion throughout the entire microgrid can be eliminated.

2.4.2 Online Monitoring Strategy for Microgrid Unbalance

We propose a hierarchical unbalance monitoring and compensation scheme with two

levels: primary and secondary.[8] Unbalance data acquisition, analysis and control at the
primary level resides in the local DER interface inverter controller and critical load controller.
The local DER inverter employs proper control strategies to eliminate negative sequence
voltage/current and achieve local voltage unbalance compensation. For critical loads, the
voltage/current unbalance is alleviated by APF through the injection of negative sequence
voltage/current.

Unbalance control on the secondary level is envisioned to be one of the functions of the
microgrid controller. The microgrid controller is mainly responsible for managing unbalance at
the POI. This is achieved mainly through the following sub-functions: a) dynamic allocation and
optimal switching of DERs and loads within the microgrid, based on the forecasting data, to
make the net power among the three phases as balanced as possible, and b) interaction and
coordination with the local DER inverter and critical load unbalance monitoring and control
system.

2.4.3 Online Monitoring Strategy for Voltage Violations

We propose a coordinated hierarchical online monitoring and control architecture to

eliminate voltage violations in a microgrid. In the device monitoring and control layer, voltage
sag/swell compensation is realized by using DER inverter reactive power generation/absorption
capabilities. The DER inverter monitors the local voltage and may implement either a constant
power factor or volt-VAR droop control to continuously adjust its reactive power output to
mitigate local voltage violations. The local control is autonomous and receives the control set
points from the microgrid controller.

The microgrid controller formulates a unified optimization problem that can

hierarchically integrate the control effects of DER inverters and other conventional voltage
regulating devices with different time scales. It receives local voltage monitoring data as well as
DER generation and load forecast data as input and determines the optimal control commands,
such as active power and power factor or volt-VAR droop control set points for DERs, and
switching operations for voltage regulators and capacitor banks. The two-layer monitoring and
control strategy is designed to optimize the voltage profile and eliminate voltage violations for
the entire microgrid.

53
2.5 EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE POWER QUALITY
MONITORING STRATEGIES

Online harmonic monitoring and compensation strategies should be evaluated using

existing standards, such as IEEE Standard 1547.[2] It should be noted that since the control
diagram is modified to achieve the additional control function of harmonic compensation, system
operation stability should be maintained to guarantee that the harmonic compensation does not
conflict with the conventional control and operation requirements.

The performance of online unbalance monitoring and compensation strategies should

conform to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, which recommend the
limit of 2 percent for voltage unbalance in electrical systems.[7]

Online voltage violation monitoring and compensation strategies should maintain the
voltage profiles within the boundaries specified by ANSI C84.1.[1]

54
 SECTION III – IMPACT OF MICROGRID OPERATION ON THE DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM AND DMS OPERATION

III-A POWER EXCHANGES BETWEEN MICROGRIDS AND DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS – ELECTRICITY MARKETS

One of the potential benefits of microgrids is that they can reduce the additional costs
associated with utility-supplied electric energy, which include the cost of network losses,
expenditure on marketing and customer support, and the costs associated with network
congestion and various government-imposed taxes. In addition, the owner can sell excess electric
energy to the market or store it for future use in certain situations, such as when the microgrid
has to operate in island mode or when the cost of electric energy is high. Microgrids can also
help ensure the safe and reliable operation of the distribution grid by dispatching power under
normal and emergency conditions to the main grid as well as the other microgrids in the network.

This chapter focuses on a) defining microgrid pools (multiple microgrids) participating in

joint power dispatch, b) defining the dispatch and operation rules applied to microgrid pools by
distribution utilities and markets, and c) analyzing the interaction of microgrid pools with
distribution utilities and markets in power dispatch.

3.1 DEFINITION OF MICROGRID POOLS PARTICIPATING IN JOINT POWER

DISPATCH

A microgrid pool is an energy exchanging platform that facilitates the dispatch of energy,
both internal and external, to a microgrid. Internal dispatch is basically the circulation of energy
among all the components within a microgrid, and external dispatch includes the exchange of
energy with other microgrids in a multiple-microgrid system and/or the DSO. Each microgrid
pool may consist of a microgrid power-supplying network, local DERs, loads, and energy
storage. The micro EMS can act as an energy exchanging platform. A schematic of microgrid
pools in a multiple microgrid system is shown in Figure 4.

55
 Microgrid 1
Commercial Residential
Customer Customers

Micro
Microgrid Pool 1 Microgrid 3
EMS Residential
Wind Customers

DSO

Energy
Storage
Solar Natural Gas DMS
Generator Micro
Microgrid Pool 3
EMS

Microgrid 2 Energy
Commercial Residential Storage
Solar Natural Gas
Customer Customers
Generator

Micro
Microgrid Pool 2
EMS
Energy exchange

Energy
Storage
Solar Natural Gas
Generator

Figure 4 Schematic of Microgrid Pools.

Power dispatch from multiple microgrids to distribution grids and markets is a

coordinated energy management scheme for economic dispatch of microgrid resources, essential
for minimizing the operating cost of the microgrids as well as the distribution grid. The
coordinated energy management problem for economic dispatch is solved with an objective of
meeting certain load requirements over a period of time while minimizing overall cost and
satisfying operational and physical constraints (generation constraints, ramping constraints, and
energy storage constraints). The dispatch problem can be formulated as a two-stage optimization
problem. The first stage determines the optimal power dispatch from multiple microgrids within
the multiple-microgrid pool, considering each microgrid as an aggregated single entity (load,
generation). The second stage optimizes the resources within each microgrid in order to meet the
requirements from the first stage while satisfying the local constraints. The solution of the
dispatch problem is used to decide the following:

 The amount of power each DER must generate at a given time in order to meet the local
demand.

 The available excess power within the microgrid that can be exported to the distribution
grid as well as other microgrids, for their secure and stable operation under normal and
emergency conditions.

 The available excess power for market transactions.

56
  The amount of power that must be imported from energy storage, distribution grid and
other microgrids in the system.

Different market models can be adopted for dispatch from microgrids: [9]

 Pool market model. The pool model is a centralized marketplace model in which
individual microgrids can buy electricity from or sell electricity to the pool using a
bidding system. The DSO can be the regulatory body for this type of market.

 Bilateral/ multilateral contract model. In this model, different microgrids can have
contractual agreements with each other for selling and buying electricity. These
transactions can be independent of DSOs.

 Hybrid market model. The hybrid model is similar to the bilateral model except that all
the transactions between different microgrids need to be evaluated by the DSO before
they are scheduled. Since the primary focus of dispatch is the secure and reliable
operation of the entire grid, the DSO needs to make sure that such transactions do not
impact network operating conditions, and that if required, power can be dispatched to
non-contractual players (those who do not have a power transaction agreement) to ensure
system security and stability.

The hybrid model is more appropriate for power dispatch from multiple microgrids to
distribution utilities and markets because it involves the coordination between microgrids and
DSOs.

3.2 MICROGRID DISPATCH RULES AND OPERATION STRATEGIES

Microgrid dispatch rules need to be defined for both import to and export from the
distribution grid and other microgrids. Some of the rules applicable within the pool as well those
imposed by the DSO and the market are identified in this section. [9]-[12]

3.2.1 General Rules

 In the pool market model, the DSO will manage the pool.

 Bilateral contracts can be made between the microgrid owners, but the DSO should
ensure that network constraints are not violated.

 In an emergency, other microgrids should be able to supply power to the affected

microgrid in order to ensure the reliability and stability of the entire system. Critical loads
in the affected microgrid should always be served.

 Power transactions for economic benefit should not compromise the secure and reliable
operation of the individual microgrid or the distribution grid.

57
  Optimal dispatch from multiple microgrids to the distribution grid is a two-level dispatch
problem. Level one is the system level, in which each microgrid can be modeled as an
aggregated unit, and all microgrids are optimized and coordinated to achieve the overall
minimum generation cost under various operating conditions.

 System level optimization can set a dispatch target for each microgrid.

3.2.2 Optimal Scheduling Strategy within the Microgrid

Level two of the optimal dispatch problem is to dispatch each individual DER in each
microgrid based on its target, defined in level one. The optimal scheduling strategy of resources
within a microgrid is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Dispatch Strategy for Multiple Microgrids

Distribution Grid
Microgrid Operating Condition Operating Condition Action by Microgrid

Peak load Discharge battery to sell power to

distribution grid, other microgrids
and market
Active power > Load + losses Valley load Purchase power from market to
charge battery
Distribution grid-side Dispatch power to restore
fault distribution grid
Peak load  Disconnect non-critical loads
 Discharge battery to supply
microgrid critical loads and
Active power < Load + losses losses
Valley load Purchase power from market and
other microgrids to supply critical
loads and losses

The following general rules should be observed:

 Operate renewables at their maximum capacity as much as possible.

 Maintain the voltage at the point of interconnection with the distribution grid and other
microgrids within the range.

 Maintain the frequency of the microgrid within the limit.

58
  When the microgrid is islanded from the main distribution grid, the priority of a
microgrid should be to meet local load demand (if required, by shedding the non-critical
loads) rather than economic benefit. The objective of the dispatch should be to minimize
the outage and customer interruption time.

3.2.3 Dispatch Rules from Distribution Grid and Market

 DSO and market will provide fair market access to all players (microgrids)

 The DSO can ask the microgrids to increase or decrease production on a non-
discriminatory basis in order to ensure system stability.

