Abstract:

Green literacy is the ability to use modern construction techniques that have more
environmentally friendly aspects in infrastructures while consuming fewer resources. It has more
natural resources and produces less wastes overall, giving it a cleaner status. The study compares
utilizing regular fire ash as a partial replacement for cement with employing RAP (Reclaimed
Asphalt Pavement), which is better 100%, and its impact on the cost, either locally or
internationally. Environmental impact, carbon dioxide gas emissions, waste disposal, and a
comparison of the strength, durability, and maintenance requirements of each competing
material. The study applies Multi Decision Criteria Analysis (MDCA) to a current bridge project
in the Al-Ismailia governorate in relation to Egypt's enormous infrastructure project. The study's
findings suggested that using both RAP and fly ash in the bridge's construction would have been
better.

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Overview:
One of our most important duties is to safeguard the planet for present and future generations.
We don't always take care of our resources and green areas carefully, despite how much we
cherish them. As a result, we require a variety of perspectives on how to preserve the
environment. We are preserving the environment because it defends our country and fosters a
strong natural bond that ties us to one another and to our cultural history.
Engineers can contribute to environmental preservation. As a consequence, we conducted a study
on the integration of green infrastructure literacy and used the results in this case study.
There are many different sorts of infrastructure, including social infrastructure like hospitals,
schools, and jails, as well as grey infrastructure like sewers and utility lines. Not only that, but
we'll also talk about green infrastructure, a subset of infrastructure that is crucial for the
sustainable growth of towns and cities.
In order to achieve this daring aim, we must take into account the enormous ground, develop
interconnected conservation systems, and search for links between natural areas and historic
places.
There are several varieties of green or recycled concrete, for example:
• Green cement. It may be categorized into many sorts.
The fly ash concrete used in the bridge's construction will be the subject of this study.
There are several methods for creating environmentally friendly asphalt, such as:
• Asphalt, hot and cold; hot and warm Recycling Asphalt
This study will concentrate on the hot recycled asphalt used in paving.
1.2 Problem definition:
As we can see, a lot of infrastructure projects have been completed during the past several years,
and the consequences of these projects on the environment are tied to roads. Since many green
materials are more durable than conventional materials, adopting the green notion into these
projects would not only benefit the environment but also result in significant long-term financial
savings. More permanence equates to more durability, which boosts the cost.
With regard to the environment, these projects raise two problems:
1) Initialization (during construction): The bulk of the materials used have little to no
environmental impact, however asphalt (one of the materials used) emits fumes and gets quite
hot. As a consequence, both the environment and the individuals who are conducting the labour
will definitely suffer as a result of this task.
2) Maintenance: Roads are often maintained every few years (about every three to five years) by
removing the cement layer, which is then typically dumped in the desert or another location (not
recycled nor reused). Therefore, the amount of solid garbage on Earth has increased.

