ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COURSEWARE

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

 ICT 321

HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA

Course Title: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Code: ICT 312

Unit: 2 (Two)

Status: Core Elective

Semester: Second Semester

Level: HND 1

Prerequisite: NIL

Goals: Understanding the Concept of Data

Communication and Networking
General Objective: Students are expected to understand the basics of
and the need for Data Communication and
Networking

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 MODULE 1

Title: The Basic Concepts of Data Communication

Objective

 Understand the definition of Data communication

 Understand Modulation Techniques
 Know the various forms of line organisation.
 Understand the concept of computer Network.

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UNIT 1

1.1 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communications are the transfer of data from one device to another via some form of
transmission medium. A data communications system must transmit data to the correct
destination in an accurate and timely manner.

A data communication system collect data from remote locations through data transmission
circuits, and then outputs processed results to remote locations. The different data
communication techniques which are presently in widespread use evolved gradually either to
improve the data communication techniques already existing or to replace the same with better
options and features.

Text, numbers, images, audio, and video are different forms of Data/information that need to
be transmitted.

1.2 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The five components that make up a data communications system are:

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1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.

2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.

3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and
receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.

4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender
to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable
or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.

5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender
and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS OVERVIEW

Data Communication Equipments generally fall under any one of the following

I. Data Terminal Equipment is equipment which acts as source or destinations in digital

communication and which is capable of converting information to signals and also
reconverting received signals. A DTE is the functional unit of a data station that serves as
a data source or a data sink and provides for the data communication control function
to be performed in accordance with the link protocol.
Data terminal equipment usually do not communicate between each other, which is
usually done by data communications equipment. Common examples of data terminal
equipment: servers, workstation, printers, routers etc.

II. Data transmission circuit(DTC).In telecommunication, a data transmission circuit is the

transmission media and the intervening equipment used for the data transfer between
data terminal equipment (DTEs). A data transmission circuit includes any required signal
conversion equipment.

III. Data communications equipment or Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE) refers

to computer hardware devices used to establish, maintain and terminate
communication network sessions between a data source and its destination. DCE is

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 connected to the data terminal equipment (DTE) and data transmission circuit (DTC) to
convert transmission signals.

Examples of Data Commuincation Equipments

i. Communication Line controllermanages data input and output to a host computer or

computer network. The devices convert parallel computer data to serial data for
transmission.
ii. Line driver is an electronic amplifier circuit designed for driving a load such as a
transmission line. The amplifier's output impedance may be matched to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

iii. Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator. It’s an electronic device that modulates
carrier waves to encode information to be transmitted and also demodulates incoming
carrier waves to decode the information they carry.

iv. Data Service Unit (DSU) is responsible for managing the interface with the DTE. A DSU is
a two or more port device; one port is called the WAN (Wide Area Network) port and
the other is called a DTE port. The purpose of the DSU is to transfer serial data
synchronously between the WAN port and the DTE ports..

v. Channel Service Unit (CSU) is a digital communication device that is used to connect a
digital line to a digital device. Channel Service Units (CSUs) can be used to link local area
networks (LANs) into a wide area network (WAN) is responsible for the connection to
the telecommunication network

vi. CSU/DSU (channel service unit/data service unit) is a digital-interface device used to
connect data terminal equipment (DTE), such as a router, to a digital circuit, such as a
Digital Signal 1. The CSU/DSU implements two different functions. The channel service
unit (CSU) is responsible for the connection to the telecommunication network, while
the data service unit (DSU) is responsible for managing the interface with the DTE into a
wide area network (WAN)

vii. A Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that provides single output but accepts multiple
data inputs. A Demultiplexer is a combinational circuit that takes single input but that
input can be directed through multiple outputs.

viii. Concentrator is a device that acts as an efficient forwarder of data transmission signals.

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 ix. Network control (NC) The functions of NC are to detect an unauthorized access, to
prevent network security from being breached, and finally, to respond to a breach—
detect, prevent, and respond.

x. Front End Processor (FEP) is a small-sized computer which interfaces to the host
computer of a network,it handles input and output communications to reduce the
terminal load

Module 1 Unit 1 Practice Questions

1. Define data communication and list components of Data Communication System

2. List and explain equipment used in Computer communications.
3. Established the relationship between the following DTE, DTC and DCE.
4. What are the function of CSU/DSU (channel service unit/data service) unit in a data
communication System

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 1

Explain the need for communication between machines

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UNIT 2
2.1 MODULATION

Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the
carrier signal, with a modulating (baseband) signal that typically contains information to be
transmitted.

Need for Modulation

The modulating (baseband) signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal,
to travel longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency
carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication
systems.

 Antenna size gets reduced.

 No signal mixing occurs.

 Communication range increases.

 Multiplexing of signals occur.

 Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.

 Reception quality improves.

Signals in the Modulation Process

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

i. Message or Modulating (Baseband) Signal-The signal which contains a message to be

transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo
the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the modulating
signal.

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 ii. Carrier Signal-The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and
amplitude but contains no information, is called a carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It
is just used to carry the signal to the receiver after modulation.

iii. Modulated Signal-The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is called as the
modulated signal. This signal is a combination of the modulating signal and the carrier
signal.

Types of Modulation

There are 3 basic types of modulation:

i. Amplitude modulation-a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is
modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while the frequency and
phase are kept constant.

ii. Frequency modulation-a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal is
modulated (changed) in proportion to the message signal while the amplitude and
phase are kept constant.

iii. Phase modulation-a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied
accordance to the low frequency of the message signal is known as phase modulation.

2.2 MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared
medium. The process is called as analog multiplexing if these signals are analog in nature. If
digital signals are multiplexed, it is called as digital multiplexing.

Multiplexing was first developed in telephony. A number of signals were combined to send
through a single cable. The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into
several number of logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data
stream to be transferred. The device that does multiplexing, can be called as a MUX.

The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done at the
receiver is called as demultiplexing. The device which does demultiplexing is called as DEMUX.

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The following figures illustrates the concept of MUX and DEMUX. Their primary use is in the
field of communications.

2.2.1Types of Multiplexers

There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are further divided
into FDM, WDM, and TDM. The following figure gives a detailed idea about this classification.

2.2.1 Analog Multiplexing

The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are analog in nature. The analog
signals are multiplexed according to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

i. Frequency Division Multiplexing-In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). This technique uses various frequencies to

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 combine streams of data, for sending them on a communication medium, as a single
signal.Example − A traditional television transmitter, which sends a number of channels
through a single cable uses FDM.

ii. Wavelength Division Multiplexing-Wavelength Division multiplexing (WDM) is an

analog technique, in which many data streams of different wavelengths are transmitted
in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases, the frequency of the signal decreases.
A prism which can turn different wavelengths into a single line, can be used at the
output of MUX and input of DEMUX.Example − Optical fiber Communications use the
WDM technique, to merge different wavelengths into a single light for the
communication.

2.2.3 Digital Multiplexing

The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence, the available data is in the
form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)-Here the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is
used to transmit a signal over a single communication channel, by allotting one slot for each
message. Of all the types of TDM, the main ones are Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.

 Synchronous TDM-In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are
‘n’ number of connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is
allocated for each input line. In this technique, the sampling rate is common for all
signals and hence the same clock input is given. The MUX allocates the same slot to
each device at all times.

 Asynchronous TDM-In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the
signals and a common clock is not required. If the allotted device, for a time slot
transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot is allotted to another device,unlike
synchronous. This type of TDM is used in Asynchronous transfer mode networks.

Statistical multiplexing-is performed by switching systems in communication networks that

merge data packets from multiple input lines and forward them to multiple outputs in a first
come first serve or other scheduling discipline. In this way, many data flows can share capacity
on a common transmission path. The aggregation of flows in a multiplexer is governed by
statistical laws, such that the entire flow usually shows a smoothed rate variability as compared
to single flow components.

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Demultiplexer

Demultiplexers are used to connect a single source to multiple destinations. This process is the
reverse of multiplexing. As mentioned previously, it is used mostly at the receivers. DEMUX has
many applications. It is used in receivers in the communication systems. It is used in arithmetic
and logical unit in computers to supply power and to pass on communication, etc.

Demultiplexers are used as serial to parallel converters. The serial data is given as input to
DEMUX at regular interval and a counter is attached to it to control the output of the
demultiplexer.

Both the multiplexers and demultiplexers play an important role in communication systems,
both at the transmitter and receiver sections.

2.3 CONCENTRATOR

Concentrator is a functional unit that permits a common path to handle more data sources
than there are channels currently available within the path. A concentrator usually provides
communication capability between many low-speed, usually asynchronous channels and one or
more high-speed, usually synchronous channels. Usually different speeds, codes, and protocols
can be accommodated on the low-speed side. The low-speed channels usually operate in
contention and require buffering.