 The microgrids should assure the DSO that use of renewables has priority over non-
renewables (EU Renewable Dispatch Directive).[13]

3.3 POWER DISPATCH INTERACTION BETWEEN MICROGRID POOLS,

DISTRIBUTION UTILITY AND MARKETS

Economic dispatch is achieved with the interaction between microgrid controllers, the
DMS and the DSO. Data communication between the DMS and microgrid controllers is used to
achieve coordinated energy management. The assets in each microgrid and distribution system
should be managed in coordination to achieve economic benefits. The role of actors, their types,
actions taken, and content for information exchange for coordinated economic dispatch are
shown in Table 2.

59
Table 2 Interaction and Information Exchange in Microgrid Scheduling

Actor & Actor Contents of Information for

Type Action Exchange

 Microgrid  Upload monitoring data from all  Device level data

controller microgrids to DMS. monitoring in both
(control  DMS schedules economic microgrids and distribution
system) dispatch. system
 DMS (control  DMS runs optimization  Commands for economic
system) algorithm and sends control dispatch
 DSO (market signals to the devices, including  Market pricing signals
transaction) microgrids.  Availability of excess
 Microgrid controller coordinates power information from
its sources and loads to deliver microgrid controllers to
required power. DMS and market
 DMS updates microgrid  Load data from DMS to
controllers with system load individual microgrid
information. controllers
 Each microgrid controller  Tie-line power between
updates availability of excess microgrids and distribution
power to DMS and market. networks
 Market participants place bids.
 Microgrids make transactions
based on bidding.
 DSO in coordination with DMS
ensures that any transaction does
not impact system reliability and
stability.
 DMS gives preference to
reliability and stability over
economic benefits in supplying
power.
 Microgrids exchange energy
with each other based on their
contractual agreements once
these transactions are cleared by
the DSO.

60
 III-B PROTECTION COORDINATION BETWEEN MICROGRIDS AND THE
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

In this section we will a) identify the protection schemes of a DMS in an active

distribution network, b) identify the protection schemes of a micro EMS, c) define the
requirements for micro EMS and DMS protection functions to coordinate with each other, and
d) analyze the protection coordination between DMS and micro EMS in various event scenarios.

3.4 PROTECTION SCHEMES OF DMS IN ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

Overhead distribution systems are common in rural areas, while underground distribution
systems are widely adopted in urban areas. Regardless of the variations in distribution system
composition, overcurrent protection is the most widely adopted protection scheme for
distribution systems. It relies on measured currents to distinguish faults from nominal load
currents. The most-used protection devices in distribution system protection include overcurrent
relays, reclosers, sectionalizers, and fuses. These devices, except sectionalizers, all implement a
set of time/current curves, which have a time-inverse characteristic and provide different
operation times, depending on the fault current level, i.e., the larger the fault current, the shorter
the operation time will be.

The basic requirements for a protection device include selectivity, sensitivity, operating
time and stability. The relay settings are very important in ensuring selectivity and sensitivity.
Traditionally, because of the passive nature of distribution networks, the power flow in the
distribution network is one-way, i.e., from the distribution substation to customers. When a fault
occurs in the distribution system, the main source feeding the fault is the transmission system.
Conventional protection devices are set up and coordinated on the basis of one-way power flow,
ensuring that the upstream protection device closest to the fault reacts first to clear the fault.
Each relay provides backup to the next downstream relay with a time delay. An upstream relay
will not react to the fault current unless its downstream relay fails to react within the setting time.
The basic coordination scheme is illustrated in Figure 5.[3]

61
 Figure 5 Distribution System Basic Protection Coordination Scheme.

Conventional distribution system protection devices, their protection schemes, and

operation mechanisms are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3 Summary of Distribution System Protection Devices

Device Protection Schemes Operation Mechanism

Recloser Overcurrent protection by implementing a Interrupts current and automatically

set of time/current curves. recloses. If fault is temporary, the
reclosing will hold within preset number
of operations after the fault is cleared. If
fault still exists after preset number of
operations, final operation is lockout.

Sectionalizer Automatically isolates faulted sections of a Without current interrupting capability.

distribution circuit once an upstream Must be used together with a back‐up
recloser has interrupted the fault current device that has fault current interrupting
after set number of recloser operations. capacity, e.g., a recloser or a circuit
breaker.

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 Table 3 (Cont.)

Device Protection Schemes Operation Mechanism

Fuse Overcurrent protection with a time/current Interrupts current; for one-time only use.
curve characteristics.
Note that the circuit breaker installed at the feeder head may also be a recloser.

3.5 PROTECTION SCHEMES OF MICRO EMS

There are two main issues in microgrid protection: [14] 1) identifying external abnormal
conditions and selecting the corresponding protection scheme, e.g., anti-islanding or fault ride-
through, and 2) providing a properly coordinated and reliable protection scheme for internal
faults. The microgrid’s protection scheme must have current interrupting capabilities and be able
to distinguish an island condition from upstream/transmission and adjacent fault conditions.

The specific technical challenges for the microgrid protection include:

 Bi-directional power flow

 Two operational modes: grid-connected and island

 Topological changes due to switch operations in the network and

connection/disconnection of DERs and loads

 Intermittence in the generation of DERs connected to the microgrid

 Relatively lower fault current in island mode due to inverter-interfaced DERs

The last point above has been a key research issue in the past few years. The
characteristics of most protective devices used in microgrids are usually similar to those used in
distribution networks, which are based on large fault currents. However, in island operation, the
fault current is from the inverter-interfaced DERs, which generally can only provide very limited
fault current, e.g., only about 20 percent above their rated current. As a result, conventional
overcurrent protection schemes may be no longer applicable.

The most common technologies applied to microgrid protection, either in grid-connected

or in island mode of operation, are as follows.

a) Adaptive protection schemes: This type of protection scheme is mainly based on the use
of adaptive relays, which can have their settings, characteristics or logic functions
changed online by means of externally generated signals or control actions in a timely
manner.

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 b) Voltage based methodologies: These technologies mainly use voltage measurements to
provide an adequate protection scheme.

c) Differential protection: These approaches are based on current differences measured in

different parts of the microgrid.

d) Distance protection: The techniques in this category use admittance or impedance

measurements in order to detect the fault and trip adequately.

e) Overcurrent protection with symmetrical components: These relays attempt to enhance

the performance of traditional overcurrent protections by using measurements and/or
calculations with symmetrical components.

3.6 REQUIREMENTS FOR DMS AND MICRO EMS PROTECTION FUNCTIONS TO

FACILITATE COORDINATION

3.6.1 Challenges of Distribution System Protection Due to Integration of Microgrids

The conventional distribution system protection scheme faces challenges with the high
penetration of active devices such as microgrids and DERs.[15] Although the fault current
contribution from each microgrid and DER is limited, [16] a high penetration of microgrids and
DERs can contribute a considerable amount of fault current. These sources can change the fault
current distribution and magnitude and cause new problems for the operation of existing
overcurrent protection schemes.[17] In addition, the microgrids and DERs installed in the
distribution system have their own protection relays in place with specific protection schemes,
such as anti-islanding [2] and detecting abnormal voltage/frequency and tripping with different
time responses according to different voltage/frequency deviations.[4] The coordination of
microgrid and DER protection relays with conventional distribution feeder protection devices
has yet to be addressed. Moreover, a mechanism for coordinating feeder head relays connected
on the same bus and the substation transformer protection relays should be developed to help
address some of the emerging protection problems due to large-scale microgrid and DER
integration.

These emerging protection issues due to the integration of microgrids and DERs are
listed in Table 4.

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Table 4 Summary of Main Distribution System Protection Issues Due to Microgrid
and DER Integration

Protection Issue Detailed Description

Increased fault current High penetration of the microgrids and DERs on a

distribution feeder will contribute to a higher magnitude of
fault current induced by a fault on the feeder. Also, the
aggregate of microgrid and DER fault current contribution
will increase the fault current level on the adjacent feeder.

Sympathetic tripping When a fault occurs on a distribution feeder, the aggregate

fault current contribution from the microgrids and DERs on
the adjacent feeder may cause sympathetic tripping of the
circuit breaker of the adjacent feeder.

Desensitizing the protection devices When the fault impedance is non-zero, and microgrids and
DERs are contributing to the fault current, the fault current
contribution from the substation or upstream source may be
reduced. The reduction in fault current will desensitize the
protection device at the source.

Coordination of microgrid and DER IEEE Standard 1547 [4] mandates that a microgrid and DER
protection relays with existing feeder protection relay be able to detect voltage/frequency
protection devices deviations and trip with pre-specified time responses, and
isolate itself within two seconds of the formation of an
unintentional islanding.[2] Poor coordination between
microgrid and DER protection relays’ protection schemes
and conventional feeder protection devices may lead to
nuisance fuse blowing, reclosing out of synchronism,
sectionalizer miscount, etc.

Fault ride-through capabilities of During a transmission contingency, the deviated voltage

microgrid and DER protection devices and/or frequency condition experienced throughout the
entire grid may cause the microgrids and distribution DERs
to trip, which may further reduce the total available
generation and thus endanger the bulk power system
stability. Similarly, momentary voltage sag caused by a fault
on an adjacent feeder may cause microgrids and DER
inverters to trip. The IEEE Standard 1547 amendment [4]
stipulates that microgrid and DER systems have voltage and
frequency ride-through capability in case of a contingency
on the transmission line. This provision, however, may pose
some challenges to the coordination between the microgrid’s
and DER’s protection relays and the distribution grid
protection devices.

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Table 4 (Cont.)

Protection Issue Detailed Description

Tripping of substation transformer The high penetration of microgrids and DERs on distribution
protection relay circuits may create reverse power flow back to the
transmission system, causing the substation transformer
protection relay to trip.

