Introduction to the Finite Element

Method for Geotechnical Problems

Geotechnical tools,
inspired by you.
Introduction
• FEM - based on idea of building complicated object from simple,
interconnected blocks/elements
Basic Concepts
Simple problem – Determine Area of Circle
• Divide circle into triangles R
• Area of one triangle 1
A i = R 2 sin i 
• Area of N triangles 2

N
1 2 1 2 2
A =  R sin  i = R N sin N Elements
i =1 2 2 N
A =  R 2 (as N → )
Finite Element Method (FEM)
• Most widely applied numerical technique in engineering
• Handles wide range of problems
• Extensively covered in literature
• Several existing commercial and free packages
Finite Element Analysis
Applied in problems without analytical solutions – involving
complicated…
• Geometries

• Loadings

• Material properties

• Boundary conditions
Analytical vs. Numerical Methods
Analytical Solution
• Mathematical expression that gives values of desired quantities at
any location in body
• Derived from solving ordinary and partial differential equations
Numerical Method
• ‘Acceptable’ solution to complex problems
• Divides continuum into equivalent system of smaller, interconnected
bodies (elements)
• Generates system of simultaneous algebraic equations
• Yields approximate values
Advantages of FEM
• Models complicated geometries (irregularly shaped domains)
• Readily handles general loading conditions
• Models problems involving multiple materials
• Handles non-linear material behaviour
Advantages of FEM
Can model excavation sequence
• Load path (manner in which slope
was created) can matter
• Example – simulation of mining
history
Results Interpretation

• Analyze results for use in the design/analysis process

• Identify areas in which deformations are excessively large or failure occurs

• Make design/analysis decisions

 Overview of
Finite Element Method
Overview of FEM
Fundamental concepts of FEM
• Equation representing static equilibrium (matrix form)

Ku = F
K – property
u – behaviour (response)
F – action
Overview of FEM
• Divide structure (domain) into small interconnected elements
• Every element has displacement function
• Every element is linked to some others through common nodes
• Elements connected at common nodes, common edge or common
surface prior to loading remain connected at same nodes after
deformation – compatibility condition
• Based on stress/strain properties
of materials, behaviour of system
of nodes can be determined
Overview of FEM
▪ Setup of FEM model of practical problem (solid)
• Geometry
• Model shape
• FEM mesh

• Material properties
• Constitutive law (elastic, plastic, visco-plastic, etc.)

• Initial conditions
• Field stress

• Loading
• Body force
• Applied tractions
• Boundary conditions
• Dynamic loading

• Additional field variables (Fluid, dynamic, etc.)

Overview of FEM
Geometry and Mesh
Steps of FEM Modelling
• Define geometry of problem
• Specify
• Material behaviour
• Loads (includes support)
• Boundary conditions
• Select element type and divide domain into elements – discretize
• Solve model
• Interpret results
Two-Dimensional Approximations in
Finite Element
Two-dimensional meshes
• Plane stress
• Plane strain
• Axisymmetric
Element Formulations
Solid element (plane strain)
• Long structure with uniform cross section and
transverse loading along length
• Realistic assumption for long bodies (e.g. tunnel)
with constant cross-section subjected to loads
that remain constant along long axis

 y =  yz =  xy = 0
• Typical example : Long tunnel
Element Formulations
Solid element (Axisymmetric)
• Solid with rotational symmetry
• Axisymmetric loading
• Realistic assumption for shafts, circular pits
• Typical example : Long drift, shaft
Basic Element Formulations
Interpolations scheme
• Linear element (Linear displacement, constant strain and stress)

3-noded triangle 4-noded quadrilateral 4-noded Tetrahedron

• Quadratic element (Quadratic displacement, linear strain and stress)

6-noded triangle 8-noded quadrilateral 10-noded Tetrahedron

Mesh Generation
2D - Element types:
• 3-noded triangle (T3), 6-noded triangle (T6)
• 4-noded quadrilateral (Q4), 8-noded quadrilateral (Q8)
3D - Element types:
• 4-noded tetrahedron (Tet4), 10- tetrahedron (Tet6)
Constant strain elements (CST): T3 and Q4, Tet 4
• Use in areas with small strain gradients
• Do not use in areas of stress concentration (corners, hole edges, etc.)
• Use for quick and/or preliminary analysis
Linear strain elements (LST): T6 & Q8, Tet 10
• Use in all other cases
Mesh Generation
Constant strain elements vs. Linear strain elements
5.0