1.3 Objective:
By demonstrating the durability and cost-effectiveness of green infrastructures to investment
plans, the study aims to build an application of green literacy into an infrastructure route,
limiting the increasing harm that has caused significant worries.
The study's goals are as follows:
• Determine the feasibility of adopting green infrastructure literacy in Egypt
• Use fly ash and reclaimed asphalt to reduce waste disposal and environmental contamination.
• Investigate the differences between conventional and green infrastructures.
1.4 Research methodology:
The stages listed below help establish this transitional framework for green building literacy:
- Examining how green literacy has been used historically and currently in infrastructure and
buildings throughout a variety of countries and contexts, and then combining the important
material into a Literature Review that considers how their case studies have aided us.
- Discussing literacy with engineering areas with infrastructure knowledge and getting the
information needed for a case study on the practicality of applying green literacy to a bridge in al
Ismailia.
- Comparing the present bridge to the adjustments that would be required to apply green literacy
on it, taking into account cost and time elements, as well as the environmental analysis side of
recyclability and waste disposal, and lastly taking into account the life-cycle assessment
component.
- The case study concludes with a summary of recommendations for future green literacy
implementation in Egyptian infrastructure, including bridges.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The necessity of sustainability, becoming green, and being kind to the environment are the main
reasons why we have selected this topic. If we don't take care of the environment now, we will
eventually suffer from illnesses, ozone holes issues, and a lack of resources. As a result, we are
aware of the advantages of green technology and are working to adopt it in our area of building
engineering. In order to learn more, we will discuss literature reviews and draw conclusions
regarding green infrastructure. To learn more about the topic and the challenges individuals have
encountered in implementing green infrastructure, we have studied a few articles that are linked
to it. Therefore, we choose to look for information based on the following four criteria:
1. The advantages of green infrastructure in general
2. History of green infrastructure over time and advantages of each
3. Various approaches to GI
4. Challenges that have come with reaching GI
5. Fly ash as low cost and environmentally friendly filler
6. Performances of cement and fly ash modified asphalt concrete mixtures
2.1 The advantages of green infrastructure in general
The University of Sheffield provides guidance on how to support the efficient use of GI in
upcoming development initiatives. Demonstrating the advantages of green infrastructure in terms
of how future climatic changes may affect our way of life and maybe harm air conditioning
systems. Even when the implementation of green infrastructure does not directly result in a
financial gain, it can nevertheless have long-term benefits for the environment, human health,
and welfare. The case study also emphasizes the value of cooperating with NGOs to share
expertise and achieve better results. (The University of Sheffield, University of Manchester, &
UKGBC, 2020).1
The Helwan University Architecture Department illustrates the advantages of using green
infrastructure in urban planning for the economy, society, and environment. With the expansion
of green and blue spaces as well as the implementation of walking and cycling pathways, the
restoration of some animal species and the creation of wildlife corridors are among the
environmental advantages. Additionally, less gasoline is used, and the pollution is decreased.
The improvement of the mental health and general wellbeing of those living near green areas
was one of the effects of green infrastructure on society. Additionally, it enabled schools offer
hands-on instruction and re-engage students with nature. Green spaces are quite important to
modern homebuyers economically. If there is a green space surrounding the house, purchasers
are ready to spend 33 percent extra. The same is true for business owners who want to grow their
company; they like having access to additional outside locations. Putting these ideas into practice
along the banks of the Nile River will help the Greater Cairo Region's tourism and recreation
areas blend with its green areas, historical and archaeological monuments, and cultural
landmarks.2
The phrase "green infrastructure" is used in a variety of ways, and the International Journal of
Environmental Sciences examines how various fields of study have varied ideas about how to
design for green infrastructure. The necessity for green infrastructure was then debated as a
result of urban population growth and the rapid rise in pollutants brought on by climate change.
Additionally, the necessity of preparing for green infrastructure and potential planning strategies.
To ensure the continued availability of all present resources for future generations, planning and
management will be required. There is no plan that would work everywhere, but a framework
would be extremely helpful and aid in the implementation of the development of the green
infrastructure plan, according to a strategy for its development.3
The land use crisis in the United States, which caused the environment's plan to collapse because
it was no longer providing acceptable service, was brought to light by Mark A. Benedict and
Edward T. McMahon. Its administration and planning are facilitated by navigating the
construction of a network of linkages that directs conservation.4
2.2 History of green infrastructure over time and advantages of each
The construction was overseen by Lowenthal in 1985 and served to illustrate the stages of New
York's green infrastructure. By Ian C. Mell academic work. By utilizing a field of socio-
economic and ecological basics, research demonstrates how planners, researchers, and
stakeholders are adopting the notion of green infrastructure and gives multiple words and
meanings. Demonstrates how the development of green infrastructure evolved via adaptation and
anabolism, as well as how the process embraced the idea of linearity and connectivity throughout
the landscape boundary and inside greenways design to promote beneficial ecological
orientations. We can get a sense of how Green Infrastructure will function as an integrated notion
that aggregates the sociopolitical and environmental aspects of landscape design by linking these
ideas.5
By distributing a survey to a group of residents in a neighborhood area and asking them about
the Labuan Botanical Garden, the only and best green infrastructure in the area, Nurul Nazyddah,
Mat Nazir, Noriah Othman Abdul, and Hadi Nawawi demonstrate the level of awareness towards
the importance of green infrastructure in Kuala Lumpur. According to their results, it not only
enhances the neighborhood's visual appeal but also promotes social cohesiveness. Providing
enough high-quality housing with A-class amenities surrounded by a secure and healthy
environment is one way to demonstrate how Kuala Lumpur has improved its green infrastructure
elements. In order to focus on being a sustainable city, Kuala Lumpur created a structural plan
that provided general standards for townscape, conservation, and landscaping. The proposed
modifications fit these concepts. This is consistent with other development criteria, such as those
pertaining to physical, economic, social, and environmental demands.6