Circuit reconfiguration Circuit topology is subject to change due to either post-

contingency service restoration or purposeful load
balancing. If a circuit can be reconfigured for emergency
service or maintenance, each possible reconfiguration
variation must be examined to determine whether concerned
microgrids and DERs should be permitted to stay connected
to ensure proper operation (e.g. voltage, loading, and fault
sensing requirements).

3.6.2 DMS and Micro EMS Protection Function Requirements to Facilitate Coordination

In this subsection, we will discuss protection function requirements for the DMS and the
micro EMS based on whether the microgrid is grid-connected or islanded.

a) Grid-Connected Operation
In grid-connected operation, current distribution system protection devices suffer from
inaccurate settings, because they are derived from short-circuit analysis without accounting for
microgrid and DER fault current contributions.[18] Moreover, these settings are manually pre-
loaded into relays and therefore cannot be adjusted according to the latest microgrid and DER
states to ensure sensitivity and selectivity. To address these challenges, the DMS should deploy a
real-time setting update system to perform bi-directional short-circuit analyses with the as-
operated circuit connectivity and knowledge of microgrids and DERs in the system. The micro
EMS is responsible for communicating its aggregated power output at the POI to the DMS.
Frequency of execution is governed by the communication capabilities of the distribution
system. If the communication bandwidth and speed allow, an execution cycle of one minute can
be assumed in this discussion. The DMS will communicate the dynamic setting update to all the
feeder protection devices through SCADA every one minute. If the micro EMS is unable to
dispatch the DER outputs due to their intermittent nature, it should notify the DMS with the
aggregated forecast power. The DMS protection function can then operate with the best estimate
of the microgrid available power, even though it is intermittent.

Due to the lack of protection coordination between microgrid and DER protection
devices and distribution feeder protection devices, many potential problems may emerge.[19]
Some of the adverse consequences include nuisance fuse blowing, reclosing out of synchronism,
sectionalizer miscount, and so on.[20] One potential solution acquires local intelligence at the
distribution protection device, such as the recloser, to determine whether the fault is temporary or

66
permanent, and then launches communication-based local coordination to coordinate the
sequence of actions for the microgrid and DER protection devices and the feeder protection
devices.

Another practical solution does not require communication between distribution

protection devices and microgrid and DER protection devices, but rather coordinates their
actions by managing the microgrid and DER voltage/frequency deviation based protection
function and anti-islanding scheme. In addition, the distribution protection devices such as
reclosers may be required to install additional voltage sensing relays to facilitate proper
coordination. The microgrids and DER voltage/frequency deviation based protection function
obeys the IEEE Standard 1547 amendment: [4]

 If the voltage at the POI falls below 45% of base voltage, the microgrid or DER should
cease to energize the distribution grid within 0.16 seconds.

 If the voltage at the POI falls between 45% and 60% of base voltage, the microgrid or
DER should cease to energize the distribution grid within 11 seconds.

 If the voltage at the POI falls between 60% and 88% of base voltage, the microgrid or
DER should cease to energize the distribution grid within 21 seconds.

 If the voltage at the POI falls between 110% and 120% of base voltage, the microgrid or
DER should cease to energize the distribution grid within 13 seconds.

 And if the voltage at the POI falls above 120% of base voltage, the microgrid or DER
should cease to energize the distribution grid within 0.16 seconds.

The extended clearing time for the 45V-88V and 110V-120V ranges allows the microgrid
or DER to ride through potential transmission line or adjacent feeder faults. In the meantime, the
microgrid and DER must isolate itself within two seconds of the formation of an unintentional
islanding. Coordination among distribution protection devices and microgrid or DER protection
relays are discussed below with the following three scenarios: a distribution feeder permanent
fault, a distribution feeder temporary fault, and a transmission line or adjacent feeder fault.

 Scenario 1: A permanent fault on the distribution feeder. When the fault occurs, the
nearest upstream recloser senses the fault and immediately opens up. The
voltage/frequency deviation based protection functions and anti-islanding schemes of all
the downstream microgrids and DERs are engaged simultaneously to detect whether
there is any sustained voltage deviation and whether an island is formed. Since the
downstream microgrids and DERs are feeding into the fault, the voltages at the POIs of
these microgrids and DERs will most likely fall below 45% of base voltage, such that the
voltage deviation based protection scheme will disconnect the microgrids and DERs
within 0.16 seconds. When the recloser is ready to reclose, it uses its voltage sensing
relay to determine that there is no downstream source online and proceeds to reclose. The
recloser then goes through the remainder of the reclosing sequence until lockout. This
scenario also applies to a temporary fault that is not cleared by the first tripping of the

67
 recloser (e.g., the arcing still exists) and the downstream microgrids and DERs are still
feeding the temporary fault.

 Scenario 2: A temporary fault on the distribution feeder. When the fault occurs, the
nearest upstream recloser senses the fault and immediately opens up. Consequently the
arc is extinguished by the tripping of the recloser, and an unintentional island is formed,
in which the downstream microgrids and DERs continue to energize a portion of the
distribution feeder without the utility source. At the same time, the voltage/frequency
deviation based protection functions and anti-islanding schemes of all of the downstream
microgrids and DERs are engaged to detect whether there is any sustained voltage
deviation and whether an island is formed. If the voltages at the POIs of the downstream
microgrids and DERs fall below 45% of the base voltage, they will be disconnected
within 0.16 seconds. When the recloser is ready to reclose, it uses its voltage sensing
relay to determine that there is no downstream source online, then proceeds to reclose
and holds. If the voltages at the POIs of the downstream microgrids and DERs fall within
45%-88% or 110%-120% of the base voltage, the voltage deviation based protection
scheme will go through the extended clearing time before disconnection. In the meantime
the anti-islanding schemes of the downstream microgrids and DERs should identify that
an island has been formed, override the voltage deviation based protection scheme, and
disconnect from the distribution grid within two seconds. Coordination scenario with the
recloser depends on the programmed reclosing intervals. If the recloser is programmed to
reclose within two seconds (before the microgrids and DERs are disconnected from the
anti-islanding scheme), its voltage sensing relay should prohibit the reclosing action and
will allow reclosing only after the anti-islanding scheme has disconnected the microgrids
and DERs. If the recloser is programmed to reclose in more than two seconds (after the
anti-islanding scheme has disconnected the microgrids and DERs), its voltage sensing
relay should determine that there is no downstream source online and proceed to
reclosing and hold.

 Scenario 3: A fault on the transmission line or adjacent feeder. The extended clearing
time, compared to the original IEEE Standard 1547, ensures the fault ride-through
capabilities of microgrids and DERs for contingencies on transmission lines or adjacent
feeders. A fault on a transmission line, an adjacent feeder or a local feeder may cause the
same level of voltage and frequency deviation from the standpoint of microgrid and DER
local protective relays. Following the extended clearing time allows the microgrids and
DERs to survive faults on transmission lines and adjacent feeders by preventing them
from tripping and further upsetting the bulk power system voltage/frequency through
losing a significant amount of generation.[21],[22] In addition, the anti-islanding
protection schemes of microgrids and DERs can serve as backup mechanisms to confirm
that no unintentional island is formed and ensure that microgrids and DERs ride through
faults on transmission lines and adjacent feeders.

Proposed solutions for main distribution system protection issues due to microgrid and
DER integration are summarized in Table 5.

68
Table 5 Solutions to Main Distribution System Protection Issues Due to Microgrid
and DER Integration

Protection Issue Proposed Solution

Increased fault current The settings of the feeder protection devices must be updated adaptively to
accommodate the increased fault current level, including contributions from
adjacent feeders.

Sympathetic tripping Feeder head protection devices should be able to identify the source of fault
events, based on the direction of the current flow and voltage level, to determine
whether to trip. Feeder head relays interconnected on the same bus need to be
coordinated properly to avoid sympathetic tripping.

Desensitizing the Bi-directional short-circuit analyses based on as-operated circuit connectivity and
protection devices knowledge of microgrids and DERs states in the system are necessary to properly
configure the relay settings. The relay settings should be sensitive enough to pick
up the lowest short circuit current, but also should be able to remain inoperative
for a large surge of load current, especially during cold load pick-up, in which all
motor loads start although all the disconnected generations are not back online.
The upstream protection device should provide backup for downstream protective
elements.

Coordination of In one solution, intelligence at the distribution feeder protection device (e.g.
microgrid and DER reclosers) will first determine whether the fault is temporary or permanent.
protection relays with Communication-based local coordination will then coordinate the sequence of
existing feeder actions of the microgrid and DER protection relays and feeder protection devices
protection devices to avoid nuisance fuse blowing, reclosing out of synchronism, sectionalizer
miscount, etc.

Another practical solution does not require communication between distribution

protection devices and microgrid and DER protection devices, but rather
coordinates their actions by managing the microgrid and DER voltage/frequency
deviation based protection functions and anti-islanding schemes. In addition,
distribution protection devices such as reclosers may be required to install
additional voltage sensing relays to facilitate proper coordination.

Fault ride-through Implement the extended clearing time for certain voltage deviation ranges to
capabilities of ensure the fault ride-through capabilities of microgrids and DERs for
microgrid and DER contingencies on transmission lines or adjacent feeders. In addition the anti-
protection devices islanding protection schemes of microgrids and DERs can serve as backup
mechanisms to confirm that no unintentional island is formed.

Tripping of substation The transformer protection relays need to coordinate with the feeder head
transformer protection protection relays to distinguish reverse power flow from fault events either at the
relay downstream feeder, at the substation transformer itself, or on the upstream
transmission lines.

