limits and continuity 73

1.2 Properties of Limits

This section presents results that make it easier to calculate limits of

combinations of functions or to show that a limit does not exist. The
main result says we can determine the limit of “elementary combina-
tions” of functions by calculating the limit of each function separately
and recombining these results to get our final answer.

Main Limit Theorem:

If lim f ( x ) = L and lim g( x ) = M
x→a x→a

then (a) lim f ( x ) + g( x ) = L + M

x→a

(b) lim f ( x ) − g( x ) = L − M
x→a

(c) lim k · f ( x ) = k · L
x→a

(d) lim f ( x ) · g( x ) = L · M
x→a

f (x) L
(e) lim = (if M 6= 0)
x→a g( x ) M

(f) lim [ f ( x )]n = Ln

x→a
q
n
√
n
(g) lim f (x) = L When n is an even integer in part (g) of
x→a the Main Limit Theorem, we need L ≥ 0
and f ( x ) ≥ 0 for x near a.

The Main Limit Theorem says we get the same result if we first
perform the algebra and then take the limit or if we take the limits first
and then perform the algebra: for example, (a) says that the limit of the
sum equals the sum of the limits.
A proof of the Main Limit Theorem is not inherently difficult, but it
requires a more precise definition of the limit concept than we have at
the moment, and it then involves a number of technical difficulties.

Practice 1. For f ( x ) = x2 − x − 6 and g( x ) = x2 − 2x − 3, evaluate:

(a) lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] (e) lim f ( x ) · g( x )

x →1 x →3

(b) lim f ( x ) · g( x ) f (x)

x →1 (f) lim
x →3 g( x )
f (x)
(c) lim (g) lim [ f ( x )]3
x →1 g( x ) x →2
q
(d) lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] (h) lim 1 − g( x )
x →3 x →2
74 contemporary calculus

Limits of Some Very Nice Functions: Substitution

As you may have noticed in the previous example, for some functions
f ( x ) it is possible to calculate the limit as x approaches a simply by
substituting x = a into the function and then evaluating f ( a), but
sometimes this method does not work. The following results help to
(partially) answer the question about when such a substitution is valid.

Two Easy Limits:

lim k = k and lim x = a

x→a x→a

We can use the preceding Two Easy Limits and the Main Limit
Theorem to prove the following Substitution Theorem.

Substitution Theorem For Polynomial and Rational Functions:

If P( x ) and Q( x ) are polynomials and a is any number

P( x ) P( a)
then lim P( x ) = P( a) and lim =
x→a x→a Q( x ) Q( a)
as long as Q( a) 6= 0.

The Substitution Theorem says that we can calculate the limits of

polynomials and rational functions by substituting (as long as the
substitution does not result in a division by 0).

Practice 2. Evaluate each limit.

(a) lim 5x3 − x2 + 3 x2 − 2x

x →2 (c) lim
x →2 x2 − x − 2
x3 − 7x
(b) lim 2
x →2 x + 3x

Limits of Other Combinations of Functions

So far we have concentrated on limits of single functions and elementary

combinations of functions. If we are working with limits of other com-
binations or compositions of functions, the situation becomes slightly
more difficult, but sometimes these more complicated limits have useful
geometric interpretations.

Example 1. Use the graph in the margin to evaluate each limit.

(a) lim [3 + f ( x )] (c) lim f (3 − x )

x →1 x →0

(b) lim f (2 + x ) (d) lim f ( x + 1) − f ( x )

x →1 x →2
 limits and continuity 75

Solution. (a) lim [3 + f ( x )] requires a straightforward application of

x →1
part (a) of the Main Limit Theorem:

lim [3 + f ( x )] = lim 3 + lim f ( x ) = 3 + 2 = 5

x →1 x →1 x →1

(b) We first need to examine what happens to the quantity 2 + x as

x → 1 before we can consider the limit of f (2 + x ). When x is
very close to 1, the value of 2 + x is very close to 3, so the limit
of f (2 + x ) as x → 1 is equivalent to the limit of f (w) as w → 3
(where w = 2 + x) and it is clear from the graph that lim f (w) = 1,
w →3
so:
lim f (2 + x ) = lim f (w) = 1
x →1 w →3

In most situations it is not necessary to formally substitute a new

variable w for the quantity 2 + x, but it is still necessary to think
about what happens to the quantity 2 + x as x → 1.