J.H. Cho and S.B. Kim shedding light on the ways in which the Korean government has joined
the global Green Growth movement by establishing guidelines that must be followed to prevent
future environmental catastrophes caused by climate change and other environmental risks. They
have looked at the impact of environmental improvements on infrastructure development,
including the reduction of hazardous emissions and the exhibition of renewable energy.
Additionally, they looked at how the concept of green buildings was being implemented to green
the infrastructure industry.7
2.3 Various approaches to GI
The importance of green infrastructure and how it enhances chances for education, water quality
and quantity, quality of life, and air quality/climate change were discussed by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency. The method for putting various green infrastructure projects
into action is then explained. The advantages and disadvantages of alternative approaches of
funding these projects are then discussed. Additionally, numerous methods for putting in place
green infrastructures have been proposed, each with their (advantages gained, project
complexity, timeline, estimated installation costs, cost-affecting elements, financing options,
essential maintenance, preliminary considerations, prospective project partners, and case study).8
The Franklin Regional Council of Governments begins by defining "green infrastructure," "green
streets," and the advantages of incorporating them into public works projects. Following a brief
introduction, each type of green infrastructure technique—including street trees, vegetated
swales, bio retention areas, porous asphalt / permeable paving, structural soils, reducing
impervious surfaces, and unpaved roads—is discussed in terms of its advantages, important
considerations, and potential applications. The study then goes over a number of case situations
and the lessons learned from each. Shedding light on several potential sources of finance for
green infrastructure.9
In conclusion, there are many ways to achieve green infrastructure, including planting trees and
shrubs, using green roofs, implementing rain gardens, designing green streets and alleys, and
practicing urban agriculture. These approaches offer a wide range of benefits, from improving
water quality and reducing storm water runoff to increasing community engagement and
improving air quality.
2.4 Challenges that have come with reaching GI
The maintenance issues and expenses that have really been encountered in 10 distinct examples
across Europe are shown by Kanchane Gunawardena and Koen Steemers. Using site visits for
case studies and related interviews. Cost estimates place the price of a mineral wool-based
installation between £375 and £425 per square meter (m2) for a Spanish provider and £550 for a
comparable system from a UK source. A soil-based modular in the UK cost £500 per square
metre, whereas MV cost more than £600 per square meter (Madrid-based). Annual maintenance
costs for soil-based modular systems were between 6% and 12.5% of the installation cost,
according to studies. While it might be as high as 15-20% for MV (Mur vegetal) (green wall)
constructions (Madrid-based). Actually, this price varies depending on the service provided in
each instance. As an example, using the mineral wool-based £550 per m2 system mentioned
above, replacing the substrate would cost 22.5% of the installation cost and completely
replanting would cost a further 45%. The problems for the Mineral wool modular plate-based
case were also shown by the results to be lower winter temperatures and drought. The problem
for the soil-based instance was that the humidity had to range from (85 to 95%). The difficulty
for the MV was finding low-light installations indoors.10
Ian C.Mell began his post by reviewing the history and development of the green infrastructure
employed by the USA, UK, and Europe throughout the past years (beginning in 2015), and he
noted challenges that emerged when each nation's policies were being developed. Additionally, it
explored how the demands and problems that each country encounters may cause disparities to
arise in policies of other countries connected to green infrastructure. Additionally, it covered the
need for governments and other global players to exchange experiences and expertise in order to
advance the development of green infrastructure on a global scale.11
2.5 Fly ash as low cost and environmentally friendly filler:
Fly ashes (FAs), which are a subset of coal combustion products (CCPs), are a common
component of the considerable amounts of industrial waste that are produced. They may be
improperly discarded; causing respiratory issues, interruption of natural cycles, and soil & water
contamination (Carlson and Adriano, 2009). Utilizing fly ash might have a positive impact on the
environment and the economy. It first permits lowering the environmental expenses associated
with deposited waste at power plants and thermal power plants. Additionally, a smaller portion
of the property is designated for storage, allowing for alternative development of the precious
landfill site. Fly ash may also take the place of some limited, expensive, or non-renewable
natural resources. Therefore, it is crucial to create new industrial technologies for the use of FA.
The variety of uses for fly ashes is correlated with their physicochemical characteristics.
Aluminosilicate compounds, a few metallic and calcium oxides, and trace elements make up the
bulk of fly ash's chemical makeup (Zhang et al., 2018). As a consequence, there are two primary
types of fly ashes that can be distinguished: class F fly ashes that result from the burning of coal
and class C fly ashes that arise from the combustion of lignite. In comparison to F class fly ash,
C class fly ash has a far more complicated composition, more CaO, and less aluminosilicate
phases. FAs have been thoroughly researched as the materials suitable for the following
applications: the manufacture of building materials (Bicer, 2018; Xu and Shi, 2018), macro-
leveling, soil stabilization (Furlan et al., 2018), and road construction. In general, the addition of
fly ash to concrete improves its workability, lowers building costs, and provides steel with a
sturdy and protective layer against corrosion (Ahmaruzzaman, 2010). In contrast to class F fly
ash, the use of class C fly ash in the cement industry is rather constrained (Kunecki et al., 2017).
Further study is required to explore and support the use of C class fly ash in the manufacturing of
concrete because of the C class fly ash's increased reactivity, which has the potential to
drastically modify the hydration processes in cement.