4.5

4.0
CST
3.5 LST
3.0

Radial Stress
2.5

2.0
Closed-form Solution
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Distance from surface
Mesh Generation
2D mesh generation
• Common in FEM
• Can be used with little user intervention
Mesh Generation
3D finite element modelling
• Very complicated and still challenging for mining applications
Mesh Generation
3D finite element modelling
• Very complicated and still challenging for mining applications
Challenge of Discretization
Appropriate balance between accuracy and cost-effectiveness
• Elements must be small enough to give usable results and yet
large enough to reduce computational effort
• Apply small elements (or higher-order elements) in areas where
results change rapidly
• Use larger elements where results are relatively constant
Challenge of Discretization
Ensure proper aspect ratios
Aspect ratio: ratio of longest element side to shortest side
• Compact shaped elements yield best results
• Poor-shaped element promote poor results
Challenge of Discretization
• If only few poor elements then results only poor near these elements
• TIP: Use MESH Quality tool in RS2 and RS3
Properly Discretized Model
Special Elements
Bar (truss) element
• Axial member
Beam element
• Flexural member
Joint element
• Can simulate fill stiffness
• Interface between materials
Boundary Conditions
• Required to make a problem solvable
• Example: kinematic constraints on model may be:
• Real – e.g. free surface, weight of dump
• Artificial – fixed edges of model
Rock and Soil Strength; Failure Criteria
• Limits to strength
• Typical failed rock core samples
Rock Strength; Failure Criteria
Tensile failure
Rock Strength; Failure Criteria
Shear failure
Rock Strength; Failure Criteria
Mine pillar shear
failure
Rock Strength; Failure Criteria
Mine pillar shear failure
(along discontinuity)
Strength and Failure Criteria
• Often expressed in terms of principal stresses or normal and shear
stresses
Mohr-Coulomb
2c cos  1 + sin 
1 = + 3
1 − sin  1 − sin 

Generalized Hoek-Brown
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Rocks
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Rocks
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Rocks
Triaxial Stress-Strain Behaviour
• Triaxial test
Triaxial Stress-Strain Behaviour
Triaxial stress-strain curves
Triaxial Stress-Strain Behaviour
Triaxial stress-strain curves

Brittle-ductile transition

Brittle-ductile transition
Triaxial Stress-Strain Curve
Idealized curves
Idealized Rock Stress-Strain Behaviour
Described with constitutive laws
• Strength
• Stress-strain relationship
• Flow rule
Material Properties
General
• Choose simplest constitutive law capable of
reproducing essentials of material behaviour
• Specify stiffness parameters
• Specify strength parameters
m, s
UCS
Material Models and Properties
Elastic material
• Strength parameters do not affect results

Plastic material
• Strength parameters define yield surface
• Mohr-Coulomb
• Hoek-Brown,
• Generalized Hoek- Brown
• Anisotropic material
• Cam-Clay, Modified Cam-Clay
• Drucker-Prager
• Hardening and softening material
Elastic Material
• Procedure (Compute engine) for
calculating stresses and
displacements does not consider
strength factor (SF) – calculated in
Interpreter
Maximum allowable strength
SF =
Calculated stress
Plastic Material
• Procedure (Compute engine) for
calculating stresses and
displacements considers material
strength SF cannot be smaller
than 1
Elastic vs. Plastic Material
Loads/Loadings
• Field stress
• Constant
• Gravity
• Custom
• Tractions
• Distributed/line loads
• Seismic
Boundary Conditions
Simulation region
• Impossible to simulate entire universe
• Analysis restricted to finite region (governed
by differential equations) with boundaries
• Boundaries have specific physical
characteristics known as boundary
conditions
Boundary Conditions
Simulation region
• Numerical solution must satisfy
conditions on boundaries
• Boundary conditions affect behavior
inside region of interest – different
conditions lead to different results
 RS :
2

Organization and Features

Objectives
Overview of RS2
• Features of:
• Modeller
• Compute Engine
• Interpreter

Special capabilities of RS2

Structure of RS2
• Finite element program
• Three modules: Modeler

Compute

Interpret
Modeler
Modeler
Creation of models
• Geometry tools

• Special entities: stages, joints, material, water table

Meshing tools

Boundary conditions/constraints
Modeler
Material properties

Applied loads

Support systems
Stress Compute Engine
Features
• Elastic and plastic analysis
• Plane strain, axisymetric analysis
• Solid elements
• 3- and 6-noded triangular elements
• 4- and 8-noded quadrilateral elements
• Structural elements (bolts, liners), joint elements,
infinite elements
• Static and seismic loads
Stress Compute Engine
• Number of iterations
• Tolerance
• Load steps
• (Matrix) Solver types
• Units of measurement
Stress Compute Engine
Groundwater Compute Engine
Features
• Steady-state seepage analysis
• 3- and 6-noded triangular elements
• 4- and 8-noded quadrilateral elements
• Discharge sections
Groundwater Compute Engine
• Maximum number of iterations
• Tolerance
• Groundwater analysis option
Groundwater Compute Engine
Interpreter
Viewing results
• Default computed values