Circuit reconfiguration Comprehensive bi-directional short-circuit analyses should be carried out to

determine and update feeder protection device settings to ensure proper fault
sensing and coordination under the new circuit configuration.

69
b) Island Operation
Two different island operation cases should be considered: intentional island operation
and unintentional island operation. Intentional islanded condition is typically scheduled, so the
micro EMS can inform the DMS of the planned transition. The DMS dynamic setting update
function then conducts short-circuit analyses by removing the fault current contribution from the
microgrid to be disconnected and determines the new settings for feeder protection devices
before the disconnection. In addition, if the communication-based local coordination scheme is
implemented to coordinate the microgrid and DER protection relays with the distribution grid
protection relays, the micro EMS should also inform the associated feeder protection relay of the
planned transition. This way the concerned microgrid can be removed from the feeder protective
relay’s local coordination scheme, which orchestrates its own action with those of the microgrid
and DER protection devices. On the microgrid side, the micro EMS needs to adjust the
protection scheme and settings accordingly, given the absence of large utility fault current
contribution, if an internal fault were to occur during the island operation mode.

Unintentional island operation can be triggered by an internal fault inside the microgrid
or a grid-side fault outside the microgrid. An unintentional island on certain portions of a
distribution feeder forms when a grid-side fault occurs, and the microgrid continues to serve load
in the absence of the utility source after the feeder protection relay trips and clears the fault. The
anti-islanding protection or the voltage/frequency deviation based protection scheme of the
micro EMS, whichever responds first, disconnects the microgrid from the main grid, and the
microgrid goes into an unintentional island operation mode. Then the micro EMS needs to adjust
the protection scheme and settings accordingly given the loss of large utility fault current
contribution if an internal fault were to occur during the island operation mode.

Unintentional island operation could also be caused by an internal fault within a

microgrid. In this case, the micro EMS is responsible for detecting the fault and performing the
corresponding protective actions, including interrupting the fault current supply to the faulted
section, disconnecting the microgrid from the distribution grid, and informing the DMS about the
mode transition. On the DMS side, meanwhile, its dynamic setting update function should then
conduct short-circuit analyses by removing the fault current contribution from the disconnected
microgrid, determine the new settings for feeder protection devices, and implement them. The
disconnected microgrid will then be removed from the associated feeder protective relay’s local
coordination scheme accordingly as well, if the communication-based local coordination scheme
is implemented to coordinate the microgrid and DER protection relays with the distribution grid
protection relays.

3.7 ANALYSIS OF DMS AND MICRO EMS PROTECTION COORDINATION IN

VARIOUS EVENT SCENARIOS

3.7.1 DMS and Micro EMS Protection Coordination for Grid-Side Faults

In this subsection, we will analyze DMS and micro EMS protection coordination for
faults occurring on the grid side, including the actors involved, the required sequential action,

70
and the content of information exchanged between micro EMS and DMS protective devices for
grid-side faults. The distribution feeder protection devices are the main actors in detecting and
interrupting the faults occurring at the grid side.

The sample distribution system integrated with microgrids and DERs shown in Figure 6
will be used to illustrate the various fault scenarios. The distribution system contains two feeders,
protected by Circuit Breaker 1 and Circuit Breaker 2, respectively, and interconnected by a
normally open tie switch. The first feeder includes three microgrids that are interconnected to the
feeder via μG SW1, μG SW2, and μG SW3, respectively.

Figure 6 Sample Distribution System Integrated with Microgrids and DERs.

Each micro EMS communicates its aggregated power output schedule or forecast at the
POI to the DMS every minute. The DMS also receives other available measurements from line
sensors, smart meters, and intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) in a one-minute resolution. Based
on the latest state of the system, the DMS then carries out bi-directional short-circuit analyses
with the as-operated circuit connectivity and knowledge of microgrid and DER output in the
system, and determines the settings of all the feeder protection devices. The DMS will
communicate the dynamic settings to all the feeder protection devices through the supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.

Assume a temporary fault occurs on the main feeder section between Recloser 1 and μG
SW 2. Microgrid 1 is upstream of the fault location, and Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3 are
downstream of the fault location. The coordination scenarios among distribution protection
devices and microgrid and DER protection relays are laid out below for both communication-
based and non-communication-based local coordination schemes.

71
  Communication-based local coordination scheme. When the fault occurs, Recloser 1
senses the downstream fault first and applies the local data analytics on the captured fault
waveform to promptly determine the nature of the fault, which is temporary in this case.
Recloser 1 then informs the micro EMSs downstream of the fault, which are Microgrid 2
and Microgrid 3 in this case, about the nature of the fault and requests them to
disconnect. Recloser 1 will then go through a series of reclosing actions, clear out the
temporary fault, and finally stay closed. Upon successfully clearing the temporary fault,
Recloser 1 will send out the reconnection command to the downstream micro EMSs. This
communication-based local coordination mechanism successfully avoids the reclosing
out of synchronism problem. Throughout the process, Microgrid 1 utilizes either the
voltage/frequency deviation based protection scheme and/or the anti-islanding scheme to
ride through the whole disturbance.

 Non-communication-based local coordination scheme. When the fault occurs,

Recloser 1 senses the downstream fault first and trips immediately. Consequently the arc
is extinguished by the tripping of the recloser, and an unintentional island is formed
where Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3 continue to energize, without the utility source, the
portion of the distribution feeder downstream of Recloser 1. At the same time, the
voltage/frequency deviation based protection function and anti-islanding scheme of
Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3 are engaged to detect whether there is any sustained voltage
deviation and whether an island is formed. If the voltages at the POIs of Microgrid 2 and
Microgrid 3 fall below 45% of the base voltage, they are disconnected within
0.16 seconds. When Recloser 1 is ready to reclose, it uses its voltage sensing relay which
determines that there is no downstream source online, then proceeds to reclose and holds.
If the voltages at the POIs of Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3 fall within 45%-88% or 110%-
120% of the base voltage, the voltage deviation based protection scheme will go through
the extended clearing time before disconnection. In the meantime, the anti-islanding
scheme of the Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3 should identify that an island has been
formed, override the voltage deviation based protection scheme, and disconnect from the
distribution grid within two seconds. The coordination scenario with the recloser depends
on the programmed reclosing intervals. If Recloser 1 is programmed to reclose within
two seconds (before Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3 are disconnected from the anti-
islanding scheme), its voltage sensing relay should prohibit the reclosing action and will
only allow reclosing after the anti-islanding scheme has disconnected Microgrid 2 and
Microgrid 3. If Recloser 1 is programmed to reclose in more than two seconds (after the
anti-islanding scheme has disconnected Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3), its voltage sensing
relay should determine there is no downstream source online and proceed to reclosing
and hold.

3.7.2 DMS and Micro EMS Protection Coordination for Microgrid-Side Faults

In this subsection we will analyze DMS and micro EMS protection coordination for
faults occurring on the microgrid side, including the actors involved, the required sequential
action, and content of information exchanged between the micro EMS and DMS protective

72
devices for grid-side faults. The microgrid protection devices are the main actors in detecting and
interrupting the faults occurring at the microgrid side.

If a permanent fault occurs in Microgrid 1, the nearest upstream protection device within
the microgrid senses the fault occurrence and automatically opens up to interrupt the fault
current. Then the operated protection relay will notify the micro EMS and DMS of the fault
occurrence. Due to the designed fast action of the local microgrid protection relay, the protection
devices on the grid side will not operate. The other microgrids connected to the distribution grid,
Microgrid 2 and Microgrid 3, determine through either the voltage/frequency deviation based
protection scheme or the anti-islanding scheme to ride through the whole disturbance. The DMS
will execute its dynamic setting update function by conducting short-circuit analyses, without
considering the fault current contribution from Microgrid 1, and determine the new settings for
the feeder protection devices and implement them. Microgrid 1 will then be removed from
Circuit Breaker 1’s local coordination scheme if the communication based local coordination
scheme is implemented, to coordinate the microgrids’ and DERs’ protection relays with the
distribution grid protection relays.

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 SECTION IV – TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR THE INTEGRATION OF
MICROGRIDS IN THE DMS – POWER FLOW AND FAULT ANALYSIS

The distribution grid is becoming highly active with high penetration of microgrids and
DERs. Advanced applications in the DMS are facing completely new environments that are very
different from the traditional passive networks on which conventional applications are based.
This results in a series of challenges to advanced DMS applications. The most important
challenge is from the bi-directional power flow in the grid, which may change from time to time,
depending on the real-time dynamics of the load and the microgrid output. The second challenge
comes from the additional uncertainties associated with the microgrid output, in that most of its
generation may be from renewable resources. Advanced DMS applications will need to be
sufficiently robust and able to respond quickly to dramatic condition changes. Some key
applications may need to be able to look ahead when providing predicted operational schedules
and strategies, including VVO, FLISR, etc.

The following subsections of this section will identify several key advanced DMS
applications that are significantly affected by the integration of microgrids, analyze the impact on
those advanced applications from the integration of microgrids, and define the requirements and
effective approaches to developing or modifying the identified advanced applications to support
the integration of microgrids.

4.1 MAJOR ADVANCED DMS APPLICATIONS AFFECTED BY INTEGRATION OF

MICROGRIDS

The major advanced DMS applications that are significantly affected by the integration of
microgrids are on-line power flow (OLPF), short-circuit analysis (SCA), fault location, isolation,
and service restoration (FLISR), and volt-VAR optimization (VVO). Their functions, operations
and benefits are individually introduced in this section.

4.1.1 On-line Power Flow

On-line power flow determines the steady state solution of the power system for a given
operating condition. The function can operate in both real-time and offline modes.