Only the characteristics of bituminous binders with fly ash addition that may be used to forecast
the quality parameters of an asphalt mix and road pavements are the subject of the current study.
However, the ultimate determination of whether waste materials are suitable for producing an
asphalt mix should be based on the physical and mechanical characteristics of the produced
asphalt mixes. The goal of the research being given is to look at how lime-ash filler affects key
mix asphalt performance factors such air gaps, strength, and resistance to water and frost.
2.6 Performances of cement and fly ash modified asphalt concrete mixtures:
The term "filler" refers to a fine material that may be utilized to alter the characteristics of the
asphalt binder and the asphalt concrete mixture. Currently, fillers include Portland cement,
hydrated lime, fly ash, limestone dust, and clay particles. Filler is not regarded as a component of
aggregates. It functions as a modifier to increase the asphalt concrete mixture's durability and
temperature susceptibility. Utilizing mineral fillers, such as hydrated lime, can decrease the
moisture susceptibility. In addition to using mineral fillers, asphalt concrete can have its strength
and stiffness improved. The goal of investigating mineral filler features is to improve asphalt
concrete performance, particularly to boost stability and durability against rutting and pushing.
Shown that adding 1–1.5% of hydrated lime to asphalt concrete mixes can extend their service
lives by 2–10 years. Additionally, it has been shown that using Portland cement as a filler might
make asphaltic concrete more resistant to stripping. Additionally, using fly ash in place of
cement and hydrated lime while creating asphalt concrete mixes results in a noticeable increase
in the characteristics of moisture resistance.
Particle size and shape, void content, surface area, mineral, chemical, and other physical qualities
are the main distinction-makers amongst fillers. For this reason, the performance of the asphalt
mixture varies depending on the type of filler that is used. This research intends to investigate the
effects of filler kinds and fractions on the characteristics of the asphalt concrete mixture. Cement
and fly ash were used as the filler materials for this investigation. The mixes varied in their
cement, fly ash, and combination composition. Various laboratory experiments were used to
evaluate the performance traits of an asphalt concrete mixture comprising various types and
percentages of filler. The testing are carried out in Thailand's humid, arid conditions.

2.5 Analysis
After conducting a literature review, we came to the following conclusions: the impact of green
infrastructure and how it contributes to sustainability. Although it may face many obstacles, such
as high costs, advanced technology, and the need for specialists, it is now obvious to us that the
more attention and effort you put into this technology, the more money you will save in the long
run. By saving money, we mean that it will be more efficient over time and less expensive. For
instance, we now know that while recycling asphalt may present a number of obstacles, the end
result will be more durable and effective than newly manufactured asphalt. Therefore, it made
clear the significance of becoming green and how sustainability would play a crucial part in our
future, leading us to conclude that every modest action taken today will have an impact on our
lives in the future.
 CHAPTER THREE: COST AND SUSTAINABILITY

3.1 Cost Comparison

One of the most crucial things that the majority of businessmen or contractors need to grasp
is the cost factor. Green concrete may be produced in a variety of ways, most of which
include using recycled elements in the concrete mix or substituting other ingredients for
those found in regular concrete.
3.1.1 How it is done?
To find the most economical method of producing the green concrete, three different types of
experiments were conducted. There were 3 separate experiments.

3.1.2 Experiment 1
Three samples were used in the experiment: one with fly ash replacing 30% of the cement, another
with bottom ash replacing 30% of the sand.
Substituting bottom ash for 30% of the sand content and fly ash for 30% of the cement content. The
quantities and costs of each material needed to create 1 m3 of concrete are shown in the table below.
Note that the first compressive strength measurement is made after 28 days and the second
measurement is made after 180 days.

Figure 1 Experiment 1 FA
The table above reported the following:
By substituting fly ash for 30% of the cement, concrete's compressive strength increased from
30 MPa to 50 MPa (after 28 days) and to 60 MPa (after 180 days), while the price per cubic
meter dropped by 18%. The compressive strength increased to 40 (after 28 days) and 55 (after
180 days) MPa when 30% of the sand content was replaced with bottom ash, however the cost
increased by 3.5%.
By substituting fly ash and bottom ash for 30% of the cement and sand, respectively, the
compressive strength was increased while the overall cost was reduced by 19%.
Conclusion using 30% fly ash and 30% bottom ash in experiment one led to a 19% cost
decrease and a significantly increased compressive strength, as seen in the table.
3.1.3 Experiment 2
The experiment was repeated using various ratios of bottom ash and fly ash after the initial test
produced encouraging results.

Figure 2 Experiment 2 FA

The results were as follows:

The cost was reduced by 25% thanks to the use of 40% fly ash. Due to the significant rise in
HRWRA, replacing all of the sand with bottom ash led to a cost increase of 7.39%. When
compared to standard concrete and 40% fly ash concrete, the use of 40% fly ash and 30% bottom
ash resulted in a 25% cost reduction and an improvement in compressive strength. Costs were
reduced by 9% as a consequence of using 40% fly ash and 30% bottom ash, which was also made
possible by using more HRWRA. The use of 40% fly ash and the entire substitution of sand with
bottom ash increased the overall cost by 17%. This growth was significantly influenced by the rise
in HRWRA as well.

Conclusion: Using 40% fly ash and 30% bottom ash increases compressive strength considerably
while also lowering production costs.