Differentiate between a multiplexer and concentrators

Multiplexing can promote more economical use of a communication channel; it acts as a

communication interface, combining the input streams from several devices into a single
stream that can be sent over a single channel to the computer system. This allows a single
communication channel (typically voice-grade) to substitute for many slower sub voice
channels that might otherwise have been operating at less than full capacity. Once the
computer system has completed processing, the data is sent to the multiplexer, which then
routes the data to the appropriate device.

A concentrator differs from a multiplexer in that it allows data to be transmitted from only one
terminal at a time over a communication channel. The concentrator polls the terminals one at a
time to see if they have any messages to send. When a communication channel is free, the first
terminal ready to send or receive data will get control of the channel and continue to control it
for the length of the transaction. The use of a concentrator relies on the assumption that not all
terminals will be ready to send or receive data at a given time. The figure below shows
examples of communication systems with and without multiplexers and concentrators.

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2.4 TRANSMISSION MODES IN COMPUTER NETWORKS

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission
mode:-

Simplex ModeIn Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.

Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional

monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

Half-Duplex ModeIn half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-
duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

Example: Walkie- talkie in which

message is sent one at a time and
messages are sent in both the
directions.

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Full-Duplex Mode-In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
In full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals
going in other direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:

Either the link must contain two physically separate

transmission paths, one for sending and other for
receiving. Or the capacity is divided between signals
travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however must be divided between the two directions.

Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a

telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

2.5 SYNCHRONIZATION

Synchronization is the process of maintaining the consistency and uniformity of data instances
across all network devices and storing devices. It ensures that the same copy or version of data
is used in all devices - from source to destination.Synchronization is enabled through specialized
software that tracks data versions as they are created and utilized. The process is implemented
in distributed systems where data elements are routed between several computers or systems.
Each computer may modify original data versions, depending on requirements. Synchronization
ensures that regardless of data modifications, all changes are merged with the original data
source.

Synchronous and Asynchronous transmissions

Synchronous transmission is transmission of signals in a fixed interval based on a predefined

clocking signal and is meant for constant and reliable transmission of time-sensitive data such
as VoIP and audio/video streaming to ensure that both the sender and receiver are
synchronized with each other.

Data are sent as frames or packets in fixed intervals

This method of transmission is used when large amounts of data need to be transferred quickly
since data is transferred in large blocks instead of individual characters. The data blocks are
spaced and grouped in regular intervals and preceded by synchronous characters that a remote
device decode and use to synchronize the connection between the end points. After
synchronization is complete, the transmission can begin.

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Asynchronous transmission is the transmission of data in which each character is a self-
contained unit, it uses start and stop bits to signify the beginning and ending bits. The
additional one at the start and end of a transmission alerts the receiver to the occurrence of the
first character and last character. The asynchronous transmission method is deployed when
data is sent as packets as opposed to in a solid stream. The start and stop bits have opposite
polarity, allowing the receiver to understand when the second packet of information has been
sent.

Asynchronous transmission is also referred to as start/stop transmission

The two main characteristics specific to asynchronous communication are:

 Every character is preceded by a start bit and followed by one or more stop bits

 Spaces between characters are common

Module 1 Unit 2Practice Questions

1. Describe the different types of modulation: Amplitude, frequency and phase.

2. Explain frequency division multiplexing, time division and statistical multiplexing.

3. Explain the differences between simplex, half duplex and full duplex transmission.

4. Define synchronous and asynchronous transmissions.

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 2

Differentiate between a multiplexer and concentrators.

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UNIT 3
3.1 LINE CONFIGURATION IN COMPUTER NETWORKS

Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link.
Line configuration is also referred to as connection. A Link is the physical communication
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in same way to the same link at the same time.

A Network is nothing but a connection made through connection links between two or more
devices/networks. Devices can be a computer, printer or any other device that is capable to
send and receive data. There are two ways to connect the devices :

 Point-To-Point Connection-It is a protocol which is used as a communication link

between two devices. It is simple to establish. The most common example for Point-to-
Point connection (PPP) is a computer connected by telephone line. We can connect the
two devices by means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite link.

Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote control and Television for changing
the channels.

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  MultiPoint Connection-It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two
or more devices share a single link.

There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections :

 If the links are used simultaneously between many devices, then it is spatially
shared line configuration.

 If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) line
configuration.

3.2 COMMUNICATION SOFTWARE

Communication software is an application or program designed to pass information from one

system to another. Such software provides remote access to systems and transmits files in a
multitude of formats between computers.Communication software forms a part of
communication systems with software components classified according to their functions.

The best defined examples of communication software are file transfer protocol (FTP),
messaging software and email.

Primarily, Communication software is used to provide remote access to systems and exchange
files and messages in text, audio and/or video formats between different computers or users.

The Purpose of Communication Software

 help users establish a connection to another computer, mobile device, or network.

 Manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information.

 Provide an interface for users to communicate with one another.

A Typical Communication Software is Teleprocessing Software

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Teleprocessing Software-A teleprocessing Software, an example of communication software, is
a control program that monitors the transfer of data between multiple local and remote
terminals to ensure that the transaction processes completely or, if an error occurs, to take
appropriate actions.

Module 1 Unit 3 Practice Questions

1. Define point - to - point, multi-point and multi-drop organisations

2. What are communication software
3. Explain the functions of typical communication software.

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 3

Explain the concept of line Configuration as used in Data Communication

UNIT 4
4.1 COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is a group of connected ccomputers that use a set of common

communication protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources
located on or provided by the network nodes. The interconnections between nodes are formed
from a broad spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired,
optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network
topologies. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file
servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to
do more.

4.1.1 Evolution of Network

The term computer networks resulted from the 'combination of two major areas, namely
computers and communications.

It was during the 1950's, that computers were treated as large complex machines and were
operated by specially trained people. There was no direct communication or interaction
between the user and the computer. Users suffered with extremely long delays between the
submission of jobs and the receipt of output results. The computer model resembles the one
shown in Figure. Note that there are two queues, one at the input device and another at the
output device.

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In the 1960's, interactive terminals were developed. Remote users can be connected to a large
mainframe computer via a low speed data line. The network resembles the one shown in
Figure.

When more devices are' connected to a computer, it is not so economical to have a separate
communication line from each device to the computer. To solve this problem, multiplexers and
concentrators were developed. These devices collect the output from a set of peripheral
devices and send it over a common communication link. Special communication processors
called front-ends were developed to relieve the mainframe computers from performing all the
communication functions.

Time-sharing systems were developed and that led to the development of many applications
centered on a single computer. The concept of a large-scale, general-purpose network was
developed. Such a network consists of a set of nodes called network switches or interface
message processors (IMP) connected by means of interconnecting transmission links.
Interconnecting links can be a wire, microwave radio, optical fiber, or satellite communication
links. Nodes are located at geographically separated locations. Each node forwards the message
passing through it to the next node in the concerned path.

As technology advanced, inexpensive personal computers started replacing medium and large
systems in many commercial and educational institutions. Local Area Networks (LAN) were

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developed. A LAN is capable of sharing expensive resources like laser printers, enterprise
software, etc., and provides access to a large database. LANs were initially used for the purpose
of connecting people. It supports high speed switching. Special software known as Network OS
was developed to manage and control the access of these Local Area Networks. The users
demanded access to resources outside the LAN. The most common resources were printers and
large databases. These resources may be components of other LAN. Remote file transfer and
remote login were then developed. The concept of Wide Area Networking (WAN) evolved by
interconnecting hundreds of thousands of Local Area Networks.

4.2 COMMUNICATIONS SERVICE PROVIDER (CSP)/NETWORK CARRIER

A communications service provider (CSP) is a service provider that transports information

electronically—for example, a telecommunications service provider. The term encompasses
public and private companies in the telecom (landline and wireless), Internet, cable, satellite,
and managed services businesses.

The market in which a communications service provider specializes is often a function of the
industry served. These industries can be divided into three categories: telecommunications,
entertainment and media, and Internet/Web services. Some communications service providers
have branched into multiple areas. Others provide communications services across all major
categories.

Module 1 Unit 4 Practice Questions

1. Define a Network
2. Write short note on the following network devices: i. Modems, ii. Multiplexers,iii. Computer
systems, and iv. Concentrators.
3. What are the functions of Communication Service Provider/Network Carrier

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 4

Write short note on Evolution of Network, highlighting key milestones

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 MODULE 2

Title: Data Communication Media, Protocol and Network Organisation

Objective

 Understand different types of Network Organisation

 Know the various types of media used in data communications/network.
 Understand communication protocols.