OLPF is a very important application in a DMS. It solves the three-phase balanced or

unbalanced power flow of the distribution network, either in a pure radial configuration or a
weakly meshed network with a few loops. Power flow results from OLPF are used by many
other DMS applications to set initial conditions and validate performance or to show
hypothetical impacts such as in VVO, FLISR, and switch order management (SOM). OLPF also
provides control center personnel with calculated line section current and power flow quantities
and node voltage values, and alerts operators for abnormal operation conditions on the feeders,
such as low voltages at feeder extremities and overloaded line sections.[3]

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 In solving power flow problems, the OLPF uses the distribution system model and load
estimate provided by load allocation and estimation functions in its calculations.[3] It may also
use the available real-time status of substation and feeder devices and the voltages and phase
angles at the substation source buses obtained from the EMS state estimator. More detailed
OLPF results include calculated current and voltage magnitudes and phase angles, real and
reactive power flows and net bus injections, and technical losses. The detailed results may be
presented in various formats, automatically or on request, enabling operators to view power flow
summaries for a large area of the distribution system and/or view detailed results for specific
points or sections of the distribution system.

4.1.2 Short-Circuit Analysis

SCA is an analysis tool in DMS that operates upon the operator’s or a user’s request. It
calculates the short-circuit current distribution for hypothetical faults and pre-fault operation
conditions to evaluate the possible impact of a fault on the distribution grid.[3] SCA results can
be used to verify relay protection settings and operation, as well as circuit breaker and fuse
ratings, and to propose more accurate relay settings or a better feeder circuit configuration from
the viewpoint of circuit protection.

The SCA function enables users to calculate the faulted three-phase voltages and currents
on the distribution system that could occur as a result of postulated fault conditions and pre-fault
loading conditions.[3] It can calculate and compare fault currents against the switchgear’s
interrupting capabilities and devices’ fault-current limits. It may also be used to help users
identify the fault location based on the measured fault magnitude, pre-fault loading, and other
information available at the time of the fault.

4.1.3 Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration

As one of the key DMS functions, FLISR is designed to mitigate the impact of permanent
faults on distribution systems and ensure a high level of overall system reliability. The FLISR
can analyze all available real-time information acquired from field devices, including fault
detector outputs, fault magnitude at various locations on the feeder, feeder segment or even the
customer meter energization status, and protective relay reports, to detect faults and other
abnormal circuit conditions for which service restoration actions are needed.[3] The FLISR then
determines the approximate location of the fault, i.e., the faulted section of the feeder that is
bounded by two or more feeder switches. It can also automatically isolate the faulted section, and
then close the normally open tie switch to transfer the downstream loads to the adjacent feeders
to restore service to as many customers as possible. If a single alternative source lacks sufficient
capacity to pick up all the loads in the healthy downstream feeder sections, multiple alternative
sources may be utilized to share the load, depending upon their available capacities.

FLISR executes control actions by issuing supervisory controls to the corresponding

switches, including feeder header circuit breakers at the substations and various feeder switching

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devices (e.g. reclosers, load breakers, and sectionalizers equipped with supervisory control
capabilities).

The FLISR function is normally responsible only for dealing with permanent faults
occurring on the main three-phase portion of the feeder circuits and those substation faults that
cause the sustained loss of one or more feeders at the substation. Temporary faults that are
cleared by automatic reclosing schemes without sustained loss of service are not included in
FLISR logic. The FLISR function may not be responsible for restoring service loss that occurs
because of fuses blown on feeder laterals, emergency load shedding activities, and manual feeder
tripping.[3]

The FLISR generally considers all possible ways to restore as much load as possible
without creating undesirable conditions.[3] The optimal service restoration strategy should not
cause new undesirable electrical conditions on any distribution feeder, and should restore
electrical service to the maximum number of customers with the minimum number of switching
operations.

The key benefits of FLISR include reduced outage duration and improved system average
interruption duration index (SAIDI). Since some customers will be restored to service in less
time than the threshold for permanent outages (usually five minutes), FLISR may also improve
the system average interruption frequency index (SAIFI).

4.1.4 Volt-VAR Optimization

VVO adjusts the feeder voltage profile and VAR flow during normal operations. VVO
traditionally refers to the integrated control of switched capacitor banks in the substation and
along the feeders, substation transformer on-load tap changers (OLTC), and voltage regulators
on feeder sections.

The VVO function can operate either in closed-loop or advisory (open-loop) mode. In
advisory mode, VVO provides advisory control actions that can be reviewed and then either
approved for execution or rejected by the dispatcher.[3] In closed-loop mode, VVO
automatically executes the optimal control actions without operator intervention. The VVO
function can be executed periodically at a user-specified interval (usually 15 minutes) and
terminated upon occurrence of specific events, such as a significant load transfer to an adjacent
feeder, a network topology change, or a user request.

In every control cycle, the VVO function retrieves the as-operated distribution system
model from the DMS. It also receives real-time data from the IEDs or remote terminal units
(RTUs) and line sensors installed in the substation and the field through SCADA or other
proprietary communication channels. These data sets typically include voltages, currents, and
real and reactive power measurements. VVO also obtains the feeder load forecast for look-ahead
optimization. In addition, VVO may use near-real-time voltage measurements from selected
advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) meters if available. These voltage measurements can be
continuously monitored by the VVO function to verify that ANSI voltage limits are not violated

77
at these locations. In some advanced algorithms, AMI customer voltage data can be used as input
to VVO optimization to determine optimal control decisions, which helps maximize the voltage
control capability.

VVO solves an optimization problem to determine the optimal control settings for on/off
status of capacitor banks and tap positions for OLTC and voltage regulators. These control
commands are sent to the local controllers of the field devices, through SCADA, to maintain the
corresponding status for the entire control cycle. The optimization process takes into account
device operation constraints, including the maximum number of tap changes within a given time
period, maximum number of capacitor switching operations allowed each day, and minimum
time interval required between capacitor switching actions. VVO is also subject to voltage
operational limits and power factor constraints.

VVO can be assigned to achieve any of the following objectives or a weighted

combination of all of them:

 Minimize distribution losses by maintaining a desired power factor.

 Ensure a desired voltage profile along the feeder circuit during normal conditions.
 Reduce peak loads through conservation voltage reduction (CVR).

4.2 ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT ON INDIVIDUAL ADVANCED APPLICATIONS

FROM INTEGRATION OF MICROGRIDS

4.2.1 On-line Power Flow

Traditionally, distribution grids are largely passive networks in which each feeder circuit
is supplied by a distribution substation as its sole energy source. It is generally assumed that no
other energy resources or devices are connected to the feeder circuit except passive shunt
devices, like capacitor banks, and the loads of the individual end users.

Typically, the load flow and unbalanced load flow (LF/UBLF) functions available in the
DMS are configured to run in offline mode. Traditionally, power flow functions utilize network
parameters and power injections at different nodes that do not change very often. Power flow
functions may be triggered by an event (fault, switching), operator request, or change of analog
and/or status value in some specific measurements. Thus its operation is typically off-line.
However, due to the integration of microgrids, power injections may change more frequently,
and the OLPF function should incorporate such changes. The conventional off-line operation
will no longer be appropriate for real-time control in systems with microgrids. The LF/UBLF
function needs to be reconfigured for online operation.

Another challenge to the OLPF is bi-directional power flow due to the presence of
microgrids and DERs, which in turn may have an impact on network parameters, essentially
driving the OLPF function. For example, a frequent tap setting change may be caused by power
flow reversing, and the OLPF function should have a provision to account for this.

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 Some of the microgrids may not manage all of their internal DERs directly, and therefore
their outputs may be stochastic in nature. When a microgrid controller is responsible for
managing the intermittency of its internal DERs, it can provide the power injection information
at the POI to the OLPF function. Hence a deterministic OLPF function can determine the
operating state of the distribution network at the POI with the provided power injections at the
POIs. The variability of power due to DERs within the microgrid requires a local stochastic
power flow engine to regulate flow at the POIs. The problem is of a hierarchical nature and
requires a two-stage OLPF solution: one deterministic stage at the DMS level and the other
stochastic stage within each microgrid (micro EMS).

4.2.2 Short-Circuit Analysis

Microgrids can also contribute fault currents, leading to multiple fault current
contribution sources — a situation that is quite different from what conventional passive
networks face. The variability of microgrid output causes random changes to the system
operating conditions. Thus when microgrids are connected, short-circuit analysis should be
performed for many hypothetical operating conditions. One approach to incorporating multiple
operating scenarios is Monte Carlo simulation with various forecasts and/or schedules of
microgrid outputs at the POIs.

The impact of microgrid integration on the algorithmic design of short-circuit analysis

can be analyzed for different short-circuit analysis approaches. One approach is based on
sequence domain analysis with symmetrical components. Since symmetrical components need
balanced system networks to exploit the advantages of the sequence analysis, they cannot be
directly used in distribution systems that are modeled with multi-phase unbalanced conductors.
Adding dummy nodes and lines to create an equivalent three-phase system is one method that
has been developed for dealing with unbalanced multi-phase distribution feeder lines. By this
method, the traditional bus impedance matrix based short-circuit analysis for sequence networks
can be leveraged for short-circuit analysis, and the fault current contribution of microgrids can be
integrated conveniently.

Another approach to short-circuit calculation is based directly on phase domain analysis

using phase coordinates. It uses an analytical method to calculate the voltages and currents of the
system by modifying the nodal admittance matrix according to the fault parameters. The
microgrid outputs can be modeled as net current injections at the respective nodes. The
constraints of a fault are used to reduce the order of the nodal admittance matrix.