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2: Experiment 2 FA

3.1.4 Experiment 3: the usage of Fly ash, Bottom ash and Fly ash aggregates.

Figure 3: Experiment 3 FA

In this experiment, aggregates made up of 20% fly ash, 30% bottom ash, and 30% fly ash were
employed.

The outcomes demonstrated that doing so lowered the overall cost by 14%, and the observed
compressive strengths were 45 MPa after 28 days and 50 MPa after 180 days.

The outcomes of the investigation and the professionalism of the preceding tests were significantly
impacted by the assumptions made for the costs of each item in India. However, fly ash costs in
Egypt were substantially higher than the average for the world, reaching in at 14,000 EGP per ton.
However, that number was only discovered in one internet source, and the price of a ton of fly ash
that we found was (about) 14,000 pounds. We must first determine the cost in Egypt. We will
proceed to the first experiment (using 40 fly ash), which has the highest rate of cost savings (25%),
to make 1 m.
3.1.4.1 For ordinary concrete:
● 300-400 KG of Cement price = 0.4*800 = 320
● 0.4 Meter cube of fine aggregate price = 0.4*85 = 34
● 0.8 Meter cube coarse aggregate price = 0.8*108 = 86.4
● 175-200 Liter water Price = 0.3*19 = 5.7 EGP

Total: 320+34+86.4+5.7=446.1 EGP/ concrete meter cube

3.1.4.2 For Fly Ash concrete:

● Approx. 200 KG of cement price = 0.2*800 =160
● 133.2 KG of fly ash price = 0.1332*14000 = 1864.8 EGP
● 754 of fine aggregates price = 0.754*85 = 64.09 EGP
● 1290.7 KG of course aggregate price = 1.29*108 = 139.32EGP
● (175-200) liter water Price = 0.3*19 = 5.7 EGP

Total: 160+1864.8+64.09+139.32+5.7 = 2233.91 EGP/concrete meter cube

3.1.5 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) vs Virgin Asphalt

RAP has been around for a while and is utilized in several projects all across the world. The
percentage of RAP utilization in the pavement business has increased as a result of technical
advancements. A 100% RAP road is presently seen in various locations throughout the world.

The ability of RAP to replace fresh asphalt in the road pavement has been studied and
demonstrated, according to a report written by Martin Zaumanis and published in 2016.

Additionally, based on his studies, using 100% RAP can save expenses by up to 70% when
compared to virgin mixtures, as seen in the picture below.
Naturally, switching to the usage of 100% RAP would necessitate investments in plant technology,
such as RAP processing units and machinery connected to asphalt manufacturing. But when we
consider how much money Egypt is now investing in its infrastructure and the hundreds of
kilometers being created, we can't help but think how much money—possibly billions—would be
saved if the government undertook such a project.

Figure 4: Cost Savings of RAP

3.2 Environmental Impact:

3.2.1 Fly Ash Vs Ordinary Concrete

Huge volumes of CO2 are released during the making of concrete, with cement production
accounting for 88% of those emissions. Every ton of cement produced is thought to emit 900 kg
of CO2 into the atmosphere. It is expected that 4.1 billion tons of cement were produced in 2019
to provide an estimate of the yearly CO2 emissions caused simply by the manufacturing of
cement, omitting the emissions originating from the other components.

Figure 5: Cement CO2 Emissions 201

Egypt is ranked fifth among the nations that produce cement, with 76 million tons produced
globally in 2019.
 [1]

Figure 6: Egypt's Cement Production 2019

To put these figures in context, 3.69 billion tons of

CO2 emissions are produced globally as a result of
cement manufacture. The emission totals 68.4 million
tons in Egypt alone. Remember that 36 billion tons of
CO2 are emitted annually from all businesses in the
globe. This indicates that just 8% of the annual CO2
emissions are attributable to cement.

As previously noted, the production of cement results

in 68.4 million tons of CO2 emissions in Egypt. Fly ash may replace 30% of the cement used in
building, resulting in a 30% reduction in CO2 emissions to 47.88 million tons. Additionally, the
usage of fly ash will result in less need for landfill space. Additionally, using fly ash instead of
cement lowers the water requirement for a given slump. For example, when fly ash makes up
about 20% of the total cementitious material, the water requirement is reduced by 10%, and as
the fly ash content rises, the water requirement falls. The lower water requirement has little to no
impact on drying shrinkage, but some fly ash is distinguished by its capacity to do so.
3.2.2 RAP vs Ordinary asphalt mix
52 kilograms of CO2 are produced by one ton of hot mix asphalt. 122.5 million tons of
asphalt were used worldwide in 2019. Thus, the asphalt sector emits around 6.37 million
tons of CO2. This produces less CO2 than the cement industry.
However, there is always room for improvement. The study by Martin Zaumanis
mentioned earlier found that using 100% RAP in place of fresh asphalt significantly
lowered the CO2 emissions associated with manufacturing bitumen and aggregates. And
although though processing RAP resulted in a new quantity of CO2 being created, overall
CO2 emission was reduced by 35%.