• User-defined values
Interpreter
• Query of results
• Plots of queries
• Failure zone

• Support results
• Axial forces
• Shear
• Moments
Special Capabilities
• Variety of support systems
• Aids for generating reports

• Creation of animated files (.avi)

 Example (RS2):
Elements of Geotechnical Modeling
Buried Pipe
Topics
• Model geometry
• Field stress
• Stages
• Material properties
Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation (Geometry)
Enter external boundary
Enter vertex [t=table, i=circle, esc=cancel]: -11 -8
Enter vertex [...]: 11 -8
Enter vertex [...]: 11 3
Enter vertex [...]: 3 3
Enter vertex [...]: -3 3
Enter vertex [...]: -4 3
Enter vertex [...]: -6 3
Enter vertex [...]: -11 3
Enter vertex [...,c=close, esc=cancel]: c

Create concrete footing

Enter vertex [t=table, i=circle, esc=cancel]: -1.25 -0.65
Enter vertex [...]: 1.25 -0.65
Enter vertex [...]: 1.25 -0.5
Enter vertex [...]: -1.25 -0.5
Enter vertex [...]: -1.25 -0.65
Model Creation (Geometry)
Add stage boundaries
Stage boundary
Material boundary

External boundary

Enter excavation boundary (Pipe)

• Circle boundary option
Model Creation (Material Properties)
Model Creation (Material Properties)
Model Creation (Material Properties)
Model Creation
Field Stress:
Gravity Field stress

Support:
Liner for steel pipe
Model Creation
Mesh model

Boundary conditions
Model Results
Compute model
Interpret results

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Additional Features
Relative deformation

Plot axial force in the pipe

 RS3:
Organization and Features
Objectives
• Overview of RS3
• Features of
• Modeller
• Compute Engine
• Interpreter
• Special capabilities of RS3
Structure of RS3
• Similar to the RS2 Finite element program
• Three modules:
Modeller

Compute

Interpret
Structure of RS3
The three modules Modeller, Computer and Interpret
can be easily accessed in one window using our
Workflow Tabs:

Modeller Compute and

Interpret
Interface Workflow Tabs Viewport

Visibility Pane

Properties Pane
Project Settings
File > Project Settings
Set units, staging, analysis options, etc
Geometry
Creation of models, Geometry tools:

Polylines Boolean Section cuts/ Tunnel

/Shapes Transform Operations RS2 modeler Materials profile

Import Extrude
Support
Support Systems:

Liner layers Liners Bolts Beams Piles

Groundwater
Groundwater Settings:

Water PWP Properties Boundary Conditions

Loads & Restraints
Applied Loads: Restraints:

Auto
Loading Restrain
Displacements & Restraints
Mesh
Meshing tools:

Creating & Editing Mesh Viewing Mesh Planes

Stress Compute Engine
Compute > Compute
Features
• Elastic and plastic analysis
• Uncoupled and coupled analysis
• Solid elements
• 4- and 10-noded tetrahedron elements

• Structural elements (bolts, liners), joint elements

• Static and seismic loads
Stress Compute Engine
• Number of iterations
• Tolerance
• Load steps
• (Matrix) Solver types
Stress Compute Engine
Groundwater Compute Engine
Features
• Steady-state seepage analysis
• 4 and 10-noded tetrahedron elements
• Discharge sections
Groundwater Compute Engine
• Maximum number of iterations
• Tolerance
• Groundwater analysis option
Groundwater Compute Engine
Results
Results
Viewing results
• Default computed value • User-defined values
Results
Viewing results
• Change between element types
Results

Refresh Displaying Results Other Results

&
Options
 Example (RS3):
Elements of Geotechnical Modeling
Tunnel and nearby Building
Topics
• Model geometry
• Field stress
• Stages
• Material properties
Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation (Geometry)
Enter external box

Create the footing

Geometry
3D Primitive Geometry
Cylinder
Model Creation (Geometry)
Create the tunnel
Geometry
RS Tools
Tunnel Profiler
Three Curve
(default values)
Model Creation (Geometry)
Select the tunnel profile
and expand it with
factor 2 in X, Y and Z

Geometry
Transform
Scale
Model Creation (Geometry)
Extrude the Tunnel
section to cut across
the external boundary
(preview)