4.2.3 Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration

The interconnection of microgrid may have significant impacts on the logic of fault
location and the strategy of service restoration in FLISR. This is because the fault current will
take multiple paths from all connected energy sources, rather than a single path as in the
conventional passive network. After the faulted segment is located and isolated, the task of
service restoration will not be as simple as it is for the passive feeders. It has to account for the

79
presence of the associated microgrids in the feeder sections in addition to de-energized loads,
reliability requirements, service priorities, and other constraints applied to FLISR. In general, the
connection of microgrids may require more advanced algorithms for effectively locating and
isolating the faulted feeder section and providing the best effective restoration plan.[3]

In grid-connected operation, if the micro EMS is unable to mitigate its internal

intermittent DER output power, or if the microgrid is dominated by non-dispatchable DERs, it
should notify the FLISR function with the aggregated forecast power. When the micro EMS is
able to dispatch its internal DERs, it should also notify the FLISR with the available aggregated
power capacity. These will enable the FLISR function to operate with the best estimate of the
available microgrid power. Specifically, the fault location mechanism should consider the fault
current contributions from microgrids in order to accurately locate the fault. In service
restoration, a transition in which loads are be restored first, and then microgrids, may occur
because microgrids may have been disconnected during de-energization and will not reconnect
immediately when the feeder is energized again.

For the island operation, two different cases should be considered: intentional island
operation and unintentional island operation. Intentional island operation is typically scheduled,
so the FLISR function can be prepared for the power variation induced by disconnecting the
microgrid. The fault location algorithm should remove the fault current contribution from the
disconnected microgrid. Instead of the disconnected microgrid alternative power sources should
be selected by the FLISR function to pick up load after isolating the fault.

In unintentional island operation condition, possibly triggered by an internal fault within

the microgrid, the micro EMS is responsible for detecting the fault inside the microgrid and
disconnecting the microgrid from the distribution system. The DMS should treat the
disconnection as a sudden power change, and the FLISR function should be notified so that it
can update the fault location algorithm by removing the fault current contribution from the
microgrid, and update the service restoration scheme so as to not account for the disconnected
microgrid.

4.2.4 Volt-VAR Optimization

Volt-VAR control and management in VVO will face a few challenges from the
microgrid connections. The voltage profiles of a feeder circuit are determined not only by the
transformer tap positions, voltage regulators, and capacitor bank status, but also by the real and
reactive power outputs from microgrids at different locations along the feeder circuits.

The conventional VVO is generally designed to control capacitor banks, substation

transformer taps, and feeder voltage regulators, which are all binary or discrete control variables.
The VAR outputs of microgrids can change continuously, unlike the VAR outputs from
capacitor banks that are integers — either “on” or “off” with an approximately fixed amount of
VAR. The inclusion of the VAR resources from microgrids in the overall VVO formulation will
result in a complicated mixed-integer programming problem. In other words, the VVO

80
algorithms will need to handle mixed control variables, some in discrete and others in continuous
quantities.
Another important factor to be considered is that conventional voltage regulating devices
are used to control slowly evolving load changes, usually at the minutes level. Microgrid
controllers are used to control fast evolving load and DER output, normally at the sub-second
level. Therefore the enhanced VVO algorithms must be able to hierarchically integrate the
control effects of different controllers across different time scales simultaneously. The real
algorithm will be more complicated when combined with other objectives and constraints, such
as the multi-interval look-ahead optimization, and the operation limits of the capacitors and
voltage regulators.

A micro EMS can provide the aggregated schedule of its active power and offer its
reactive power capacity to the DMS for the overall VVO of the distribution grid. The VVO
formulation can treat the power factor of each microgrid as a decision variable in addition to the
conventional decision variables. The DMS can send out the power factor or reactive power set
point for each microgrid to maintain at the individual POI by controlling its internal DERs.

4.3 REQUIREMENTS OF AND EFFECTIVE APPROACHES TO MODIFYING

ADVANCED APPLICATIONS TO SUPPORT INTEGRATION OF MICROGRIDS

Modifying the identified advanced applications to support the integration of micro EMSs
will require approaches that are:

 Modular and non-vendor-specific to accommodate new functions and remove redundant

functions in the system without involving the vendors.

 Flexible enough for network reconfiguration, including the addition and removal of
microgrids, DERs and loads.

 Robust against corrupt data and communication failures.

The specific requirements and approaches to modifying each of the identified advanced
applications to support the integration of microgrids are discussed in detail in the following sub-
sections.

To facilitate effective microgrid integration, we recommend a hierarchical architecture

wherein the DMS treats each microgrid as an entity with an aggregated generation and load. The
micro EMS is responsible for managing its own DERs and loads. The micro EMS is also
responsible for providing the DMS with its real power forecast/schedule and reactive power
capacity. The DMS will regard each microgrid as an equivalent power injection node which can
be added or deleted in the software design.

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4.3.1 On-line Power Flow

In order to make the current power flow function in the DMS work with the microgrid’s
integrated distribution systems, the following are required:

1. The LF/UBLF function should have a provision to run in real time in order to
accommodate the variability of microgrids.

2. In addition to the existing algorithms, a new algorithm needs to be integrated to

implement and manage stochastic operation and momentary violation of the operational
constraints, as well as computing real-time dynamic constraints based on the system’s
operational state.

3. The new algorithm should also address the issue of two-way power flow and network
configuration changes.

4. The LF/UBLF function should be able to incorporate the forecast results of the
microgrids, DERs and loads.

5. It should be able to handle a high volume of data with fast communication and should be
robust against latency and data losses.

6. It should have a provision for data pre-processing, so that bad data can be eliminated
from the measurement sets.

7. It should have the provision to add and delete a microgrid node.

A hierarchical architecture is a potential approach to enabling effective microgrid

integration. In this architecture, responsibility for managing DER intermittency is assigned to the
micro EMS for most part. The DMS treats each microgrid as an entity with an aggregated
generation and load. With this architecture, the DMS can still use a deterministic OLPL to
determine the operating state of the distribution system at the POI. Within the boundary of each
microgrid, a stochastic power flow engine can be deployed to regulate the flow at the POI and
handle the variability of power due to DERs.

The advantage of this architecture is that the impact of the failure of an individual micro
EMS is localized or isolation-capable without affecting the broader distribution system
operations, as long as the rules for interconnection are obeyed. Another benefit of this
hierarchical structure is that the computational burden for the OLPF is significantly alleviated.
Also, this architecture is scalable — a new microgrid can be easily added to or deleted from the
distribution network model.

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4.3.2 Short-Circuit Analysis

Adapting the DMS’s current short-circuit analysis to support microgrid integration into
the distribution system requires the following:

1. The SCA function must have a provision for incorporating the variability of microgrid
output.

2. The short-circuit analysis algorithms should be modified to include the fault current
contribution from microgrids.

4.3.3 Fault Location, Isolation, and Service Restoration

Adapting the DMS’s current FLISR to support microgrid integration with the distribution
system requires the following:

1. The fault detection and location mechanism should consider the fault current
contributions from all grid-connected microgrids in order to accurately detect and locate
the fault.

2. The service restoration scheme should adapt to pick up both loads and microgrids
following a sequential order, i.e. loads are restored first and then microgrids.

3. The FLISR function should have access to the aggregated forecast or scheduled power
from each microgrid.

4. The FLISR function should be notified of an intentional or unintentional islanding

condition so that it can remove the fault current contribution from the microgrids for the
proper future fault detection and location and update the service restoration scheme to not
account for the disconnected microgrids.

Before starting a downstream service restoration action, the FLISR should confirm that
the alternative source is energized and available to pick up the additional load to be switched.
Service restoration actions performed or recommended by the FLISR should not cause any new
undesirable condition, such as voltage violations or overloading conditions on any of the
associated feeders. The FLISR should analyze the pre-fault loading on the faulted feeder and the
available capacity on the alternative source feeders to determine whether any undesirable
electrical condition would occur on the backup feeder with the proposed switching actions. If
any portion of the interrupted load cannot be restored by the FLISR due to any limitation, it
should notify the operator with an alarm or event message.

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4.3.4 Volt-VAR Optimization

Adapting the DMS’s current VVO function to accommodate microgrid integration

requires the following:

1. The VVO function must be able to handle mixed control variables, some in discrete and
others in continuous quantities.

2. The VVO algorithm should adopt a hierarchical control architecture that can coordinate
the centralized optimization of conventional regulating devices as well as microgrid
controllers. The unified optimization formula must be able to integrate control effects
from different controllers across different time scales simultaneously.

3. The VVO formulation should be scalable and flexible, so that it can handle any number
of microgrids.

4. The VVO should be able to access the microgrid, DER, and load forecasting for multiple
time intervals.

5. The VVO must be able to interface with other DMS modules to receive a high volume of
meter and sensor data with fast communication and must be sufficiently robust against
communication latency and data loss.

6. The VVO should have a provision for bad-data detection to identify bad measurements to
ensure the performance of the VVO function.

The VVO function should have a “fail-safe” design. That is, no control action that would
produce any unacceptable voltage or loading conditions should be requested by the DMS as a
result of the failure of any DMS component or any other reason. IEDs used on feeder devices
should possess a “heartbeat” function to detect loss of communication with the master station
within a given time period, such as 10 minutes. This time period should be flexibly configurable.
The VVO function should periodically check that the feeder IEDs are under VVO monitoring
using the “heartbeat” functionality of the controller. If the local controller fails to communicate
with the VVO central processor for a specified time period, the controller should revert to local
(standalone) control. When a VVO component is out of service for any reason (controller failure,
loss of communication, controller manually bypassed, or blown capacitor fuse), the DMS should
continue to operate in these abnormal situations, if possible, without producing unacceptable
voltage and loading conditions, using the remaining DMS components.[3]

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 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

This report provides a comprehensive impact analysis for interactive operation of

microgrids and the distribution system based on a multi-scale modeling framework. The findings
from this report serve as a general guideline for integrating micro EMS and DMS and a
corresponding interconnection and operational analysis.