(c) As x → 0 the quantity 3 − x will approach 3, so we want to

know what happens to the values of f when the input variable is
approaching 3:
lim f (3 − x ) = 1
x →0

(d) Using part (b) of the Main Limit Theorem:

lim f ( x + 1) − f ( x ) = lim f ( x + 1) − lim f ( x )

x →2 x →2 x →2
= lim f (w) − lim f ( x ) = 1 − 3 = −2
w →3 x →2

Notice the use of the substitution w = x + 1 above. J

Practice 3. Use the graph in the margin to evaluate each limit.

(a) lim f (2x ) (c) lim 3 · f (4 + x )

x →1 x →0

(b) lim f ( x − 1) (d) lim f (3x − 2)

x →2 x →2

Example 2. Use the graph in the margin to evaluate each limit.

(a) lim f (3 + h) (c) lim [ f (3 + h) − f (3)]

h →0 h →0

f (3 + h ) − f (3)
(b) lim f (3) (d) lim
h →0 h →0 h

Solution. The last limit is a special type of limit we will encounter

often in this book, while the first three parts are the steps we need to
evaluate it.
76 contemporary calculus

(a) As h → 0, the quantity w = 3 + h will approach 3, so

lim f (3 + h) = lim f (w) = 1

h →0 w →3

(b) f (3) is a constant (equal to 1) and does not depend on h in any

way, so:
lim f (3) = f (3) = 1
h →0

(c) This limit is just an algebraic combination of the first two limits:

lim [ f (3 + h) − f (3)] = lim f (3 + h) − lim f (3) = 1 − 1 = 0

h →0 h →0 h →0

The quantity f (3 + h) − f (3) also has a geometric interpretation:

it is the change in the y-coordinates, the ∆y, between the points
(3, f (3)) and (3 + h, f (3 + h)) (see margin figure).
f (3 + h ) − f (3)
(d) As h → 0, the numerator and denominator of
h
both approach 0, so we cannot immediately determine the value
of the limit. But if we recognize that f (3 + h) − f (3) = ∆y for
the two points (3, f (3)) and (3 + h, f (3 + h)) and that h = ∆x for
f (3 + h ) − f (3)
the same two points, then we can interpret as
h
∆y
∆x , which is the slope of the secant line through the two points:

f (3 + h ) − f (3)
lim = lim [slope of the secant line]
h →0 h ∆x →0
= slope of the tangent line at (3, f (3))
≈ −2
This last limit represents the slope of line tangent to the graph of
f at the point (3, f (3)).
It is a pattern we will encounter often. J

Tangent Lines as Limits

If we have two points on the graph of the function y = f ( x ):

( x, f ( x )) and ( x + h, f ( x + h))
then ∆y = f ( x + h) − f ( x ) and ∆x = ( x + h) − ( x ) = h, so the slope of
the secant line through those points is:
∆y
msec =
∆x
and the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at the point ( x, f ( x ))
is, by definition,
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
mtan = lim [slope of the secant line] = lim
∆x →0 h →0 h
 limits and continuity 77

Example 3. Give a geometric interpretation for the following limits

and estimate their values for the function whose graph appears in the
margin.

f (1 + h ) − f (1) f (2 + h ) − f (2)
(a) lim (b) lim
h →0 h h →0 h

Solution. (a) The limit represents the slope of the line tangent to the
f (1 + h ) − f (1)
graph of f ( x ) at the point (1, f (1)), so lim ≈ 1. (b) The
h →0 h
limit represents the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f ( x ) at the
f (2 + h ) − f (2)
point (2, f (2)), so lim ≈ −1. J
h →0 h

Practice 4. Give a geometric interpretation for the following limits

and estimate their values for the function whose graph appears in the
margin.

g (1 + h ) − g (1) g ( h ) − g (0)
(a) lim (c) lim
h →0 h h →0 h
g (3 + h ) − g (3)
(b) lim
h →0 h

Comparing the Limits of Functions

Sometimes it is difficult to work directly with a function. However,
if we can compare our difficult function with easier ones, then we
can use information about the easier functions to draw conclusions
about the difficult one. If the complicated function is always between
two functions whose limits are equal, then we know the limit of the
complicated function.