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UNIT 1
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Network can be classify under the following arrangements:

1.1.1 Technological arrangement

a. Peer to Peer- The peer to peer computing

architecture contains nodes that are equal
participants in data sharing. All the tasks are
equally divided between all the nodes. The
nodes interact with each other as required
as share resources.

A diagram to better understand peer to peer

computing is as follows:

b. Client-Server- In client server computing, the

clients requests a resource and the server
provides that resource. A server may serve
multiple clients at the same time while a client
is in contact with only one server. Both the
client and server usually communicate via a
computer network but sometimes they may
reside in the same system.

An illustration of the client server system is

given as follows:

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1.1.2 Administrative arrangement
a. Centralized systems (i.e.server based)- A type of
network where all users connect to a central server,
which is the acting agent for all communications.
This server would store both the communications
and the user account information. Most public
instant messaging platforms use a centralized
network. Also called centralized server-structure

b. Distributed systems- A distributed network is a type

of computer network that is spread over different networks in which enterprise IT
infrastructure resources are divided over a number of networks, processors and
intermediary devices.. This provides a single data communication network, which can be
managed jointly or separately by each network. Besides shared communication within
the network, a distributed network often also distributes processing.

1.1.3 Geographical arrangement

a. Local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network within a small geographical area such
as a home, school, computer laboratory, office building or group of buildings. A LAN is
composed of inter-connected workstations and personal computers which are each
capable of accessing and sharing data and devices, such as printers, scanners and data
storage devices, anywhere on the LAN. LANs are characterized by higher communication
and data transfer rates and the lack of any need for leased communication lines.

b. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)-A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a

local area network (LAN) but spans an entire city or campus. MANs are formed by
connecting multiple LANs. Thus, MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than wide area
networks (WAN). MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via
high-speed carriers, such as fiber optic cables.

c. Wide Area Network (WAN)-A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a
large-scale geographical area. A WAN connects different smaller networks, including
local area networks (LANs) and metro area networks (MANs). This ensures that
computers and users in one location can communicate with computers and users in
other locations. WAN implementation can be done either with the help of the public
transmission system or a private network.

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1.2 Network Topologies for LANs

a. Star-Star topology is a network topology where each individual

piece of a network is attached to a central node (often called a hub
or switch). The attachment of these network pieces to the central
component is visually represented in a form similar to a star. Star
topology is also known as a star network.

Star topologies are either active or passive networks, depending on

the following:

 If the central node performs processes, such as data amplification or

regeneration

 If the network actively controls data transit

 If the network requires electrical power sources.

Star topologies also may be implemented with Ethernet/cabled structures, wireless

routers and/or other components. In many cases, the central hub is the server, and the
additional nodes are clients.

Benefits of a star network topology include the following:

 Has the ability to limit the impact of a single failure. In star networks, a single
unit is isolated by its relationship to the central hub, so that if a component goes
down, it only affects that unit's local reach.

 Facilitates adding or removing individual components to and from a network, for

the same reasons.

b. Token ring-A token ring network is a local area

network (LAN) topology where nodes/stations are
arranged in a ring topology. Data passes sequentially
between nodes on the network until it returns to the
source station. To prevent congestion and collision, a
token ring topology uses a token to ensure that only
one node/station on the line is used at a time,
thereby easily denoting media users of its activity.

A token ring LAN is physically wired as a star topology but configured as a ring topology.

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 c. Bus Topology- A bus topology is a topology for a
Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes
are connected to a single cable. The cable to which
the nodes connect is called a "backbone". If the
backbone is broken, the entire segment fails. Bus
topologies are relatively easy to install and don't
require much cabling compared to the alternatives.

1.3 Special Networks

1.3.1 ARPANET

The ARPANET was a project funded by the U.S. government during the Cold War, in order to
build a robust and reliable communications network. This was done by connecting various
computers that could simultaneously communicate in a network that would not go down and
continue running when a single node was taken out.

The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) is a predecessor to the modern
Internet. It was conceptualized in the 1950s, when computer scientists needed something
better than the then available but unreliable switching nodes and network links.

There were also only a limited number of large, powerful research computers, and researchers
with access were separated geographically. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
commissioned the development of an advanced and reliable way to connect these computers
through a newly devised packet switching network, which was known as ARPANET.

1.3.2 System Network Architecture

System network architecture (SNA) is a set of network protocols developed by IBM. Originally
designed in 1974 for IBM's mainframe computers, SNA has evolved over the years so that it
now also supports peer-to-peer networks of workstations.

d.Digital Network Architecture (DNA)- is "intent-based networking" that removes the

complexity of the traditional, time intensive manual approach, and replaced with an
automated, intelligent, and highly secure architecture. With anautomated network, you can
connect billions of devices, identify them almost instantly, know what’s trustworthy and what
isn’t, and draw exponential value from the connections – and you can do it in hours instead of
weeks and months.

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1.3.3 ARCNET-Attached Resource Computer NETwork (ARCNET or ARCnet)

ARCNET-Attached Resource Computer NETwork (ARCNET or ARCnet) is a communications

protocol for local area networks. ARCNET was the first widely available networking system for
microcomputers; it became popular in the 1980s for office automation tasks.ARCnet is one of
the oldest, simplest, and least expensive types of local-area network. ARCnet was introduced by
Datapoint Corporation in 1977. It uses a token-ring architecture, supports data rates of 2.5
Mbps, and connects up to 255 computers. A special advantage of ARCnet is that it permits
various types of transmission media -- twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable -- to
be mixed on the same network.

Module 2 Unit 1 Practice Questions

1. Describe the following Network arrangement

a. Technological
b. Administrative
c. Geographical
2. Explain the following LAN topologies
a. Star
b. Token Ring
c. Bus

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 5

Discuss the importance of special network such as ARCNet, SNA and ARPANet

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UNIT 2
2.1 TRANSMISSION LINKS

Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver. We use
different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through
electrical or electromagnetic signals. An electrical signal is in the form of current. An
electromagnetic signal is series of electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies. These
signals can be transmitted through copper wires, optical fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum
Different Medias have different properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation
and maintenance. Transmission media is also called Communication channel.

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

 Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission media are
the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical
geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial
cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission
speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost etc.

 Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound transmission

media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not
bounded by physical geography. This type of transmission is called Wireless
communication. Nowadays wireless communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs
are being installed in office and college campuses. This transmission uses Microwave,
Radio wave, Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission media.

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2.2 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

2.2.1 Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable comprises of two separate insulated copper

wires, which are twisted together and run in parallel. The copper
wires are typically 1mm in diameter. One of the wires is used to
transmit data and the other is the ground reference.One of the
earliest guided transmission media is twisted pair cables.

Reason for Twisting

All transmissions are prone to noise, interferences, and crosstalks. When the wires are twisted,
some part of the noise signals is in the direction of data signals while the other parts are in the
opposite directions. Thus the external waves cancel out due to the different twists. The receiver
calculates the difference in the voltages of the two wires for retrieving data. Thus a much better
immunity against noise is obtained.

Applications of Twisted-Pair Cables

 In telephone lines

 In DSL lines

 In LANs

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Types of Twisted–Pair Cables-There are two types of twisted pair cables:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair ( UTP ): These generally comprise of wires and insulators.

 Shielded Twisted Pair ( STP ): They have a braided wired mesh that encases each pair of
insulated wires.

Categories of Twisted–Pair Cables-EIA has classified twisted pair cables into seven categories:

 Category 1 : UTP used in telephone lines with data rate < 0.1 Mbps

 Category 2: UTP used in transmission lines with a data rate of 2 Mbps

 Category 3: UTP used in LANs with a data rate of 10 Mbps

 Category 4: UTP used in Token Ring networks with a data rate of 20 Mbps

 Category 5: UTP used in LANs with a data rate of 100 Mbps

 Category 6: UTP used in LANs with a data rate of 200 Mbps

 Category 7: STP used in LANs with a data rate of 10 Mbps

2.2.1 Coaxial cables

Commonly called coax, are copper cables with metal shielding designed to provide immunity
against noise and greater bandwidth. Coax can transmit signals over larger distances at a higher
speed as compared to twisted pair cables.