Figure 8: RAP CO2 Emissions

 CHAPTER FOUR: TECHNICAL PROPERTIES

4.1Strength Comparison
4.1.1 Fly Ash Vs Ordinary Concrete
By increasing the workability of new concrete and the strength and durability of hardened concrete,
the use of fly ash in place of cement in the concrete has demonstrated a number of advantages and
has been widely used.

4.1.2 Benefits of fly ash when added to Fresh Concrete

Generally speaking, employing fly ash in place of cement in a concrete mix helps to reduce the
water content in the mix, which improves the paste flow behavior. The advantages of this are:

4.1.2.1 Improved workability

Fly ash is distinguished by its spherical particles, which function as tiny ball bearings within the
concrete mix, providing a lubricant effect that enhances the process of pumping concrete by
reducing frictional loss in the pumping process. As can be seen in this figure, the workability
increases as the fly ash content is increased.

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 9: pouring

Figure 10: Workability comparison

4.1.2.2 Reduced heat of hydration.
The heat of hydration of concrete can be
decreased by substituting the same quantity of fly
ash for cement. This won't affect the long-term
strength or durability of the concrete, but it will
lessen the issues that might arise when producing
large quantities of concrete.
Such as surface fissures in concrete, shrinkage,
and environmental issues

Figure 11: Heat of Hydration

4.1.3 Benefits to Hardened Concrete.

The reaction of fly ash with lime and alkali in concrete, which results in the production of
additional cementitious compounds, is one of the main advantages of using fly ash in place of
cement in the concrete mix. The following equations illustrate the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash
with lime to produce additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) binder:
(Hydration)
Cement Reaction: C3S + H → C-S-H + CA OH
Pozzolanic Reaction: CA OH +S → C-S-H
Silica from ash constituents
The resulting benefits are:

4.1.3.1 Increased ultimate strength

Fly ash concrete is able to continue to strengthen
over time because of the extra binder created by
the interaction of the fly ash with the available
lime. Concrete mixtures made to yield a
comparable strength at a young age (less than 90
days) will ultimately be stronger than plain cement
concrete mixtures.
4.1.3.2 Reduced permeability
Concrete's pore interconnectivity is decreased as
a result of the decrease in water content mixed
with the creation of more cementitious
chemicals, which lowers permeability. As a
result of the decreased permeability, the long-
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 12: Ultimate Strength
term durability and resistance to different types of degradation are improved.

4.1.3.3 Improved durability.

The durability of concrete is increased by the decrease in free lime, the creation of cementation
compounds, and the reduction in permeability. This can have several advantages, including:
1. Increased ability to withstand the Alkali Silica Reaction
2. Increased defense against sulphate assault.
3. Enhanced corrosion protection
4.1.4 Types of fly ash

4.1.4.1 C Class Fly Ash

It is created by burning sub-bituminous coal or younger lignite, and in addition to possessing
pozzolanic qualities, it also has some self-cementing capabilities. Water causes it to harden and
grow stronger over time. Typically, it has a lime content of above 20% (CaO). Class C fly ash,
which self-cements, does not need an activator, in contrast to Class F. Class C fly ashes often
contain greater concentrations of alkali and sulphate (SO4).

4.1.4.2 F Class Fly Ash

It is created when older, harder anthracite coal is burned, which often results in Class F fly ash.
It is pozzolanic in nature and has a lime (CaO) content of less than 7%. Possessing pozzolanic
properties, Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or
hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce
cementitious compounds, or adding a chemical
activator, such as sodium silicate (water glass), can
form a geopolymer.

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 14: Types of Fly Ash

Properties Class C fly ash Class F fly ash

Early strengths (< 28 days) Very effective; Can replace cement 1:1 Effective; May replace cement as high as
1:2

Reduce Permeability Effective Very effective

Resistance to ASR Effective but may require higher Very effective even at lower amounts
amounts

Resistance to sulfate attack Less effective Very effective

Table 1:Influence of the class of fly ash on concrete performance.

Properties Metric Units

 Cement 154 kg/m3

Class F- Fly Ash 80 kg/m3

Class C - Fly Ash 61 kg/m3

Water 185 kg/m3

Air-Entraining Admixture 0 ml/ 100kg

Superplasticizer 2,730 ml/ 100kg

7 Days 27 Mpa

Compressive Strength 28 Days 41 Mpa

91 Days 46 Mpa

Table 2: Example mix designs incorporating Class C and Class F blend.