Squeezing Theorem:

If g( x ) ≤ f ( x ) ≤ h( x ) for all x near (but not equal to) c

and lim g( x ) = lim h( x ) = L

x →c x →c

then lim f ( x ) = L.
x →c

The margin figure shows the idea behind the proof of this theorem: the
function f ( x ) gets “squeezed” between the smaller function g( x ) and
the bigger function h( x ). Because g( x ) and h( x ) converge to the same
limit, L, so must f ( x ).
We can use the Squeezing Theorem to evaluate some “hard” limits
by squeezing a “difficult” function in between two “nicer” functions
with “easier” limits.
78 contemporary calculus

Example 4. Use the inequality − | x | ≤ sin( x ) ≤ | x | to determine:

(a) lim sin( x ) (b) lim cos( x )

x →0 x →0

Solution. (a) lim | x | = 0 and lim − | x | = 0 so, by the Squeezing The-

x →0 x →0 q
orem, lim sin( x ) = 0. (b) If − 2 < x < π2 , then cos( x ) = 1 − sin2 ( x ),
π
x →0 q p
so lim cos( x ) = lim 1 − sin2 ( x ) = 1 − 02 = 1. J
x →0 x →0

1
Example 5. Evaluate lim x · sin( ).
x →0 x
Solution. In the graph of sin( 1x ) (see margin), the y-values change very
rapidly for values of x near 0, but they all lie between −1 and 1:
1
−1 ≤ sin( ) ≤ 1
x
so, multiplying this inequality by x we get:
1
− x ≤ x · sin( ) ≤ x
x
if x ≥ 0, which we can rewrite as:
1
− | x | ≤ x · sin( ) ≤ | x |
x
because | x | = x when x ≥ 0.
If x < 0, when we multiply the original inequality by x we get:
1
− x ≥ x · sin( ) ≥ x
x
but here | x | = − x, so we can rewrite this as:
1
| x | ≥ x · sin( ) ≥ − | x |
x
Either way we have:
1
− | x | ≤ x · sin( ) ≤ | x |
x
for all x, and in particular for x near 0.
Both “easy” functions (− | x | and | x |) approach 0 as x → 0, so
1
lim x · sin( ) = 0
x →0 x
by the Squeezing Theorem. J

Practice 5. If f ( x ) is always between x2 + 2 and 2x + 1, what can you

say about lim f ( x )?
x →1
Exercise 21 guides you through the steps sin( x )
Practice 6. Use the relation cos( x ) ≤ x ≤ 1 to show that:
to prove this relation.
sin( x )
lim =1
x →0 x
 limits and continuity 79

List Method for Showing that a Limit Does Not Exist

If the limit of f ( x ), as x approaches c, exists and equals L, then we
can guarantee that the values of f ( x ) are as close to L as we want by
restricting the values of x to be very, very close to c. To show that a
limit, as x approaches c, does not exist, we need to show that no matter
how closely we restrict the values of x to c, the values of f ( x ) are not
all close to a single, finite value L.
One way to demonstrate that lim f ( x ) does not exist is to show that
x →c
the left and right limits exist but are not equal.
Another method of showing that lim f ( x ) does not exist uses two
x →c
(infinite) lists of numbers, { a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . .} and {b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , . . .}, that
become arbitrarily close to the value c as the subscripts get larger,
but with the lists of function values, { f ( a1 ), f ( a2 ), f ( a3 ), f ( a4 ), . . .} and
{ f (b1 ), f (b2 ), f (b3 ), f (b4 ), . . .} approaching two different numbers as
the subscripts get larger.
Example 6. For f ( x ) defined as:

 1 if x < 1

f (x) = x if 1 < x < 3

 2 if 3 < x

show that lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x →3

Solution. We could use one-sided limits to show that this limit does
not exist, but instead we will use the list method.
One way to define values of { a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . .} that approach 3 from
the right is to define a1 = 3 + 1, a2 = 3 + 12 , a3 = 3 + 13 , a4 = 3 + 14 and,
in general, an = 3 + n1 . Then an > 3 so f ( an ) = 2 for all subscripts n,
and the values in the list { f ( a1 ), f ( a2 ), f ( a3 ), f ( a4 ), . . .} are approaching
2—in fact, all of the f ( an ) values equal 2.
We can define values of {b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , . . .} that approach 3 from the
left by b1 = 3 − 1, b2 = 3 − 12 , b3 = 3 − 13 , b4 = 3 − 14 , and, in gen-
eral, bn = 3 − n1 . Then bn < 3 so f (bn ) = bn = 3 − n1 for each sub-
script
n n, and the values in the o list { f (b1 ), f (b2 ), f (b3 ), f (b4 ), . . .} =
2, 2.5, 2 32 , 2 34 , 2 45 , . . . , 3 − n1 , . . . approach 3.
Because the values in the lists { f ( a1 ), f ( a2 ), f ( a3 ), f ( a4 ), . . .} and
{ f (b1 ), f (b2 ), f (b3 ), f (b4 ), . . .} approach two different numbers, we can
conclude that lim f ( x ) does not exist. J
x →3