Structure of Coaxial Cables

Coax has a central core ofstiff copper conductor for transmitting signals. This is covered by an
insulating material. The insulator is encased by a closely woven braided metal outer conductor
that acts as a shield against noise. The outer conductor is again enclosed by a plastic insulating
cover. The structure is shown in the following figure:

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Categories of Coaxial Cables-Coaxial cables are categorized into three types as per radio
government (RG) ratings:

 RG – 59: Has impedance of 75W and used in cable TV

 RG – 58: Has impedance of 50W and used in thin Ethernet

 RG – 11: Has impedance of 50W and used in thick Ethernet

Applications of Coaxial Cables

1. In analog telephone networks: A single coaxial network can carry about 10,000 voice
signals.

2. In digital telephone networks: A coax has a data rate of 600 Mbps.

3. In cable TV networks

4. In traditional Ethernet LANs

5. In MANs

2.2.3 Optical Fiber Cables

Optical fiber cables are transparent, flexible fibers made up of glass

or plastic through which light waves can pass. A bunch of fiber optic
cables is shown in the following diagram –

Structure of a Fiber – Optic Cable

A cross section of a fiber optic cable reveals three parts −

Core − It is the innermost portion of an optical fiber

through which light propagates. It is cylindrical in shape and
it made up of a flexible glass of high refractive index. The
diameter of the core of a single mode fiber is 8 – 10 μm

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while multimode fibers are 50 μm in diameter. It is also called the optical waveguide since it is
the main channel through which light signals are transmitted.

Cladding − The core is surrounded by a glass cladding. The glass of cladding has a lower
refractive index than the core. This enables total internal reflection of light waves in the core,
and eventually propagation of light waves within the core.

Outer Coating or Jacket − The outer jacket is a thin plastic sheath or coating that is opaque to
light. It prevents light rays from outside to enter the optical fiber. Fibers are typically bundles
together, where each bundle is covered by a protective outer sheath that prevents the fibers
from physical damage.

2.2.4 Radio Waves

In the electromagnetic spectrum, all omnidirectional waves in the frequencies 3KHz to 1GHz are
called radio waves. They are widely used for communications since they are easy to generate,
can travel long distances and can penetrate buildings. Radio waves have omnidirectional
antennas, i.e. antennas that can send signals in all directions.

The properties of radios waves vary according to their frequencies. However, radio waves at all
frequencies are prone to interference from electrical equipments like motors etc.

Low and Medium Frequency Radio Waves-Low and medium frequency radio waves can pass
through obstacles and have ground propagation. However, the power diminishes rapidly
depending upon the distance from the source. This attenuation in power is called the path loss.
AM radio uses LF and MF bands.

High Frequency Radio Waves-High frequency radio waves travel in straight lines and have sky
propagation. However, they are affected by interferences and are affected by rains. The military
communicates in the HF and VHF bands. They are also used for long distance broadcasting and
FM radio.

Applications-Some of the areas of applications of radio waves are −

1. Broadcasting and multicasting

2. Fixed and mobile radio communications

3. AM and FM radio

4. Television

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 5. Marine communication

6. Wireless computer networks

7. Cordless phones

2.2.5 Microwaves

In the electromagnetic spectrum, waves within the frequencies 1GHz to 300GHz are called
microwaves.

Features of Microwaves

 Microwaves travel in straight lines, and so the transmitter and receiver stations should
be accurately aligned to each other.

 Microwave propagation is line – of – sight propagation. So, towers hoisting the stations
should be placed so that the curvature of the earth or any other obstacle does not
interfere with the communication.

 Since it is unidirectional, it allows multiple receivers in a row to receive the signals

without interference.

 Microwaves do not pass through buildings. So, indoor receivers cannot be used
effectively.

 Microwaves are often refracted by the atmospheric layers. The refracted rays take
longer time to reach the destination than the direct rays. This causes out of phase
transmission, called multipath fading.

 Microwaves need unidirectional antennas to send out signals. Two types of antennas
are needed:

o Parabolic Dish Antenna − It is used by the receiving station. It is parabolic in

shape, which concentrates all energy to a small beam thus achieving a strong
signal with high SNR.

o Horn Antenna − It has a stem with a curved head. In sending stations, outgoing
waves from the stem are broadcast by the curved head as a series of parallel
beams. In the receiving station, the rays are collected by the curved head and
deflected in the stem.

Applications

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 1. Long distance telephone communication

2. Cellular phones

3. Television networks

4. Satellites

5. Wireless LANs

2.2.6 Satellite Microwave

A satellite is an object that revolves around another object. For example, earth is a satellite of
The Sun, and moon is a satellite of earth.

A communication satellite is a microwave repeater station in a space that is used for

telecommunication, radio and television signals. A communication satellite processes the data
coming from one earth station and it converts the data into another form and send it to the
second earth station.

How a Satellite Works

Two stations on earth want to communicate through radio broadcast but are too far away to
use conventional means. The two stations can use a relay station for their communication. One
earth station transmits the signal to the satellite.

Uplink frequency is the frequency at which ground station is communicating with satellite. The
satellite transponder converts the signal and sends it down to the second earth station, and this
is called Downlink frequency. The second earth station also communicates with the first one in
the same way.

Advantages of Satellite

The advantages of Satellite Communications are as follows:

 The Coverage area is very high than that of terrestrial systems.

 The transmission cost is independent of the coverage area.

 Higher bandwidths are possible.

Disadvantages of Satellite

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The disadvantages of Satellite Communications are as follows:

 Launching satellites into orbits is a costly process.

 The bandwidths are gradually used up.

 High propagation delay for satellite systems than the conventional terrestrial systems.

2.2.7 Infrared waves

Infrared waves are those between the frequencies 300GHz and 400THz in the electromagnetic
spectrum. Their wavelengths are shorter than microwaves but longer than visible light. Infrared
propagation is line of sight.

They cannot penetrate walls and sun’s infrared rays interfere with these rays. So cannot be
used for long – range communication. As their usage is confined within closed space, they do
not need any government permissions for their applications.

Applications of Infrared Waves in Communications

1. Remote controls for television, stereos and other home appliances.

2. Wireless LANs

3. Wireless modem, keyboard, mouse, printer etc

4. Fire detectors

5. Night vision systems

6. Intrusion detection systems

7. Motion detectors

Module 2 Unit 2 Practice Questions

1. Describe the characteristics that make a medium Bounded or Unbounded

2. With a well labeled block diagram illustrate the various division of Communication Media
3. Differentiate between Radio Wave and Satellite as Communication medium
4. What medium use light as medium and briefly explain its operation

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 6

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Explain the concept of Transmission Link

UNIT 3
3.1 Emerging Technologies

Developments in Data Communication and Networking had led to the emergence of new and
technologies that are changing the world for better. This unit focuses on some of these
emerging technologies enabled by Data Communication are:

i. E-banking-E-banking is a product designed for the purposes of online banking that

enables you to have easy and safe access to your bank account. E-banking is a safe, fast,
easy and efficient electronic service that enables you access to bank account and to
carry out online banking services, 24 hours a day, and 7 days a week.

ii. Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers to the
buying and selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer of money and
data to execute these transactions.

iii. Teleconferencing-A teleconference or teleseminar is the live exchange and mass

articulation of information among several persons and machines remote from one
another but linked by a telecommunications system

iv. Medical Telediagnosis- refers to remote diagnosis (“tele” means remote, prefixed to
diagnosis). These platforms are designed to enable transmission of physical examination
records and medical reports remotely or concurrently to a specialist at a different or the
same geographical location.

v. Social Media-Social media are interactive computer-mediated technologies that

facilitate the creation or sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms
of expression via virtual communities and networks.

vi. Electronic-Data-Interchange (EDI) is the concept of businesses electronically

communicating information that was traditionally communicated on paper, such as
purchase orders and invoices. Technical standards for EDI exist to facilitate parties
transacting such instruments without having to make special arrangements.

vii. Voice over Internet Protocol VOIP, also called IP telephony, is a method and group of
technologies for the delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions over
Internet Protocol networks, such as the Internet.

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viii. VirtuaI (Internet) Classroom-A virtual classroom is an online learning environment that
allows for live interaction between the tutor and the learners as they are participating in
learning activities. In other words, the virtual classroom is a shared online space where
the learners and the tutor work together simultaneously.

ix. e-learning-eLearning is learning utilizing electronic technologies to access educational

curriculum outside of a traditional classroom. In most cases, it refers to a course,
program or degree delivered completely online.

Module 2 Unit 3 Practice Questions

Write short notes on the following

a) VOIP
b) Medical Diagnostics
c) E-commerce and Banking
d) Teleconferencing

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 7

Discuss how data communication is imparting our world positively

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UNIT 4
4.1 Communication Protocols:

Communication protocols is a system of rules for sending block of data from one node to
another node in a network. It provides services in the form of layer such as OSI Refrence Model.

All machine based communications must follow a certain set of rules for the exchange of data
between nodes connected to a network. The rules to send and receive data are called
protocols. These rules are defined in the network software. A protocol defines;

 Which is communicated?

 How it is communicated?

 When it is communicated?

Elements of Protocol:

a. Syntax refers to the format or structure of data. The protocol accepts the data according
to the predefined format. For example, a protocol may expect the format of data as;

 First 8-bits of the stream to be the address of the header.

 Second 8-bits of the stream to be the address of the receiver.