We started by covering the aspects of microgrid operation modes and strategies on

connection and disconnection with the distribution system, and we analyzed the interactions and
operation impacts in both microgrids and the distribution system for both connected and
disconnected operation modes. The communication requirements, such as the data quality and
latency issues between DMS and the integrated micro EMS under various operation scenarios,
were discussed as well.

We defined the micro EMS functions, responsibilities, control and operation logic by
means of which microgrids are integrated with the DMS through standard interface strategies.
Specifically, the report identifies twenty-one use cases for microgrid operations to facilitate the
analysis, including normal operation, emergency, and faulted conditions. Each use case provides
the operation rules and control strategies of microgrids and micro EMS, the operation rules and
control strategies for distribution system and DMS, and the interactions and operation impacts on
both microgrids and distribution systems.

Online monitoring of microgrid operation conditions, and the corresponding strategies for
power quality monitoring, are also analyzed in this report. Specific analyses conducted include
the identification of microgrid operation quantities for online monitoring of power quality, the
identification of online monitoring strategies for microgrid power quality, and the evaluation of
the effectiveness and efficiency of the online monitoring strategies.

One of the potential benefits of a microgrid is that it can reduce additional costs
associated with utility-supplied electricity, so this report also discussed power dispatch for
multiple microgrids integrated with the distribution utility and markets. We identified the
microgrid pools, including multiple microgrids participating in the joint power dispatch, defined
the dispatch and operation rules applied to microgrid pools by the distribution utility and
markets, and analyze the interaction of the power dispatch for microgrid pools with the
distribution utility and markets.

A critical enabler for large-scale integration of microgrids with the distribution system is
the proper protection coordination between DMS and micro EMS. This report analyzed several
aspects of this protection coordination, including identifying protection schemes of DMS in
active distribution networks and the protection schemes of microgrids, defining the requirements
of micro EMS and DMS protection functions for coordination with each other, and analyzing the
protection coordination between DMS and micro EMS in various event scenarios.

85
 As the distribution grid integrates more microgrids and DERs, advanced applications in
the DMS are facing a series of new challenges. Developing new applications or modifying the
key advanced applications in the DMS to support the integration of micro EMS is an immediate
necessity. This report recommends the following steps to tackle these challenges. First, identify
all the major advanced DMS applications that are significantly affected by the integration of
micro EMSs. Next, analyze the impacts of the integration on the identified individual advanced
DMS applications, and finally, define the requirements and the effective approaches to
developing or modifying the identified advanced applications to adapt to the integration of the
micro EMS.

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[12] Q. Jiang, M. Xue and G. Geng, “Energy Management of Μicrogrid in Grid-Connected and
Stand-Alone Modes,” in IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 3380-
3389, Aug. 2013.

[13] Dӧrte Fouquet and Jana Viktoria Nysten, “Rules on grid access and priority dispatch for
renewable energy in Europe,” The Legal Helpdesk, 2015. Accessed at:
http://www.keepontrack.eu/contents/virtualhelpdeskdocuments/grid-access_7691.pdf.

[14] G. Buigues, A. Dyśko, V. Valverde, I. Zamora, and E. Fernández1, “Μicrogrid Protection:

Technical challenges and existing techniques,” International Conference on Renewable
Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ’13), Bilbao, Spain, 20-22 March, 2013.

[15] B. Li, Y. Yuan, and L. Wei, “Research on Relay Protection of Grid-Connected

Photovoltaic Power Station in the Plateau,” International Conference on Advanced Power
System Automation and Protection, 2011.

[16] R. Seguin, J. Woyak, D. Costyk, J. Hambrick, and B. Mather, “High-Penetration PV

Integration Handbook for Distribution Engineers,” Technical Report, NREL/TP-5D00-
63114, January 2016.

[17] R. J. Bravo and Chuong Ly, “Electroc-Coupled Generators Short Circuit Impacts,” 2015
Seventh Annual IEEE Green Technologies Conference.

[18] H. Ravindra, M. O. Faruque, P. McLaren, K. Schoder, M. Steurer, and P. Meeker, “Impact

of PV on distribution protection system,” North American Power Symposium (NAPS), 9-
11 September 2012.

[19] H. Hooshyar, M. E. Baran, and L. Vanfretti, “Coordination assessment of overcurrent

relays in distribution feeders with High Penetration of PV Systems,” PowerTech, 16-20
June 2013, Grenoble.

[20] A. N. Azmi, I. N. Dahlberg, M. L. Kolhe, and A. G. Imenes, “Impact of Increasing

Penetration of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems on Distribution Feeders,” 2015 International
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[21] NERC Integration of Variable Generation Task Force (IVFTF1-7) Report, “Performance of
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[22] SANDIA Report, “Implementation of Voltage and Frequency Ride-Through Requirements

in Distributed Energy Resources Interconnection Standards,” SAND 2014-3122, April
2014.

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 APPENDIX

In either grid-connected or disconnected (island) operation mode, a microgrid should

meet specific operation requirements, such as maintaining an acceptable voltage profile, grid
frequency, synchronization, and load following. In grid-connected mode, a microgrid can
exchange energy with the local utility of the distribution grid, following a predefined schedule
between the DMS and the microgrid in normal operation, and can provide mutual support in
abnormal conditions. In the disconnected mode, the microgrid should be able to balance its
internal load demand by its own energy resources and maintain the same level of voltage quality
and grid frequency. It should also be able to reconnect to the distribution grid when requested,
which involves resynchronizing with the grid.

Operation strategies of microgrids should include the following requirements:

A.1 RESPONSE TO NORMAL CONDITIONS

A microgrid should be able to perform proper operation functions under normal operating
conditions. The following subsections introduce some basic requirements based on the IEEE
1547 standard.

A.1.1 Voltage Regulation

A microgrid should be able to regulate the voltage within a certain range at the active POI
as requested by the DMS, and should not cause a voltage violation at the POI or any other point
in the distribution grid, as defined in the American National Standard Institute’s C84.1-1995,
Range A standard.

A.1.2 Coordinated Grounding with the Distribution Grid

A microgrid must have a proper grounding scheme that should be well coordinated with
the distribution grid to avoid the occurrence of any possible overvoltage or safety issues in the
microgrid or the distribution grid. The grounding scheme in the microgrid may also coordinate
with the protection scheme in the distribution grid to avoid any possible interference with the
existing ground fault protection logic.

A.1.3 Synchronization

When a microgrid is to connect to the distribution grid, it should go through a

synchronization process (which may be automatically checked by the synchronization relay) to
ensure that its voltage level, frequency, and phase angle across the connection switch meet the
synchronization criteria before closing the connection switch. No voltage or power disturbances

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to the distribution grid may be tolerated during the synchronization process; the synchronization
process should be aborted if any severe disturbance occurs during the process. Upon the
completion of the synchronization process, the energy exchange may be ramped to the
committed target at a predefined ramping rate.

In the grid-connected mode, a microgrid may operate in parallel with the distribution grid
through a single active POI or multiple POIs. For synchronization between the microgrid and the
distribution grid at each POI, the voltage fluctuations should be within ±5% of the prevailing
voltage level and the requirements for limiting voltage flicker should also be fulfilled.

When multiple active POIs co-exist, wheeling paths among the POI may be formed that
are likely to remain unnoticed by the distribution grid operators. Such a situation should be
eliminated. Voltage fluctuation imposed by circulating power among POIs should also be
avoided.

A.1.4 Inadvertent Energization of the Distribution Grid

The microgrid must cease to energize the distribution grid at any POI when the grid is de-
energized.

A.1.5 Monitoring Provisions

If the capacity of the interfacing device at each POI is more than 250 kVA, monitoring of
its connection status may be performed, including the monitoring of real power output, reactive
power output, and voltage at the POI.

A.1.6 Isolation Device

When required by the distribution grid, isolation devices may be equipped with circuit
breakers at each POI of the microgrid.

A.1.7 Interconnect Integrity

The microgrid should be able to withstand electromagnetic interference (EMI)

environments in accordance with the IEEE C37.90.2-1995 standard.

It should also be able to withstand voltage and current surges as defined in the IEEE
C62.41.2-2002 or IEEE C37.90.1-2002 standards.

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A.2 RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL CONDITIONS

The microgrid should operate properly during abnormal conditions, as shown in the
subsections below. This guidance also follows the requirements presented in the IEEE 1547
standard.

A.2.1 Distribution Grid Faults

In the case of a distribution grid fault, the microgrid should cease to energize the faulted
and de-energized grid at any POI. Meanwhile, power balancing inside the microgrid should be
performed.

A.2.2 Distribution Grid Reclosing Coordination

When a microgrid operates in island mode, it may be energizing a portion of the isolated
distribution grid through a POI. The microgrid should cease to energize the isolated portions of
the distribution grid at any POI prior to reclosing. Power balancing inside the microgrid should
be achieved prior to reclosing, and zero power exchange should be maintained after reclosing
until it is ready to start transaction schedules.

A.2.3 Voltage Requirements

Voltage at the POI of the microgrid should be monitored in case a fault occurs. If the
voltage at the POI is within a range shown in Table 6, the microgrid should cease to energize the
distribution grid at the POI. The clearing times for each of the different fault voltages are also
shown in Table 6.[2] [4] At a POI with a capacity greater than 30 kW, the voltage set point
should be field adjustable, and the clearing time shown in Table 6 is the default value. If the
microgrid is disconnected from the distribution grid, the power balance inside the microgrid
should be maintained.