Divide All Geometry

Model Creation
Project Settings
Model Creation (Material Properties)
Model Creation (Material Properties)
Model Creation (Loading)
Field Stress:
Gravity Field stress
Model Creation (Loading)
Foundation Load:
Select the top surface
Add load at the last stage
Model Creation
Mesh model

Boundary conditions
Auto Restrain (Surface)
Model Results
Compute model
Refresh results
(displacement)

Stage 2 Stage 5
Additional Features
Relative deformation
Effect of External Boundary
Conditions
RS2 and RS3 Case Study
Expansion factor
• Any three-dimensional analysis is influenced by the nearness of the boundary
to the zone of interest (Excavation field).
• The expansion factor in RS2 and RS3 determines how far the External boundary
will be projected relative to your excavation dimensions.
 Excavation modelling with Expansion factor
2, 3, and 6
60 m 4m
Obtaining the External Boundary:
3m
1. Approximate box drawn around excavation
2. Min dimension of the box multiplied by the Expansion
Factor is the expansion width
3. Expansion width added around excavated region 30 m Tunnel Length Excavated Region

Expansion Expansion Expansion

Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 6
6m 9m 18 m

Expansion 9m 18 m
6m
Width

In each model, the soil profile and excavation size remains the same, but the external boundary has
been extended by different factors
Material Properties
Siltstone

Mudstone

Weak Mudstone

Excavated Region
Ore
Seat Earth
Weak Mudstone
Mudstone

Siltstone
 Material Properties
Mohr Coulomb Failure Criterion
Material Type Young’s Poisson’s Cohesion Friction Tensile
Modulus Ratio Angle Strength
(MPa)
Siltstone 20000 0.25 7 34 4
Mudstone 17900 0.3 6 32 8
Weak Mudstone 14800 0.3 4 30 2
Ore 2600 0.3 1.6 35 0.8
Seat Earth 15100 0.18 4 30 2
Longitudinal Displacement Profile:
Horizontal Displacement Along Tunnel Centre

Perspective View Top View

Effects of Expansion factor on longitudinal
displacement profile
0.02
Horizontal Displacement (m)

0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance from Tunnel Face (m)
Expansion Factor 2 Expansion Factor 3 Expansion Factor 6

For a low expansion factor, external boundary conditions close to the excavation may
constrain excavated region producing lower displacements than a higher expansion factor
Effects of Expansion factor on longitudinal
displacement profile
0.02
Horizontal Displacement (m)

0.018
0.016
0.014 Increase Expansion Factor
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance from Tunnel Face (m)
Expansion Factor 2 Expansion Factor 3 Expansion Factor 6

For a low expansion factor, external boundary conditions close to the excavation may
constrain excavated region producing lower displacements than a higher expansion factor
Effects of Expansion factor on longitudinal
displacement profile
• As a general rule of thumb, select an expansion factor of 3 or higher to
produce a large enough external boundary where the effect of the external
boundary is negligible to the area of interest
• In this case study, we used an expansion factor of 6 before we begin to see
insignificant effect due to the external boundary

Expansion Factor 6
 Effect of Field Stress
Orientation on Tunnel Stresses
RS2 and RS3 Case Study
Effects of maximum principal stress
orientation due to varying stress orientation
• Using the same model as in the previous example with expansion factor
6, the principal field stresses were rotated to investigate their effect on
the stress patterns around the tunnel face
• Trend angle varied from 0 to 90 degrees
Expansion Factor 6
16MPa 16MPa

15MPa
y
Trend
z Angle

25MPa 15MPa x
25MPa

Rotated Field Stress

Trend Angle of 0 deg
about the vertical
y-axis clockwise
Major Principal Stress for various Field
Stress Orientations
Trend: 90 deg 65 deg 45 deg 25 deg 0 deg

15 MPa 25 MPa 25 MPa 25 MPa

25 MPa 15 MPa 15 MPa 15 MPa

16MPa 16MPa 16MPa 16MPa 16MPa

y Trend 15MPa
z Angle 15MPa
15MPa

x 15MPa
25MPa 25MPa 25MPa 15MPa
25MPa 25MPa
Orientation Definition for Geological Use
Orientation
Completely described by two angles
• Dip and dip direction
• Dip and strike
• Plunge and trend, etc
2D Stress Calculator/Transformer in RS2

Horizontal Tunnel, Normal to the plane

Maximum Principal Stress: Vertical

Minimum Principal Stress: Horizontal in plane
Mean Principal Stress: Horizontal normal to plane
2D Stress Calculator/Transformer in RS2

Horizontal Tunnel, Normal to the plane

Maximum Principal Stress: at 45 degrees in plane

Minimum Principal Stress: at -45 degrees in plane
Mean Principal Stress: Horizontal normal to plane
End of Module