Mathematics as a tool for DATA Mean (average)

MANAGEMENT
• is represented by symbol or M
Descriptive Statistics -it is concerned with • is obtained by getting the sum of all the
describing the target population through the values in a data set, divided by the
use of charts, percent, or averages number of values in the data set.
Note: Median
Descriptive Statistics • is the middle value in a sorted data set.
• Concerned with describing the target • is obtained by:
population Case 1: Odd number of values in data
set = middle most value
• Organize, analyze, and present the data
Case 2: Even number of values in data
in a meaningful manner
set = average of two middle values
• Results are shown in form of charts,
tables, and graphs Mode
• Tools: measure of central tendency,
• is the value that appears most often in a
variation, and position
data set.
Inferential Statistics • is obtained by identifying the number
that appears most often in the data set.
• Concerned with making inferences from
• A data set may have more than 1 mode
the sample and generalize them to the
or no mode.
population
• Compare, test hypothesis, and predict Uses of Charts/Graphs
future outcomes
Pie Graph -to show how a whole is divided into
• Results are shown as statistics and
parts
probability values
• Tools: hypothesis tests, analysis of Line Graph or Time Series Graph -to show a
variance trend over a period
Which situation requires the application of Bar Graph -to compare independent quantities
descriptive statistics only?
Table -to summarize large numerical values, to
• Survey on preference for presidential show frequencies or percentage
candidates
Note:
When to Use Descriptive Statistics?
-to summarize group data
-to describe the target population
-no hypothesis involved
Tell whether descriptive or inferential TERMS RELATED TO STATISTICS
statistics were used Variable -is a characteristics or attribute that
1. The average salaries of computer can assume different values
scientists is ₱ 68,100 Data -are the values (measurements or
2. A study suggests that people with lower observations) that the variables can assume
heart rates and blood pressure are less
likely suffer from cardiovascular disease. Random Variable -variables whose values are
3. Students who were exposed to blended determined by chance
learning environment significantly
Population -consists of all subjects that are
performed better than those students
being studied
who were exposed to online learning
environment (t = 1.234, p = .002,). Sample -a group of subjects selected from a
4. Based on a survey, 70% of Filipinos are population
satisfied with the performance of the
Parameter -value taken from a population
current administration in the last quarter
of 2022. Statistic -value taken from a sample
5. A researcher hypothesized that
absenteeism is negatively correlated
with academic performance of college
students
VARIABLES AND TYPES OF DATA Examples:
Simple Random Sampling -every member of
the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
Systematic Sampling -individuals of the
population are chosen at regular intervals. It is
easier to conduct than simple random method.
Stratified Sampling -when the population
shows mixed characters then this method is
use. The population divides into subgroups.
Cluster Sampling -instead of sampling
individuals from subgroups, the subgroups are
randomly selected.
Qualitative variables -have distinct categories 2. Non-probability Sampling -it is a group
according to some characteristics (e.g. gender, of sampling techniques where the
religious preference, civil status) samples are collected in a way that
does not give all the units in the
Quantitative variables -can be counted or
population equal chances of being
measured (e.g. heights, body temperature, selected. Probability sampling does not
crime rates) involve random selection at all.
Discrete variables -can assume values that Examples:
can be counted) e.g. number of children in a
family, Convenience Sample -it includes the
individuals who are most accessible to the
Continuous variable -can assume an infinite researcher.
values between any two specific values that
can be obtained by measuring (e.g. body Voluntary Response -here people volunteer
temperature, weight) themselves, instead of researchers choosing
individuals
Purposive Sampling -researchers use
judgements to select a sample that is most
useful for research.
Snowball Sampling -in this sampling, the
number of people who have access to
“snowballs” as you come in contact with more
How do we collect data? people.
• Questionnaires SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Surveys
• Experiments Random Sampling -every member of the
• Observation population has an equal chance of being
• Interviews selected as sample
• Records Ex. Lottery, fishbowl technique
How do we collect unbiased data? Systematic Sampling -by selecting every k^th
Through appropriate sampling technique, that member of the population where k is a
is, each subject in the population are equally, counting number.
likely given chance of being selected as Ex. Alphabetically arranged people, get every
samples 12th in the list
TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS Stratified Sampling -by dividing the
population into subgroups (strata) according to
1. Probability Sampling -utilizes random
sampling techniques to create a sample. some characteristics, then samples are
This group of sampling methods give all proportionally selected from each subgroup.
the members of a population equal Ex. Students are grouped according to year
chances of being selected. level, select students from each year level
Cluster Sampling -by dividing the population DIRECTION OF STATISTICAL
into sections (clusters) and then selecting one
One-Tailed Test
or more clusters, using all members in the
cluster/s as members of the samples • Directional test (Right-tailed or left-
tailed test)
Ex. Group stewards according to airports,
select one or more airport/s • Sample phrases based on Ha: >, <, is
decreased, increases
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Two-Tailed Test
Hypothesis Testing -is a decision-making
process for evaluating claims about a • Non-directional test
population • Sample phrases based on Ha: there is
difference, there is relationship, affects
Types of Hypotheses
Determine the direction of statistical test to
Null Hypothesis (Ho) be employed (one-tailed or two-tailed).
-indicates absence of relationship or difference 1. The proportion of engineering students
between variables at a certain university passing the board
-sample phrases: there is no, equals, does not examination is less than 34%
affect 2. The use of digital books affects
students’ performance in Science.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) 3. Attending more reviews leads to better
board exam results.
-indicates presence of relationship or difference
between variables Decision Making
-sample phrases: there is, greater than,
reduces, affects
Examples of Hypotheses
1. Ho: There is no relationship between
sleep deprivation and academic Note: Computed value (consider absolute
performance. value); tabular value = critical value
Ha: There is relationship between sleep Determine the decision of the statistical
deprivation and academic performance. test.
2. Ho: The mean salary of computer
engineers is equal to the mean salary of Ho: There is no significant difference between
IT specialist. the job performance ratings of probationary
Ha: The mean salary of computer employees and tenured employees.
engineers is greater than the mean Ha: There is significant difference between the
salary of IT specialist. job performance ratings of probationary
employees and tenured employees.
Tabular Value = 1.96
Computed value = 2.23
Α = 0.05
P-value = 0.18
CORRELATION BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
Relation Between Two Variables
Type I Error -reject null hypothesis when it is
true Positive Correlation or
Type II Error -fail to reject the null hypothesis Negative Correlation or
when it is false
No Correlation (scattered dots)
Level of Significance (α (alpha)) -maximum
probability of committing a type I error
What does α = 5% mean?
MEASURES OF CORRELATION 4. What is the next number in
sequence?
Correlation coefficient -to determine the
1/2, 2/6, 3/18,….
strength of the linear relationship between two
variables
2. Deductive Reasoning -process of
reasoning to a specific conclusion from
general statement
Examples of Deductive Reasoning
Pick any number, multiply the number by 4,
add 2 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
Other Commonly Used Statistical Tests subtract 1 from the quotient. Repeat this
procedure for several different numbers and
T-test -test for difference between two groups then make a conjecture about the relationship
(for dependent samples and for independent between the original number and the final
samples) number.
ANOVA (Analysis of variance) -test for Solution:
difference involving more than 2 groups
Pick a number: say, 5
Linear regression -test for making prediction
for continuous or numeric data Multiply the number by 4: 4x5 = 20