 The rest of the stream to be the actual data.

b. Semantic means meanning. Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of the bits
stream. It includes:

 how is a particular pattern of bits to be interpreted,

 and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation.

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 c. Timing: Timing refers to:

 When data should be sent?

 How fast it can be sent?

4.2 Functions of Communication Protocol:

The data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the
efficient and error free transmission of data.

a) Data Sequencing: The function of a protocol to divide the long message into smaller
packets of fixed size that are to be transmitted for error free data transmission, is
called Data Sequencing.

b) Data Routing: The function of a protocol to find the most efficient path or route,
between the sender and the receiver before sending the data is called Data Routing.

c) Flow Control: The function of a protocol to control the rate of data transmission
from the sender to the receiver is called Flow Control. It regulates the process of
sending data between fast sender and slow receiver.

d) Error Control: The function of a protocol to detect and recover errors for successful
data communication between the sender and the receiver is called Error Control.
Successful data communication means that data is transmitted without any error.

4.3 OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes
and standardizes the communication functions of a network. The Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual model created by the International Organization
for Standardization which enables diverse communication systems to communicate using
standard protocols. In plain English, the OSI provides a standard for different computer systems
to be able to communicate with each other.

There are lot of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to ensure,
national and worldwide data communication, systems/standard must be developed which are
compatible to communicate with each other.

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The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It
defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system. It divides network
communication into seven layers. In this model,
layers 1-4 are considered the lower layers, and
mostly concern themselves with moving data
around. Layers 5-7, called the the upper layers,
contain application-level data. Networks operate on
one basic principle: "pass it on." Each layer takes
care of a very specific job, and then passes the data
onto the next layer.

 Application (Layer 7)-OSI Model, Layer 7,

supports application and end-user processes.
Communication partners are identified,
quality of service is identified, user
authentication and privacy are considered,
and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-
specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other
network software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the
application level. Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP, Telnet, HTTP, FTP

 Presentation (Layer 6)-This layer provides independence from differences in data

representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and
vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a
network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the
syntax layer.

Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG,
MPEG, MIDI.

 Session (Layer 5)-This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations,
exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session
and connection coordination.

Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.

 Transport (Layer 4)-OSI Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data between
end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.
It ensures complete data transfer.

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 Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.

 Network (Layer 3)-Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical
paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and
forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error
handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.

Layer 3 Network examples include AppleTalk DDP, IP, IPX.

 Data Link (Layer 2)-At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded into
bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors
in the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is
divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link
Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a computer on the network gains
access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame
synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/ 802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2,
HDLC, Frame Relay.

 Physical (Layer 1)-OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or
radio signal — through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides
the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining
cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with
physical layer components.

Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24, RJ45.

4.4 Typical Data Communication PROTOCOLS

 Binary Synchronous Control (BSC; also known as BISYNC) is a widely-used synchronous,

character-oriented protocol devised by IBM in the 1960s for halfduplex communication,
used primarily in mainframe networks. The binary part of the name signifies that the
data is binary-coded. The synchronous part means that both the sender and receiver
must be synchronized before the data transfer can begin.

 Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC) − SDLC was developed by IBM in the 1970s as
part of Systems Network Architecture. It was used to connect remote devices to
mainframe computers. It ascertained that data units arrive correctly and with right flow
from one network point to the next.

 High Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC) − HDLC is based upon SDLC and provides both
unreliable service and reliable service. It is a bit – oriented protocol that is applicable for
both point – to – point and multipoint communications.

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  Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) − This is a simple protocol for transmitting data
units between an Internet service provider (ISP) and home user over a dial-up link. It
does not provide error detection / correction facilities.

 Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) − This is used to transmit multiprotocol data between
two directly connected (point-to-point) computers. It is a byte – oriented protocol that
is widely used in broadband communications having heavy loads and high speeds.

 Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It one of PPP protocols that is responsible for establishing,
configuring, testing, maintaining and terminating links for transmission. It also imparts
negotiation for set up of options and use of features by the two endpoints of the links.

 Network Control Protocol (NCP) − These protocols are used for negotiating the
parameters and facilities for the network layer. For every higher-layer protocol
supported by PPP, one NCP is there.

 X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched communications over WAN
(Wide Area Network). It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very
popular in 1980s. Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs and credit card verification.
It allows multiple logical channels to use the same physical line. It also permits data
exchange between terminals with different communication speeds.

4.5 Network protocols

Network protocols are formal standards and policies comprised of rules, procedures and
formats that define communication between two or more devices over a network. They ensure
that computer network devices can transmit and receive data using a common language
regardless of their different designs, hardware or infrastructures.

Network protocols govern the end-to-end processes of timely, secure and managed data or
network communication.They can be built into hardware or software, and they’re so important
that, in practice, every network use rely on network protocols for communications and
connectivity

4.5.Type of Network Protocols

4.5.1 Non-routable Protocol

This a communications protocol that contains only a device address and not a network address.
It does not incorporate an addressing scheme for sending data from one network to another.
Examples of non-routable protocols are NetBIOS and DEC's LAT protocols

4.5.2 Connectionless Service

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Connectionless service is a data communication between two nodes where the sender sends
data without ensuring whether the receiver is available to receive the data. Here, each data
packet has the destination address and is routed independently irrespective of the other
packets. Thus the data packets may follow different paths to reach the destination. There’s no
need to setup connection before sending a message and relinquish it after the message has
been sent. The data packets in a connectionless service are usually called datagrams.

Protocols for connectionless services are −

 Internet Protocol (IP)

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Connectionless services types:

 A datagram with Acknowledgement: e.g. text messages with delivery report

 Request-Reply: e.g. queries from remote databases

Advantages of Connectionless Services

 It has low overhead.

 It enables to broadcast and multicast messages, where the sender sends messages to
multiple recipients.

 It is simpler and has low overhead.

 It does not require any time for circuit setup.

 In case of router failures or network congestions, the data packets are routed through
alternate paths. Hence, communication is not disrupted.

Disadvantages of Connectionless Services

 It is not a reliable connection. It does not guarantee that there will not be a loss of
packets, wrong delivery, out – of – sequence delivery or duplication of packets.

 Each data packet requires longer data fields since it should hold all the destination
address and the routing information.

 They are prone to network congestions.

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4.5.3 A Connection-Oriented

A connection-oriented service is one that establishes a dedicated connection between the

communicating entities before data communication commences. It is modeled after the
telephone system. To use a connection-oriented service, the user first establishes a connection,
uses it and then releases it. In connection-oriented services, the data streams/packets are
delivered to the receiver in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender.

There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service.

These are:

 Connection is established.

 Information is sent.

 Connection is released.

Connection-oriented services may be done in either of the following ways −

 Circuit-switched connection: In circuit switching, a dedicated physical path or a circuit is

established between the communicating nodes and then data stream is transferred.

 Virtual circuit-switched connection: Here, the data stream is transferred over a packet
switched network, in such a way that it seems to the user that there is a dedicated path
from the sender to the receiver. A virtual path is established here. However, other
connections may also be using this path.

Example Connection-Oriented Protocol

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Connection-oriented services may be of the following types −

 Reliable Message Stream: e.g. sequence of pages

 Reliable Byte Stream: e.g. song download

 Unreliable Connection: e.g. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

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Advantages of Connection-Oriented Services

 This is mostly a reliable connection.

 Congestions are less frequent.

 Sequencing of data packets is guaranteed.

 Problems related to duplicate data packets are alleviated.

 Suitable for long connection.

Disadvantages of Connection-Oriented Services

 Resource allocation is needed before communication. This often leads to under-utilized

network resources.

 The lesser speed of connection due to the time is taken for establishing and
relinquishing the connection.

 In the case of router failures or network congestions, there are no alternative ways to
continue communication.

4.6 Protocol Suites

1) TCP/IP is the suite of communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet.
TCP/IP uses several protocols, the two main ones being TCP and IP. TCP/IP is built into
the UNIX operating system and is used by the Internet, making it the de facto standard
for transmitting data over networks

2) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the commonly used protocol for exchanging files over the
Internet. FTP uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer. FTP uses a
client-server architecture, often secured with SSL/TLS. FTP promotes sharing of files via
remote computers with reliable and efficient data transfer

3) ICMP is short for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is an extension to the Internet
Protocol (IP) defined by RFC 792. ICMP supports packets containing error, control, and
informational messages. It is an error reporting protocol and is used by routers, hosts
and network devices to generate error messages when there are problems delivering IP
packets.

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 4) Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages
between servers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to
send messages from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an
e-mail client using either POP or IMAP. In addition, SMTP is generally used to send
messages from a mail client to a mail server. This is why you need to specify both the
POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when you configure your e-mail application.