Example 7. Define h( x ) as:

(
2 if x is a rational number
h( x ) =
1 if x is an irrational number
(the “holey” function introduced in Section 0.4). Use the list method to
show that lim h( x ) does not exist.
x →3
80 contemporary calculus

Solution. Let { a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . .} be a list of rational numbers that ap-

proach 3: for example, a1 = 3 + 1, a2 = 3 + 12 , a3 = 3 + 13 ,. . . , an = 3 + n1 .
Then f ( an ) = 2 for all n, so:

{ f ( a1 ), f ( a2 ), f ( a3 ), f ( a4 ), . . .} = {2, 2, 2, 2, . . .}

and the f ( an ) values “approach” 2.

If {b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , . . .} is a list of irrational numbers that approach 3
(for example, b1 = 3 + π, b2 = 3 + π2 ,. . . ,bn = 3 + πn ) then:

{ f (b1 ), f (b2 ), f (b3 ), f (b4 ), . . .} = {1, 1, 1, 1, . . .}

and the f (bn ) values “approach” 1.

Because the f ( an ) and f (bn ) values approach different numbers, the
limit as x → 3 does not exist. A similar argument will work as x
approaches any number c, so for every c we have that lim h( x ) does
x →c
not exist. The “holey” function does not have a limit as x approaches
any value c. J

1.2 Problems

1. Use the functions f and g defined by the graphs 3. Use the function h defined by the graph below to
below to determine the following limits. determine the following limits.

(a) lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] f (x) (a) lim h(2x − 2) (c) lim h(1 + x )

x →1 (c) lim x →2 x →2
x →1 g ( x )
x
(b) lim f ( x ) · g( x ) (d) lim f (( g( x )) (b) lim [ x + h( x )] (d) lim h( )
x →1 x →1 x →2 x →3 2

2. Use the functions f and g defined by the graphs

above to determine the following limits. 4. Use the function h defined by the graph above to
determine the following limits.
(a) lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] f (x)
x →1 (c) lim
x →1 g ( x ) (a) lim h(5 − x ) (c) lim [h(3 + x ) − h(3)]
x →2 x →0
(b) lim f ( x ) · g( x ) (d) lim f ( g( x ))
x →1 x →1 h (3 + x ) − h (3)
(b) lim x · h( x − 1) (d) lim
x →2 x →0 x
 limits and continuity 81

5. Label the parts of the graph of f (below) that are

described by

(a) 2 + h f (2 + h ) − f (2)
(e)
(b) f (2) (2 + h ) − 2
(c) f (2 + h) f (2 − h ) − f (2)
(d) f (2 + h) − f (2) (f)
(2 − h ) − 2

8. Use the function f defined by the graph above to

determine the following limits.

(a) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x ) (g) lim f ( x )

x →2+ x →4+ x →−2+
(b) lim f ( x ) (e) lim f ( x ) (h) lim f ( x )
x →2− x →4− x →−2−
(c) lim f ( x ) (f) lim f ( x ) (i) lim f ( x )
x →2 x →4 x →−2

9. The Lorentz Contraction Formula in relativity

theory says the length L of an object moving at v
miles per second with respect to an observer is:
6. Label the parts of the graph of g (below) that are
r
described by v2
L = A· 1− 2
c
(a) a + h g( a + h) − g( a)
(e) where c is the speed of light (a constant).
(b) g( a) ( a + h) − a
(a) Determine the object’s “rest length” (v = 0).
(c) g( a + h) g ( a − h ) − g (2) (b) Determine: lim L
(d) g( a + h) − g( a) (f) v→c−
( a − h) − a
10. Evaluate each limit.