Table 6 Interconnection System Response to Abnormal Voltages

Default Settings Range of Adjustability

Voltage Range (% of Clearing time: adjustable up

Base Voltage) Clearing Time (s) to and including (s)

V < 45 0.16 0.16

45≤ V <60 1 11.00
60 < V< 88 2 21.00
110 < V< 120 1 13.00
V≥ 120 0.16 0.16

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A.2.4 Frequency Requirements

When the system frequency falls within a range listed in Table 7, the microgrid should
cease to energize the distribution grid at the POI. The clearing time for different faulted
frequencies is shown in Table 7.[2] [4] If the microgrid is disconnected from the distribution
grid, the power balance inside the microgrid must be maintained.

Table 7 Interconnection System Response to Abnormal Frequencies

Default Settings Ranges of Adjustability

Clearing Clearing time (s)

Frequency Time Frequency adjustable up to and
Function (Hz) (s) (Hz) including

Under Frequency (UF) 1 < 57 0.16 56 – 60 10

Under Frequency (UF) 2 < 59.5 2 56 – 60 300
Over Frequency (OF) 1 > 60.5 2 60 – 64 300
Over Frequency (OF) 2 > 62 0.16 60 – 64 10

A.2.5 Reconnection to Distribution Grid

Reconnection of the microgrid can take place when the voltage is within the range of
88% to 110% of the base voltage and the frequency is within the range of 59.3 Hz to 60.5 Hz.

Reconnection at the POI should include an adjustable or a fixed delay (e.g., five minutes).
Power balance inside the microgrid should be guaranteed after reconnection during this time
period. Potential wheeling paths when multiple POI are reconnected may be allowable

A.3 VOLTAGE/VAR, FREQUENCY, AND LOAD FOLLOWING

A microgrid is generally not powerful enough to influence the frequency of the

distribution grid significantly; however, it should maintain synchronization at the POI with
constant power exchange by following the committed transaction schedules with minimum
deviation and minimum accumulated inadvertent energy exchange. The DMS should closely
monitor the voltage profiles and power fluctuations at the POI in real-time operation. The
microgrid should be able to respond quickly to its internal load and generation changes or
disturbances so there will be minimum impacts on the distribution grid at the POI. In case of
significant generation shortage or surplus, a new power exchange between the distribution grid
and the microgrid should be scheduled, or the action of load or generation shedding may be
launched in order to maintain the load balancing.

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 A microgrid should have sufficient capability to maintain the standard voltage profile and
frequency range, which requires that the microgrid has sufficient energy resources for both real
and reactive power generation to balance its load demands in normal operation, especially for the
disconnected operation mode, in which it has only its own resources.

The DMS of the distribution grid should maintain healthy voltage profiles for the feeder
circuits where one or more microgrids may be connected. In addition, a microgrid is responsible
for assisting the DMS in maintaining the desirable voltage at the POI. The microgrids may offer
their additional reactive capacities and resources to the DMS for the overall voltage/VAR
optimization of the distribution grid. The DMS can also provide or recommend the optimal
voltage or VAR settings for the individual POI of each microgrid. The conventional VVO
algorithms in the DMS are designed for controlling the on/off states of the capacitor banks at the
feeder circuits and distribution substations, the substation transformer tap positions, and the
voltage regulator taps at the feeder circuits, all in binary or discrete 50 quantities. With the
microgrid and DER connections, the reactive power and voltage controls may be continuously
adjustable quantities within certain ranges. This arrangement will introduce new challenges to
the VVC algorithms because they have to handle mixed control variables, some in binary and
others in continuous (adjustable) quantities.

A.4 CONNECTION TO AND DISCONNECTION FROM THE DISTRIBUTION GRID

A microgrid should be capable of connecting to and disconnecting from the distribution

grid and should disconnect from the distribution grid when encountering faults in the distribution
grid that are not cleared in a timely manner. Power balance inside the microgrids should be
ensured after the disconnection. If there are multiple POIs, the microgrid should disconnect from
the distribution grid at all POIs when the distribution grid is in a severe fault condition, so that
the microgrid can completely cease to energize the faulted distribution grid. If a fault occurs
inside the microgrid and the local protection mechanism fails to clear the fault within the
allowable time, the microgrid should also disconnect from the distribution grid at the POI to
avoid further impact on the distribution grid. When the fault is clear, the microgrid can reconnect
to the distribution grid. Sufficient delay time is required to ensure the normal status of the grid.
This delay time can be either adjustable or fixed (e.g., five minutes).

A.5 INTERNAL PROTECTION

A micro EMS should be capable of detecting any internal fault occurring anywhere in its
internal grid. When an internal fault is detected, the faulted circuit or the POI should be tripped
to ensure that the fault will not cause an operation problem in the distribution grid, and the
faulted circuit section should be isolated to enable the microgrid to restore service to the healthy
sections of the faulted circuit. Power balancing within the microgrid should be done after
isolating the faulted section or disconnecting from the distribution grid.

Microgrid connections will result in two-way power flows on the distribution grid. The
protection scheme in the distribution grid should be adjusted accordingly to cover the

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multisource contributions of short-circuit currents from different directions to the point of
faulting. At a minimum, the distribution grid must implement a directional over-current
protection scheme that can support different short-circuit current settings for different fault
directions. It is important to note that the protection scheme must be defined in the planning
stage. With increasing DER penetration, operators must also modify the protection scheme to
ensure the successful integration of the micro EMS and the DERMS into DMS. The distribution
grid will generally be an active network with the connections of DERs and microgrids. These
local generation resources will introduce significant dynamic changes, conventional static
protection schemes, and settings that may not cover all possible scenarios. For this reason,
modifications should be made during operations to mitigate the impact of DERs. For example,
some of the DERs may be on and off occasionally, and the rest of the DERs in connection may
or may not be significant short-circuit current sources, depending upon their energy conversion
types (inverter-based DERs may not be significant fault current contributors). The operation
topology of the distribution grid may also be dynamically adjusted or reconfigured owing to
changes in dynamic operation conditions. Protection schemes and settings should be adjusted so
as to adapt closely to operation condition changes. These settings will not only require more
reliable remote relay-setting mechanisms but also higher cybersecurity requirements for the
protection schemes. In addition, it may also be necessary to strengthen the original protection
mechanisms at the POI to isolate the faults occurring in the internal circuit of a microgrid and
keep them from having severe impacts on the distribution grid. Another modification of the
existing protection scheme is synchronization at the POI. A microgrid should implement a
synchronization scheme at the POI for connecting to the distribution grid, in addition to the
protection schemes isolating the faults occurring on the grid side or in the internal circuit. The
synchronization logic should automatically control the corresponding energy resources to adjust
the microgrid frequency and voltage to levels that match the distribution grid at the POI. The
synchronization relay can lead to reconnection to the grid by automatically checking the
differences in voltage, frequency, and phase angle across the connection switch at the POI.

A.6 MICROGRID CONTROL WHILE INTEGRATED WITH DMS

A microgrid’s local energy resources and load management should have sufficient
monitoring and control capabilities to do the following: (1) maintain synchronization with the
distribution grid, (2) maintain the desirable voltage profile at the POI and its internal grid, and
(3) quickly respond to changes in internal load and generation as well as disturbances from the
distribution grid or the internal grid. Operation conditions at the POI should be monitored or
visible to the DMS of the distribution grid. The connection switch at the POI may also be
controllable by the DMS for emergency disconnection.

A.7 MICROGRID BLACK START

Microgrid black start is the restoration process after a blackout. It involves a set of rules
to be followed for system restoration. The following sequence of actions should be carried out in
order to restore the low voltage distribution grid after a general blackout [5]:

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  Disconnect all loads.

 Run the microgrid in multiple standalone islanded systems, supplying the local loads.

 Synchronize the islands together according to synchronization criteria.

 Connect the controllable loads depending on available capacity of storage and total
generation.

 Connect the non-controllable energy sources (i.e. PV and wind) without battery storage
capability.

 Increase the loads.

 Synchronize the microgrid with the main grid.

A.8 ENERGY TRANSACTIONS AND WHEELING BETWEEN THE DISTRIBUTION

GRID AND MICROGRID

Power exchanges or energy transactions between the distribution grid and a microgrid
should be fully monitored by both the DMS and the microgrid and be directly controlled by the
microgrid to follow the committed transaction schedule. Energy transactions between the
distribution grid and a microgrid are counted as net quantities from any active POI of the
microgrid. When more than one active POI is involved, energy wheeling will be more likely to
occur. An example of energy wheeling is when one party delivers a certain amount of power to
another through one POI and receives some amount of power from another POI. Operators may
need to avoid such wheeling in normal operation, although it may be needed in emergency
support and therefore must be well coordinated between the two parties. A wheeling path
through a microgrid will form a looped operation condition for both the distribution grid and the
microgrid, which may result in operation difficulties, including impacts on the protection
mechanism, voltage and VAR control, and load flow distribution, if the grids are configured to
operate in radial configuration. However, under emergency conditions, such wheeling can be
useful in providing alternative paths to deliver power to consumers and helpful in maintaining
voltage profiles for the grid. When microgrids are owned by the utility that owns/operates the
distribution grid, the microgrid control systems may be embedded into the DMS as sub-functions
or applications. This structure permits the scheduling of energy exchanges to be optimized in the
same domain as the entire distribution grid. In this case, there may be no need for independent
optimization of individual microgrids.

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Energy Systems Division
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