5) IPX/SPX stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. IPX and
SPX are networking protocols used initially on networks using the Novell NetWare
operating systems, but became widely used on networks deploying Microsoft Windows
LANS, as they replaced NetWare LANS

Module2 Unit 4 Practice Questions

1. List and explain the OSI layers.

2. Compare and compare Connection and Connectionless oriented protocol
3. What are functions of Communication Protocols
4. Explain the following PPP, LCP and NCP

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 1

What are the significance of Communication and Network Protocols in Data Communication System

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 MODULE 3

Title: Network Devices and troubleshooting

Objective

 Identify other Network Devices

 Network Design, Analysis, Administration
 Understand trouble shooting concepts and resources

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UNIT 1
The following are devices used for networking and internetworking

1) Repeater-A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength. It is a 2 port device.

2) Hub-A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In
other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also,
they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage. There are two Tyes of Hub:

a. Active Hub :- These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can
clean , boost and relay the signal along the network. It serves both as a repeater
as well as wiring center. These are used to extend maximum distance between
nodes.

b. Passive Hub :- These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without
cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend distance between
nodes.

3) Bridge-A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device. Types of
Bridges are

a. Transparent Bridges :- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or
deleted from the network , reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These
bridges makes use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

b. Source Routing Bridges :- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by

source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The hot can
discover frame by sending a specical frame called discovery frame, which
spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to destination.

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 4. Switch-A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link
layer device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it
very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only. In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts,
but broadcast domain remains same.

5. Routers-A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts
connected through it.

6. Gateway-A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks

together that may work upon different networking models. They basically works as the
messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to
another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any
network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

7. Brouter – It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at data link layer or at network layer. Working as
router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working as bridge, it is
capable of filtering local area network traffic.

1.2 Networking and Internetwoking Concept

Two or more devices connected for the purpose of sharing data or resources are stations on a
Network. Putting together a network is often more complicated than simply plugging cable into
a hub. A local area network (LAN) may need to cover more distance than its media can handle
effectively. Or the number of stations may be too great for efficient frame delivery or
management of the network and the network may need to be subdivided. In the first case, a
device called a repeater or regenerator is inserted into the network to increase the coverable
distance. In the second, a device called a bridge is inserted for traffic management.

When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or resources, they
become an internetwork. Linking a number of LANs into an internet required additional
internetworking devices called routers and gateways. These devices are designed to overcome
obstacles to interconnection without disrupting the independent functioning of the networks.

An internet is an interconnection of individual networks. To create an internet, we need

internetworking devices called routers and gateways.

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Note: Do not confuse the term internet (lowercase i) with the internet (Uppercase I).The first is
a generic term used to mean an interconnection of networks. The second is the name of a
specific worldwide network.

An internet is different from the Internet.

As mentioned above, networking and internetworking devices are divided into four categories:
repeaters, bridges, routers, and gateways.

Each of these four device types interacts with protocols at different layers of the OSI model.
Repeaters act only upon the electrical components of a signal, and are therefore active only at
the physical layer, Bridges utilize addressing protocols, and can affect the flow control of a
single LAN: they are most active at the data link layer. Routers provide links between two
separate but same type LANs,and are most active at the network layer.Finally,gateways provide
translation services between incompatible LANs or applications, and are active in all of the
layers.Each of these inter networking devices also operates in all of the layers below the one in
which it is most active.

Other internetworking devices are Modems, Multiplexers and CSU/DSU. Refer to Unit XX for
detailed explanation them.

2.3 Network Adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC) is the component of a computer’s internal
hardware that is used for communicating over a network with another computer. It enable a
computer to connect with another computer, server or any networking device over an LAN
connection. A network adapter can be used over a wired or wireless network.

A network adapter is usually the only component within a computer for interfacing or
connecting with a network. Typically, it is built on a printed circuit board with jumpers that
connect it with the computer’s motherboard. A network adapter for wired networks has an RJ-
45 port that uses twisted or untwisted pair cable for network connectivity. Wireless adapters
connect with the network through a built-in or externally connected antenna. Both network
adapters support popular LAN protocols such as TCP/IP.

2.3.1 Setting and Configuration of Network Interface Card (Windows 10)

Windows usually detects the presence of a network adapter automatically; typically, you don’t
have to install device drivers manually for the adapter. When Windows detects a network
adapter, Windows automatically creates a network connection and configures it to support
basic networking protocols. You may need to change the configuration of a network connection
manually, however

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The following steps show you how to configure your network adapter on a Windows 10 system:

i) Click the Start icon (or press the Start button on the keyboard), and
then tap or click Settings. The Settings page appears.

ii) Click Network & Internet. The Network & Internet page appears.

iii) Click Ethernet.The Ethernet settings page appears.

iv) Click Change Adapter Options.

The Network Connections page appears. This page lists each of

your network adapters. In this case, only a single wired Ethernet
adapter is shown. If the device has more than one adapter,
additional adapters will appear on this page.

v) Right-click the connection that you want to

configure and then choose Properties from
the contextual menu that appears.This
action opens the Ethernet Properties dialog
box.

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vi) To configure the network adapter card
settings, click Configure. The Properties
dialog box for your network adapter
appears. This dialog box has seven tabs that
let you configure the adapter:

General: Shows basic information about the

adapter, such as the device type and status.

Advanced: Lets you set a variety of device-

specific parameters that affect the operation
of the adapter.

About: Displays information about the

device’s patent protection.

Driver: Displays information about the device driver that’s bound to the NIC and lets you
update the driver to a newer version, roll back the driver to a previously working
version, or uninstall the driver.

Details: With this tab, you can inspect various properties of the adapter such as the date
and version of the device driver. To view the setting of a particular property, select the
property name from the drop-down list.

Events: Lists recent events that have been logged for the device.

Power Management: Lets you configure power management options for the device.

When you click OK to dismiss the dialog box, the network connection’s Properties dialog
box closes and you’re returned to the Network Connections page. Right-click the
network adapter and choose Properties again to continue the procedure.

vii) Review the list of connection items listed in the Properties dialog box.

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 Client for Microsoft Networks: This item is required if you want to access a Microsoft
Windows network. It should always be present.

File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks: This item allows your computer to
share its files or printers with other computers on the network.This option is usually
used with peer-to-peer networks, but you can use it even if your network has dedicated
servers. If you don’t plan to share files or printers on the client computer, however, you
should disable this item.

Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4): This item enables the client computer to
communicate by using the version 4 standard TCP/IP protocol.

Internet Protocol Version 6 (TCP/IPv6): This item enables version 6 of the standard
TCP/IP protocol. Typically, both IP4 and IP6 are enabled, even though most networks
rely primarily on IP4.

If a protocol that you need isn’t listed, click the Install button to add the needed
protocol.

A dialog box appears, asking whether you want to add a network client, protocol, or
service. Click Protocol and then click Add. A list of available protocols appears. Select the
one you want to add; then click OK.

ix) To remove a network item that you don’t need (such as File and Printer Sharing for
Microsoft Networks), select the item, and click the Uninstall button.

For security reasons, you should make it a point to remove any clients, protocols, or
services that you don’t need.

x) -To configure TCP/IP settings, click

Internet Protocol (TCP/IP); click
Properties to display the TCP/IP
Properties dialog box; adjust the
settings; and then click OK.

The TCP/IP Properties dialog box lets

you choose among these options:

Obtain an IP Address Automatically:

Choose this option if your network has

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 a DHCP server that assigns IP addresses automatically. Choosing this option dramatically
simplifies administering TCP/IP on your network.

Use the Following IP Address: If your computer must have a specific IP address, choose
this option and then type the computer’s IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway
address.

Obtain DNS Server Address Automatically: The DHCP server can also provide the address
of the Domain Name System (DNS) server that the computer should use. Choose this
option if your network has a DHCP server.

Use the Following DNS Server Addresses: Choose this option if a DNS server isn’t
available. Then type the IP addresses of the primary and secondary DNS servers.

Module 3 Unit 1 Practice Questions

1. List and Explain five (5) Network Devices

2. What are the difference between passive and Active Network devices
3. What is a NIC?
4. Discuss the function of IP address

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 1

Discuss the concept of Network and Internetworking

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UNIT 2
A network can promote collaboration between many different and widely dispersed groups of
workers. Expanding network capabilities and information flow throughout an business can help
to improve quality, responsiveness, reaction time and, ultimately, sales and profits. Hoewver
for this to be achievables, a good Network Design, Analysis and well thought Network processes
must be implemented.

10.1 Network Design

Network design is a category of systems design that deals with data transport mechanisms. As
with other systems' design disciplines, network design follows an analysis stage, where
requirements are generated, and precedes implementation, where the system (or relevant
system component) is constructed. The objective of network design is to satisfy data
communication requirements while minimizing expense. Requirement scope can vary widely
from one network design project to another based on geographic particularities and the nature
of the data requiring transport.