4.1.4.3 High volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC).
HVFAC is a term used to describe concrete that is more durable than ordinary concrete and
offers increased resistance to the Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) and Sulphate Attack. Fly
Ash substitutes more than 30% of the total cementitious ingredients in HVFAC. Numerous
effective field applications have been finished. When a low water/cement ratio is desired,
high range water reducers (HRWR) are used to produce adequate early strengths and set
times.

Property Metric Units

Cement 155 kg/m3

Fly Ash 215 kg/m3

Water 120 kg/m3

Air-Entraining Admixture 54 ml/ 100kg

Superplasticizer 1216 ml/ 100kg

1 Day 8 Mpa

7 Days 20 Mpa

Compressive Strength 28 Days 35 Mpa

91 Days 43 Mpa

365 Days 55 Mpa

14 Days 4.5 Mpa

Flexural Strength
91 Days 6.0 Mpa

Splitting-Tensile Strength 28 Days 3.5 Mpa

28 Days 35 Gpa

91 Days 38 Gpa
Young's Modulus Elasticity Drying Shrinkage Strain at 448 Days 500 ± 50 x 10-6

Specific Creep Strain at 365 Days (per Mpa of

28 ± 4 x 10-6
stress)

Rapid Chloride Permeability, coulombs 28-day 500 - 2,000

 90-day 200 - 700

1-year ≈150
Table 3: Example mix design for HVFAC

4.1.4.4 Ultra-fine fly ash.

The ultra-fine fly ash may be produced with a mean particle diameter of 1 to 5 microns,
which is smaller than conventional fly ash, which typically has a mean particle diameter of
20 to 30 micrometers. The strength and durability achieved from the conventional fly ash
after a year will be attained at a considerably younger age of less than 90 days because to
this reduction in particle diameter, which will accelerate the pozzolanic process.

The ultra-fine fly ash contributes more to concrete strength gain and permeability reduction
than common fly ash, and it also improves resistance to alkali silica reaction, corrosion,
and sulphate attack. Ultra-fine fly ash is typically used in place of cement with replacement
rates of 5 to 15% of the cement weight.

Portland Cement 8% Ultra Fine 12% Ultra Fine

Concrete Fly Ash Fly Ash

Cement, kg/m3 (lb./yd3) 375 (632) 345 (582) 330 (556)

Ultra-Fine Fly Ash, kg/m3 (lb./yd3) - 30 (50) 45 (76)

Total Cementitious Material, kg/m 3 375 (632) 375 (632) 375 (632)
(lb./yd3)

Water, kg/m3 (lb./yd3) 150 (253) 150 (253) 150 (253)

 Portland Cement 8% Ultra Fine 12% Ultra Fine
Concrete Fly Ash Fly Ash

Water/Cementitious Material 0.40 0.40 0.40

High Range Water Reducer, ml/100kg 625 (9.6) 438 (6.7) 364 (5.6)
(oz/100lb)

Slump, mm (in) 145 (5.75) 135 (5.25) 160 (6.25)

Rapid Chloride Permeability 28-day 2027 857 707

Test, coulombs
90-day 1567 418 314

2-year 1103 338 242

Direct Current Resistivity, 28-day 14.5 31.0 40.6

1012 m2/s
90-day 24.5 79.9 93.9

2-year 25.8 81.1 107

Chloride Diffusion 40-day 133 53.3 48.6

Coefficient, 1012 m2/s
90-day 103 37.7 27.9

2-year 94.2 13.3 9.38

4.1.6 RAP vs Ordinary Asphalt:
It is uncertain whether employing 100% recycled asphalt would result in the same
performance and road surface as virgin asphalt because the mechanical qualities of the RAP
mixture mostly depend on the milling techniques.
Three sets of samples were used in the tests, which were carried out in New York City: (A)
samples taken from the roadways after two years of use; (B) samples taken during
manufacture but compacted in the laboratory. The tensile strength was found to be high in
all of the samples and that it is unaffected by changes in the moisture content of the
samples (C). Samples are produced and compacted in the lab before being tested for tensile
strength; half of the samples are tested dry and the other half are tested under the moisture
induced stress test (MIST), which simulates the road condition with moving vehicle tires.

Sample Type Dry air voids % Dry Tensile Strength Kpa Average TSR

A 3.5 440 0.99

B 7 439 1.01
C 5.9 540 1.02
Table 5: Moisture Content

In additional tests, Zauminas added nine different products to the RAP mixture to act as
additives. These products included plant oils, waste derived oils, and refinery based products,
and engineered products. Through kinematic viscosity and penetration tests, it was discovered
that some of the additives ensured tensile strength and low temperature creep similar to the
virgin asphalt. Strength greater than that of fresh asphalt was guaranteed by organic blend and
distillation of tall.

Figure 16: RAP % and Strength

Conclusion: It was discovered that a 100% RAP combination may perform as well as or better
than virgin asphalt, and that the tensile strength of the mixture improves as the quantity of RAP
in the mixture rises.
4.2 Maintenance Time
4.2.1 Introduction
The average lifespan of a concrete construction is 50–100 years; for concrete bridges, the
longevity might approach 150 years. The planned service life of these buildings must be
maintained in order to maintain and extend it.