PROBLEM SOLVING Add 2 to the product: 20+2 = 22

Problem -a task that requires the learner to Divide the sum by 2: 22/2 = 11
reason through a situation that will be Subtract 1 from quotient: 11-1 = 10
challenging but not impossible
• We started with the number 5 and
Exercise -provides practice using algorithm finished with the number 10
and maintaining the basic facts • Start with the 2, you will end with 4
Problem Solving -encompasses exploring, • Start with 3, final result is 6
reasoning, strategizing, estimating, • 4 would result in 8, and so on
conjecturing, testing, explaining, and proving. • We may conjecture that when you
follow the given procedure, the
number you end with will always be
twice the original number.

Approaches to Problem Solving Prove, using deductive reasoning, that the

procedure in previous examples will always
1. Inductive Reasoning result in twice the original number selected
-the process of reasoning to a general
conclusion through observations of Solution:
specific cases To use deductive reasoning, we begin with the
-also called induction general case rather than specific examples
-often used by mathematicians and
scientists to predict answers to Pick a number n
complicated problems. Multiply the number by 4: 4n
Examples of Inductive Reasoning Add 2 to the product: 4n+2
1. What is the next term of this Divide the sum by 2: (4n+2)/2 = 2n+1
sequence?
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,… Subtract 1 from quotient: 2n+1-1 = 2n
2. What is the next shape? Note: that for any number n selected, the
result is 2n, or twice the original number
selected.
Answer: Looking at the pattern of shapes
leads you to conclude that the next shape must
an oblong. This is inductive reasoning which is
based on few observation and reaching to a
general conclusion
3. What is the next shape?
PROBLEM: Each of four siblings (Edmund, Problem Solving (strategies)
Genalyn, Madelyn, and Sonia) bought four
1. Draw a Diagram, Picture, or Model
different cars. One chooses Honda, a
2. Make a Table or Organized List
Mitsubishi, a Toyota, and a Suzuki car. From the
3. Work Backwards
following clues, determine which sibling bought
4. Act Out
which car.
5. Guess and Check
1. Edmund, living alone, stays next door to 6. Find a Pattern
his sister who bought the Honda car and 7. Simplify the Problem
very far from his sister who bought the 8. Logical Reasoning or Elimination
Suzuki car. 9. Use Formulas
2. Genalyn, also living alone, is younger 10. Common Sense
than the on who bought the Mitsubishi
Applying the Strategies
car and older than her sibling who bought
the Toyota car. Fibonacci Sequence:
3. Madelyn did not like Toyota and Suzuki
cars. But she and her sibling, who bought
the Toyota car, live in the same house.
SOLUTION:

1. Find the 12th Fibonacci number:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55,…..
2. Put the numbers 1 to 9 into the square
so that all rows, columns and diagonals
add to the magic number.
Note: it should be 15 not 1 some typographical
errors from the ppt.

Routine and Non-routine Problem

Routine Problem -using at least one of the four
arithmetic operations and/or ratio to solve
problems
Ex. A sales promotion in a store advertises a
jacket regularly priced at PHP 1,255.98 but now
selling for 20% off the regular price. The store
also waives the tax. You have PHP 1,000 in your
pocket. Do you have enough money to buy the
jacket?
Non-routine Problem -may be solved in many
different ways or strategies and may have more
than one answer or solution
Ex. Mrs. Rivera wishes to tile her classroom
floor with square tiles. She wants to use whole
tiles, without cutting any pieces. The rectangular
floor has dimensions 8.4 meters by 7.2 meters.
What is the minimum number of whole identical
square tiles required and what are the
dimensions of each tile?
George Polya: “The Father of Problem
Solving” 3. 100 students were interviewed 28 took
PE, 31 took BIO, 42 took ENG, 9 took
Polya’s 4-step:
PE and BIO, 10 took PE and ENG, 6
1. Understand the problem (preparation) took BIO and ENG, 4 took all three
2. Devise a plan (thinking time) subjects. How many students took none
3. Carry out the plan (insight) of the three subjects?
4. Look back (verification
 We guess two random numbers, one three
times bigger then the other, and find the sum
4. In survey involving 150 different
factories, it was found out that If the sum is too small we guess larger
numbers and if the sum is too large we guess
70 purchased brand A smaller numbers.
75 purchased brand B
Guess 5 and 15: 5 + 15 = 20 sum is too small
95 purchased Brand C
30 purchased brands A and B Gues 6 and 18: 6 + 18 = 24 sum is too small
45 purchased brands A and C
40 purchased brands B and C Answer: 36 and 12
10 purchased brands A, B, and C 36 + 12 = 48

How many factories did not purchase Work Backward

the three brands? Trina’s father is 36. He is 16 years older than
four times Trina’s age Trina?
Step 1 Understand:
We need to find Trina’s age. We know her
father is 16 years older than four times her
age, or 4 x (Trina’s age) + 16. We know her
father is 36 years old
Step 2 Strategy:
To get from Trina’s age to her father’s age, we
multiple Trina’s age by four and add 16.
Working backwards means we start with the
father’s age, subtract 16 and divide by 4.
Problem: Mercy has a certain amount in her Step 3 Apply Strategy/Solve
bank account on Friday morning. During the
Start with the father’s age 36 subtract 16.
day she writes a check for $24.50, makes an
ATM withdrawal of $80 and deposit a check for 36 – 15 = 20
$235. At the end of the day she sees that her
balance is $451.24. How much money did she Divide by 4
have in the bank at the beginning of the day? 20/4 = 5
Solution: Step 4 Check
We need to find the money in Mercy’s bank Trina is 5 years old. Her father’s age is 4(5) +
account at the beginning of the day on Friday. 16 = 36. This is correct.
She took $24.50 and $80 and put $235
She ended up $451. 25
Start with strategy
$451. 25 - $235 + $80 + $24.50 = $320.75
Check:
Mercy’s starts with $320.75
She works a check $320.75-$24.50 = $296.25
She withdraw $296.25 - $80 = $216.25
She deposits $235 $216.25 + $235 = $451.25
Guess and Check Recreational Problems using Math -involves
riddles, puzzles, brain teasers and games
Sofia takes a ribbon that is 48 inches long and carried out for leisure rather than application-
cuts it in two pieces. One piece is three times based professional activity
as long as the other: How long is each piece?
Ex. An opinion without 3.14159 is just an onion
We need to find two number that add up to 48.
One number is three times the other number.