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Module 2

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Module 2

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sneha04.raju
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Discrete Mathematical Structures

Course Code: BCS405A


Module 2
TEXT BOOK
Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, Ralph P. Grimaldi, 5th Edition,
PHI/Pearson Education, 2004.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 1


Module 2 - Functions
• Relations – Properties
• Computer Recognition – Zero-One Matrices and Directed Graphs
• Partial Orders – Hasse Diagrams

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 2


Properties of Relations - Binary
• For sets A , B any subset of A x B is called a binary relation from A to B.
• Any subset of A X A is called a Binary Relation on A
• Example:
• Let n ∈ Z+. For x, y ∈ Z, the modulo n relation R is defined by x R y if x - y is a
multiple of n. With n = 7, we find, that 9 R 2, —3 k 11, (14, 0) ∈ R, but 3 /R 7
(that is, 3 is not related to 7).
• For the universe U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} consider the (fixed) set C ⊆ U where
C = {1, 2, 3, 6}. Define the relation R on P(U) by A R B when A ⋂ C = B ⋂ C.
The sets {1, 2, 4, 5} and {1, 2, 5, 7} are related, as {1, 2, 4, 5} ⋂ C = {1, 2}
= {1, 2, 5, 7) ⋂ C.
Likewise X = {4, 5} and Y = {7} are so related because X ⋂ C = ∅ =Y ⋂ C.
However, the sets S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and T = {1, 2, 3, 6, 7} are not related -
that is, S /R T-since S ⋂ C = (1, 2, 3}
15-09-2023 ≠ {1,
Prof. Shilpa B V 2, 3, 6) = T ⋂ C. 3
Properties of Relations - Reflexive
• A relation R on A is called Reflexive if for all x ∈ A, (x, x) ∈ R
• Ie., The relation R is reflexive when element x of A is related to itself
• Example
• For A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, a relation R ⊆ A x A will be reflexive if and only if
R ⊇ {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}. Consequently, R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is
not a reflexive relation on A, whereas R2 = {(x, y)| x, y ∈ A, x <= y} is
reflexive on A.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 4


Properties of Relations - Symmetric
• Relation R on set A is called symmetric if (x, y) ∈ R (y, x) ∈ R., for all x; y ∈ A.
• With A = {1, 2, 3}, we have:
a) R1 = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1)}, a symmetric, but not reflexive, relation
on A;
b) R2 = (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3)}, a reflexive, but not symmetric, relation on
A;
c) R3 = {(I, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)) and R4 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)), two
relations on A that are both reflexive and symmetric;
d) R5 = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 3)}, a relation on A that is neither reflexive nor
symmetric.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 5


Properties of Relations - Transitive
• For a set A, a relation R, on A is called transitive if,
for all x, y, z ∈ A, (x, y), (y, z) ∈ (x, z) ∈ R.
• If x "is related to" y, and y "is related to" z, then x "related to" z, with y
playing the role of "intermediary."
• If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then al = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 4), (2, 4)} is a transitive relation
on A, whereas R2 = {(1, 3), (3, 2)} is not transitive since, (1, 3), (3, 2) ∈ R2
but (1, 2) ∉ R2.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 6


Properties of Relations - AntiSymmetric
• Given a relation a on a set A, is called antisymmetric if for all a, b ∈ A, (a R b
and b R a) a = b.
• Here the only way both a "related to" b and b "related to" a is, if a and b are
one and the same element from A.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 7


Partial Ordering Relation
• A relation R on a set A is called a partial order, or a partial ordering relation,
if R is reflexive, transitive, and antisymmetric.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 8


Equivalence relation
• An equivalence relation on a set A is a relation that is reflexive, transitive,
and symmetric.
• If A = {1, 2, 3}, then R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2),(3, 3)}, R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3,
2), (3, 3)}, R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3)}, R4 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 3),
(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}, are all equivalence relations on A.
• For a given finite set A, A X A is the largest equivalence relation on A, and if
A = {a1, a2,…, an), then the equality relation R = {(ai, ai)| 1 <= i <= n} is the
smallest equivalence relation on A.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 9


• Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7), B = y, z), and f: A -> B be the onto function
f = {(1, x), (2, z), (3, x), (4, y), (5, z), (6, y), (7, x)},
Define the relation R on A by a R b if f (a) = f (b). Then, for instance, we find here
that 1 R 1,1 R 3, 2 R 5, 3 R 1, and 4 R 6.
For each a ∈ A, f (a) = f (a) because f is a function: so a R a, and R is reflexive.
Now suppose that a, b ∈ A and a R b,
Then a R b ⇒ f (a) = f (b)
⇒ f (b) = f (a) ⇒ b R a, so a is symmetric.
Finally, if a, b, c ∈ A with a R b and b R c, then f (a) = f (b) and f (b) = f (c).
Consequently, f (a) = f (c), and we see that (a R b ^ b R c) ⇒ a R c. So R is
transitive.
Since a is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, it is an equivalence relation.
Here R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (1, 7), (2, 2), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 3), (3, 7), (4, 4), (4, 6), (5,
2), (5, 5), (6, 4), (6, 6), (7, 1), (7, 3), (7, 7)}.
15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 10
Exercises
1. If A = (1, 2, 3, 4}, give an example of a relation R on A that is
a) reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric
R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}
b) symmetric, but neither reflexive not transitive
R = {(1,2),(2,1)}
c) reflexive, symmetric and transitive
R ={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(1,2),(2,1)}.

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 11


• For each of the following statements about relations on a set A, where 1AI =
n, determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is false, give a
counterexample.
• a) If R is a relation on A and |R| > n, then is reflexive.
• b) If R1, R2 are relations on A and R2 ⊇ R1 then R1 is reflexive (symmetric,
antisymmetric, transitive) ⇒ R2 reflexive (symmetric, antisymmetric,
transitive).
• c) if R1, R2, are relations on A and R2 ⊇ R1 , then R2 reflexive (symmetric,
antisymmetric, transitive) ⇒ RI reflexive (symmetric, antisymmetric,
transitive).
• d) If R is an equivalence relation on A, then n <= | R | <= n2

15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 12


Solution:
a) False: Let A = {1,2} and R = {(1,2), (2,1)}.
b)
i. Reflexive: True
ii. Symmetric: False. Let A = {1,2},R1 = {(1,1)}, R2 = {(1,1)) (1,2)}.
iii. Antisymmetric & Transitive: False.
Let A = {1,2}, R1 = {(1,2)}, R2 = {(1,2), (2,1)}.
(c)
iv. Reflexive: False. Let A = {1,2},R1 = {(1,1)}, R2 ={(1,1),(2, 2)}.
v. Symmetric: False. Let A = {1,2},14 = {(1,2)}, R2 = {(1,2), (2,1)}.
vi. Antisymmetric: True
vii. Transitive: False. Let A = {112},R1 = {(1,2),(2,1)}1 R2 = 1), (1,2), (2,1),
(2,2)).
15-09-2023 Prof. Shilpa B V 13
(d) True

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