Network design provides physical detail to Network analysis, architecture, and design are
processes used to produce designs that are logical, reproducible, and defensible.

2.2 Network analysis

Network analysis entails learning what users, their applications, and devices need from the
network. Network analysis also defines, determines, and describes relationships among users,
applications, devices, and networks. The purpose of network analysis is twofold:

 to listen to users and understand their needs;

 to understand the system.

2.3 Network architecture

Network architecture is the design of a computer network. It is a framework for the

specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as communication protocols
used.

Network architecture uses the information from the analysis process to develop a conceptual,
high-level, end-to-end structure for the network. Its process determines sets of technology and
topology choices; the classes of equipment needed; and the relationships among network

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2.4 Capacity Assignment in Network

In the context of networks, capacity is the complex measurement of the maximum amount of
data that may be transferred between network locations over a link or network path. Because
of the amount of intertwined measurement variables and scenarios, actual network capacity is
rarely accurate. Capacity is also known as throughput.

2.5 Bandwidth

Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection. It
measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time. For
example, a gigabit Ethernet connection has a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps (125 megabytes per
second). An Internet connection via cable modem may provide 25 Mbps of bandwidth.

While bandwidth is used to describe network speeds, it does not measure how fast bits of data
move from one location to another. Since data packets travel over electronic or fiber optic
cables, the speed of each bit transferred is negligible. Instead, bandwidth measures how much
data can flow through a specific connection at one time.

When visualizing bandwidth, it may help to think of a network connection as a tube and each
bit of data as a grain of sand. If you pour a large amount of sand into a skinny tube, it will take a
long time for the sand to flow through it. If you pour the same amount of sand through a wide
tube, the sand will finish flowing through the tube much faster. Similarly, a download will finish
much faster when you have a high-bandwidth connection rather than a low-bandwidth
connection.

Data often flows over multiple network connections, which means the connection with the
smallest bandwidth acts as a bottleneck. Generally, the Internet backbone and connections
between servers have the most bandwidth, so they rarely serve as bottlenecks. Instead, the
most common Internet bottleneck is your connection to your ISP.

NOTE: Bandwidth also refers to a range of frequencies used to transmit a signal. This type of
bandwidth is measured in hertz and is often referenced in signal processing applications.

2.6 Buffers

Buffers temporary can store data in terminals and switching systems of communication
networks. When data is arriving faster than it can be processed then buffering is useful in order
to avoid dropping a part of it. On the other hand, buffers in network elements introduce
additional delay which limits their efficiency for real time data transfers.

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2.7 Store and forward in Network

Store and forward is a data communication technique in which a message transmitted from a
source node is stored at an intermediary device before being forwarded to the destination
node.

The store and forward process enables remote hosts, data connectivity and transmission, even
if there is no direct connection between the source and destination nodes.

Store and forward is primarily implemented in telecommunication networks, where remote

subscribers lack direct or dedicated connections. The store and forward technique works by
storing the message transmitted by the source device on an intermediary device, generally a
server. The server then locates the destination device from it database of subscribers, initiates a
connection and transmits the data packet that was originally sent by the source device.

2.8 Routing

In general, routing involves the network topology, or the setup of hardware, that can effectively
relay data. Standard protocols help to identify the best routes for data and to ensure quality
transmission. Individual pieces of hardware such as routers are referred to as "nodes" in the
network. Different algorithms and protocols can be used to figure out how to best route data
packets, and which nodes should be used. For example, some data packets travel according to a
distance vector model that primarily uses distance as a factor, whereas others use Link-State
Protocol, which involves other aspects of a "best path" for data.

Data packets are also made to give networks information. Headers on packets provide details
about origin and destination. Standards for data packets allow for conventional design, which
can help with future routing methodologies. As the world of digital technology evolves, routing
will also evolve according to the needs and utility of a particular network.

2.9 Routing Algorithm

A routing algorithm is a set of step-by-step operations used to direct Internet traffic efficiently.
When a packet of data leaves its source, there are many different paths it can take to its
destination. The routing algorithm is used to determine mathematically the best path to take.

Different routing algorithms use different methods to determine the best path. For example, a
distance vector algorithm calculates a graph of all available routes by having each point (called
a node) determine the "cost" of travelling to each immediate neighbor. This information is
collected for every node to create a distance table; which is used to determine the best path to
from any one node to another.

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2.10 Random Access Technique

Random access methods are also known as contention methods where no station is assigned
any priority, i.e. no station is superior to another station and none is assigned any control over
another. No station permits or does not permit, another station to send. At each instance, a
station that has data to send uses its procedure defined by the protocol to make a decision on
whether or not to send. This decision does not depend on other stations rather depends on the
medium is idle or busy. In other words, each station can transmit when it desires upon the
testing of the state of the medium.

Why this methods are called Random access?

There is no scheduled time for a station to transmit. Transmission is random among the
stations.

No rules specify which station should send next. Stations compete with each other to access the
medium. That is why these methods are also called contention methods.
Module 4 Unit 2 Practice Questions

1. Discuss the following network concepts

a. Network Architecture
b. Network Design
c. Bandwidth
d. Buffering
e. Routing
2. Write short note on Network Analysis

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 10

Network Capacity is crucial to the design an effective network: Discuss

UNIT 3
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3.1 Network administration

Network administration involves a wide array of operational tasks that help a network to run
smoothly and efficiently. Without network administration, it would be difficult for all but the
smallest networks to maintain network operations.

The main tasks associated with network administration include:

 Design, installation and evaluation of the network

 Execution and administration of regular backups

 Creation of precise technical documentation, such as network diagrams, network

cabling documents, etc.

 Provision for precise authentication to access network resources

 Provision for troubleshooting assistance

 Administration of network security, including intrusion detection

Users are individual that have acccess to a particular network, whose activities and action are
as determined by the network Administrator. Users have login details that enable the
moniroing of their activities

Group Accounts is the collective identity of all users those belong to a specific group. Grouping
helps administrators in managing network effectively. Group accounts are only used to manage
the user accounts which are alike or require access to a particular resource. Unlike user
account, group account does not have login capability. A user may belong to an individual
group or multiple groups.

Network security consists of the policies and practices adopted to prevent and monitor
unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and network-
accessible resources.

3.2 Security Types

Network Access Control (NAC)-This is when you control who can and can’t access your network.
You do this by identifying which devices and users are allowed into your network. From there,
you can enforce various security policies such as blocking certain devices and controlling what
someone can do within your network. You can also utilize behavioral analytic tools to identify
what normal and abnormal behavior is. Once you do that, you can set it up where you’ll get
notifications whenever something is acting abnormally.

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  Application Security-Application security is exactly how it sounds – security that
protects your applications. This type of security is important to have because no app is
created perfectly… they can have a lot of holes or weaknesses where a hacker can enter.
A lot of your business operations and devices may run on applications, so this type of
security is a must-have.

 Antivirus and Antimalware Software-This software is used to protect against malware,

which includes anything from viruses, Trojans, ransomware, or spyware. Besides the
obvious reasons, malware can be very dangerous because sometimes, it can will stay
calm within your network for days and weeks, just sitting there ready to spring up and
attack. Antivirus and antimalware software deal with this threat by scanning for
malware entry and tracking files afterward to find any that may have slipped in and are
laying low.

 Email Security-email is pretty important for your business, and considering that email
gateways are the number one threat for a security breach, email security is an absolute
vital one to have. Attackers can use your personal information to do all kinds of damage,
such as blackmail or emailing on your behalf to deceive your clients and send them to
sites full of malware. An email security application can help block these attacks and
control what is sent out.

 Wireless Security-The mobile office movement is gaining momentum, and with that
comes wireless networks and access points. However, wireless networks are not as
secure as wired ones, allowing more room for hacker entry, so the power of wireless
security needs to be strong.

3.3 Network auditing

Network auditing is the collective measures done to analyze, study and gather data about a
network with the purpose of ascertaining its health in accordance with the
network/organization requirements.

Network auditing primarily provides insight into how effective network control and practices
are, i.e. its compliance to internal and external network policies and regulations.

Network auditing works through a systematic process where a computer network is analyzed
for:

 Security

 Implementation of control

 Availability

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  Management

 Performance

The data is gathered, vulnerabilities and threats are identified, and a formal audit report is sent
to network administrators.

3.3 Safeguarding Data

Knowing how dangerous it is to lose data, therefore a very good data safeguarding policies
must implemented. Amon such policies are the following:

 Backups-Network backup is the process of copying and backing up all end devices and
network nodes in a computer network.Network backup may also refer to the actual
data or files that are backed up in a network backup process.