4.2.2 Types of maintenance

The concrete structures get two forms of maintenance:

Proactive versus reactive

The proactive approach is mainly having a predetermined schedule for every maintenance that will
be applied to this structure. This may sound expensive because the maintenance is typically done
to parts that are fine and don't have any problems, but that's the whole plan, keeping the structure
operational for the longest period of time without incurring any problems. The proactive approach
is also very effective because it stops any part of the structure from deteriorating.

The following is an example of a periodic maintenance program for a concrete bridge:

• Every one to two years, wash and clean the decking or the complete bridge.

• Bearing lubrication: every two to four years.

Concrete decking sealed and waterproofed: three to five years.

• Steel beam and girder ends with zone coating: 10 to 15 years.

• Install deck overlay on concrete decks: Depending on usage and wear and tear, this should be
done every 10 to 20 years.

The structure is left unattended until a problem arises at one point in the structure before it is
maintained, although this method just preserves the status quo. Although it might delay
deterioration, maintenance cannot repair deteriorating concrete. The structure's lifetime shortens
as a result.
4.2.3 Fly Ash vs ordinary concrete:
The strength of the concrete mix is increased by up to 50% when fly ash is used in place
of 30% of the cement. As was already said, using fly ash in concrete enhances durability
because:
1. Strengthens defense against ASR (Alkali Silica Reaction)
The use of fly ash helps to reduce expansion brought on by ASR. According to current
theories, fly ash works by diluting the alkali component of the cement to limit expansion.
By reducing the silica interaction with the calcium (OH) created by the cement's hydration
to generate calcium silicate hydrate, fly ash lowers the permeability and diffusivity of the
concrete. Since Ca(OH) occupies much less space than calcium silicate hydrate. The pore
systems grow more discrete and finer. The formation of alkalisilica gel is hindered by the
lower porosity because it restricts the alkalis' capacity to travel. Numerous fly ash concrete
samples, according to research, exhibit little to no expansion even when the amount of
accessible alkali is rather considerable.
2. Increases defense against sulfuric assault.
An experiment in which concrete cubes with various FA contents were submerged in 10%
sulfuric acid for 90 days revealed that as the proportion of FA grew, so did the resistance.

Figure 17: FA and Acid resistance

3. Increases corrosion resistance:

The addition of FA to the concrete mix has boosted the steel bars' resistance to corrosion,
as evidenced by experiments. Nevertheless, not significantly.
4.2.3.1 Analysis
Since fly ash green concrete has higher strength and durability and its constituents will
prevent problems brought on by the presence of aggregates, it gives an infrastructure with
a longer life span and more sag resistance than conventional concrete, according to the
information obtained from the strength and durability analysis in addition to the reasons
for infrastructure failures.

4.2.4 RAP vs Ordinary Asphalt

Every seven to ten years, typical asphalt roads need to be maintained with thin overlays or surface
treatments.

The following 3 factors are the major reasons for criticism about RAP Roads performance:

• Cracking: Distresses encountered in high RAP combinations are primarily attributed to aged
binder. The stiffer, less elastic binder often makes the combination more rigid, which can lead to
fatigue damage and low-temperature brittleness.

• Rutting: Numerous studies have demonstrated that the addition of aged binder makes high RAP
blends more likely to exhibit extremely strong rutting resistance. However, if overused or
improperly distributed in RAP binder, recycling chemicals intended to reduce stiffness may
enhance rutting.

• Flushing: In field testing, it was shown that using incompatible materials or using more recycling
agents caused oils to migrate towards the asphalt layer's surface, reducing the friction of the
wearing course and impairing pavement performance.

To a 100% RAP, these products were added at a dosage of 12%. The combination that was
regraded to meet the standards of Super Pave 9.5mm. The combinations were compared to a virgin
mix with the same gradations and a rejuvenated RAP mixture.

• The rutting resistance of the revitalized mixtures was outstanding and correlated well with
bitumen performance grade.
• Three distinct tests were used to quantify fatigue: the Linear Amplitude Sweep (LAS) test for the
binder, the Coaxial Sheer Test (CAST), and the Fracture Work Density (FWD) test for the mixture.
The performance of the 100% rejuvenated mixtures was inconsistent when compared to that of the
virgin mix, and the test outcomes varied according on the test technique and loading
circumstances.

• All of the revived samples had high moisture resistance.

• Rejuvenators made the mixture more workable but not as much as the virgin mixture.

4.2.4.1 Analysis
According to the aforementioned findings, 100% RAP can produce performance that is very comparable
to that of a typical virgin asphalt mix, though it may not be as durable and may need more frequent
maintenance. It is also not the best option for high load or high density roads.