 It is typically done using network backup software, which identifies the network
components to back up, configures the backup schedule and copies the data to a
backup storage.Network backup is typically used for the following:

o Creating backup instances of operating systems installed on end devices

(computers/servers) and other networking devices (routers and switches)

o Backing up of all data stored on all devices in a network

o Saving and backing up network configuration files

 The data stored by a network backup process can be used for restoring an entire
network and/or an individual node. Network backup may also be used in disaster
recovery sites as a way of replicating and restoring network services if the primary
network is unavailable.

 Redundancy-Network redundancy is a process through which additional or alternate

instances of network devices, equipment and communication mediums are installed
within network infrastructure. It is a method for ensuring network availability in case of
a network device or path failure and unavailability.

 A firewall is a network security system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or

from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented as both hardware and software,
or a combination of both. Network firewalls are frequently used to prevent
unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet,
especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the
firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified
security criteria.

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  Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)Simply put, we utilize an uninterruptible power
supply, or UPS, on all of our equipment in order to safeguard against loss of power or
power surges such as the one we experienced during the lightning strike.

A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as servers, workstations,

telecommunications equipment, or other electrical equipment from an unexpected
disruption of power, such as a power source failure or voltage spike.This also help in
safeguarding data on a network.

Module 4 Unit 3 Practice Questions

1. Briefly discuss Network Administration

2. What do you understand by Network Design?
3. What are the policies available to safe guard data
4. Explain the comcept of Network Auditing

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 11

Discuss the importance of maintaining good network security

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UNIT 4
4.1 Network Troubleshooting Basics

This unit is about fault diagnosis and rectification in Computer Networking Based on the type of
issue, we will discuss its troubleshooting steps and tips.

Basic Network Problems

 Cable Problem: The cable which is used to connect two devices can get faulty, shortened
or can be physically damaged.

 Connectivity Problem: The port or interface on which the device is connected or

configured can be physically down or faulty due to which the source host will not be
able to communicate with the destination host.

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  Configuration Issue: Due to a wrong configuration, looping the IP, routing problem and
other configuration issues, network fault may arise and the services will get affected.

 Software Issue: Owing to software compatibility issues and version mismatch, the
transmission of IP data packets between the source and destination is interrupted.

 Traffic overload: If the link is over utilized then the capacity or traffic on a device is more
than the carrying capacity of it and due to overload condition the device will start
behaving abnormally.

 Network IP Problem: Improper configuration of IP addresses, subnet mask and routing

IP to the next hop will make the source unable to reach the destination IP through the
network.

4.2 Troubleshooting IP Problems

In the TCP/IP protocol suite, if we are not able to reach at the destination IP address and not
able to find the route to reach the next hop at any point in the network, then we will use PING
and TRACEROUTE tools for troubleshooting the cause and location of the issue.

The generic steps to troubleshoot the IP related issues in the network include:

 Firstly locate the pair of devices between the source and the destination host between
which the connectivity issue has occurred.

 Once you locate the devices using the tools, the fault can be due to a physical
connectivity issue. Thus check the physical connections all over the path.

 There can be a fault in the LAN connectivity as well if you are working in a LAN network.
So check the LAN connections. The local port can be faulty or down due to which the
source cannot be able to reach the destination IP.

 One of the reasons of the fault can be the router connectivity issue while traveling
through various paths to reach the destination. Hence check that if the router is defined
properly at each of the intermediate hops.

 Check the configuration settings.

4.3 Troubleshooting Local Connectivity Issues

Once on the broad level, if you find that there is an issue in the LAN connectivity, then in order
to locate the root cause and to resolve it, you should follow the below steps:

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  If the destination and the source are of the identical subnet mask, then try to ping the
destination IP.

 Else, if the destination is of some other subnet mask then try to ping the gateway IP
address of the router.

 Now, if both the ping fails, then first check that in the configuration settings, if both the
subnet mask and route to be followed to reach the destination are defined properly in
the routing table or not?

 Once you are done with the configuration part and found everything OK, then check if
your source host is able to ping some another hop in the LAN network other than the
destination host or route to that?

 If you are not able to ping to another device then there can be many reasons for this. It
may even be a configuration issue, a physical connectivity issue, and repetitive IP
address entry issue.

4.4 Correcting the Repetitive IP address Entry Issue

For rectifying the duplicate entry of an IP issue, disconnect the doubtful device from the LAN
and also make the interface on which the device was connected shut down.

Now ping the device from some another device of the same subnet or LAN network. If the ping
is OK, then it indicates that the IP is being used by some other device as well on the network.
From the ARP table of the device, find out its MAC address and modify the IP address according
to planning.

But if the problem persists still, then there will be a physical connectivity or configuration issue
in it.

4.5 Troubleshooting Physical Connectivity Issues

The list of faults that come under this category are:

 Improper connection of cables

 Router, switch or hub port is faulty or down.

 Traffic overload on the link or particular interface.

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  Configuration issue at layer-1.

Let's take a look at the above in detail.

#1) Checking Cable connectivity Issue: The cables are used for connections, based on the type
of connectivity. Like, for connectivity between a router and a computer the crossover pair of
the cable is used. Thus make sure that the suggested and suitable cable is used to make a
physical connection between any two devices.

If connections are found ok, then maybe the cable is faulty, so check the connectivity by
replacing the existing cable with a newer one. Still, if the problem persists, then check the port
or interface on which the link is terminated. There is a possibility for the port to be faulty.

#2) Port Faulty Scenario: Check that the port or interface on which the link is established is not
shut down. Verify the duplex mode and speed as well. If the port is up and still the problem
persists, then there are indicator lights that are present on each of the device to show the
running status of the port.

From the indicator lights, check if the port is physically radiating or down. If the port is
physically malfunctioning then it will appear by light status. In this situation, configure the link
on some other free port or interface.

#3) Traffic overload: If there is more traffic than the carrying capacity at a link or interface then
at some point it will start behaving abnormally. Thus verify these criteria to ensure smooth
running.

#4) Configuration Issue: Check the router configuration on the interface by show ip interface
and show running-config commands.

4.6 Troubleshooting Resources

There are lot of resources available to troubleshoot network, and most ot them can be easily be
accesed on the internet via

 Vendor Site

 Technical forums

 SUpport Sites

4.7 Network Congestion

Network congestion in data networking and queueing theory is the reduced quality of service
that occurs when a network node or link is carrying more data than it can handle. Typical

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effects include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence
of congestion is that an incremental increase in offered load leads either only to a small
increase or even a decrease in network throughput.

1. Conduct an analysis of the network traffic flows with the help of network monitoring
tools.

2. Network bottlenecks, which are the main reasons of congestion in a network, must be
eliminated.This can be accomplished by upgrading this network’s segment or using
different one.

3. TCP/IP protocol settings must be optimized to improve the connection between nodes
in your network.

4. Network traffic must be prioritized in compliance with your needs.

5. Finally, to minimize the congestion and correspondingly latency, one must analyze the
traffic patterns to find the segment of network, where the congestion occurs, as well as
the reason why it happens. After the problem has been outlined one can find an
effective solution to avoid congestion and improve the entire infrastructure

4.8 Broadcast Storm

A broadcast storm occurs when a network system is overwhelmed by continuous multicast or

broadcast traffic. When different nodes are sending/broadcasting data over a network link, and
the other network devices are rebroadcasting the data back to the network link in response,
this eventually causes the whole network to melt down and lead to the failure of network
communication.

There are many reasons a broadcast storm occurs, including poor technology, low port rate
switches and improper network configurations.

A broadcast storm is also known as a network storm.

4.8 Network Resources

Many home and small office networks exist to share various Network resources such as

 Broadband Internet connection

 Network Printers

 Files and Folders

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  Storage Devices

 Application Packages etc.

Module 4 Unit 4 Practice Questions

1. What is Network Congestion?

2. List out possible resouces that can be shared via network
3. Describe how to use PING to solve IP duplicate problem
4. What is broadcast Storm?

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) 12

List out possible network Problems and describe how to troubleshoot them

Suggested Readings/References:

Akinyokun, O.C, (1999). Principles and Practice of Computing Technology. International

Publishers Limited, Ibadan.

Balogun, V.F., Daramola, O.A., Obe, O.O., Ojokoh, B.A., and Oluwadare S.A., (2006).
Introduction to Computing: A Practical Approach. Tom-Ray Publications, Akure.

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Richard H. Austing and Lillian Cassel (1986). Computers in Focus. Books/Cole Publication
Company. Monterey, California

Tunji and Dokun (1993). Data Processing, Principles and Concepts. Informatics Books, Lagos.

French, C. S. (1998). Data Processing and Information Technology. Gosport, Hants: Ashford
Colour Press

French, C. S. (2000). Computer Science (5 ed.). Gosport, Hants:

Ayo, C. K. (2001). Information Technology: Trends and Applications in Science and Business.
Concept Publications.

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