(a) lim b x c (e) lim b x c

x →2+ x →−2.3
jxk
(b) lim b x c (f) lim
x →2− x →3 2
bxc
(c) lim b x c (g) lim
x →−2+ x →3 2
b2 + x c − b2c
(d) lim b x c (h) lim
x →−2− x →0 + x
11. For f ( x ) and g( x ) defined as:
( (
1 if x < 1 x if x 6= 2
f (x) = g( x ) =
x if 1 < x 3 if x = 2
7. Use the function f in the graph at the top of the determine the following limits:
next column to determine the following limits.
(a) lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] g( x )
x →2 (d) lim
(a) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x ) (g) lim f ( x ) x →0 f ( x )
x →1+ x →3+ x →−1+ f (x)
(b) lim f (x)
(b) lim f ( x ) (e) lim f ( x ) (h) lim f ( x ) x →2 g( x ) (e) lim
x →1− x →3− x →−1− x →1 g ( x )
(c) lim f ( x ) (f) lim f ( x ) (i) lim f ( x ) (c) lim f ( g( x )) (f) lim g( f ( x ))
x →1 x →3 x →−1 x →2 x →1
 82 contemporary calculus

12. Give geometric interpretations for each limit and 16. (a) For h > 0, find the slope of the line through
use a calculator to estimate its value. the points (h, |h|) and (0, 0).
arctan(0 + h) − arctan(0)
(a) lim (b) For h < 0, find the slope of the line through
h →0 h
the points (h, |h|) and (0, 0).
arctan(1 + h) − arctan(1) |h| |h| |h|
(b) lim (c) Evaluate lim , lim and lim .
h →0 h h →0− h h →0+ h h →0 h
arctan(2 + h) − arctan(2)
(c) lim
h →0 h In 17–18, describe the behavior at each integer
of the function y = f ( x ) in the figure provided
,using one of these phrases:

• “connected and smooth”

• “connected with a corner”
• “not connected because of a simple hole that
could be plugged by adding or moving one
point”
• “not connected because of a vertical jump that
could not be plugged by moving one point”

cos(h) − 1
13. (a) What does lim represent in rela-
h →0 h
tion to the graph of y = cos( x )? It may help
to recognize that:
17.
cos(h) − 1 cos(0 + h) − cos(0)
=
h h
(b) Graphically and using your calculator, deter-
cos(h) − 1
mine lim .
h →0 h
ln(1 + h)
14. (a) What does the ratio represent in re-
h
lation to the graph of y = ln( x )? It may help
to recognize that:
18.
ln(1 + h) ln(1 + h) − ln(1)
=
h h
(b) Graphically and using your calculator, deter-
ln(1 + h)
mine lim .
h →0 h | x − 2|
15. Use your calculator (to generate a table of values) 19. Use the list method to show that lim does
x →2 x−2
to help you estimate the value of each limit. not exist .
eh
−1 1
(a) lim 20. Show that lim sin( ) does not exist. (Sugges-
h →0 h x →0 x
tan(1 + c) − tan(1) tion: Let f ( x ) = sin( 1x ) and let an = nπ 1
so
(b) lim 1
c →0 c that f ( an ) = sin( an ) = sin(nπ ) = 0 for every n.
g (2 + t ) − g (2) Then pick bn = 2nπ1+ π so that f (bn ) = sin( b1n ) =
(c) lim when g(t) = t2 − 5. 2
t →0 t sin(2nπ + π
= sin( π2 ) = 1 for every n.)
2)
 limits and continuity 83

sin(θ )
21. This problem outlines the steps of a proof that lim = 1.
θ θ →0+
π
Refer to the margin figure, assume that 0 < θ < 2 , and justify why
each statement must be true.

(a) Area of 4OPB = 21 (base)(height) = 1

2 sin(θ )
area of the sector (the pie shaped region) OPB θ
(b) =
area of the whole circle 2π
θ θ
(c) area of the sector OPB = π · =
2π 2
(d) The line L through the points (0, 0) and P = (cos(θ ), sin(θ )) has
sin(θ ) sin(θ )
slope m = , so C = (1, )
cos(θ ) cos(θ )
1 1 sin(θ )
(e) area of 4OCB = (base)(height) = (1)
2 2 cos(θ )
(f) area of 4OPB < area of sector OPB < area of 4OCB
1 θ 1 sin(θ ) sin(θ )
(g) sin(θ ) < < (1) ⇒ sin(θ ) < θ <
2 2 2 cos(θ ) cos(θ )
θ 1 sin(θ )
(h) 1 < < ⇒1> > cos(θ )
sin(θ ) cos(θ ) θ
(i) lim 1 = 1 and lim cos(θ ) = 1.
θ →0+ θ →0+
sin(θ )
(j) lim =1
θ →0+ θ

1.2 Practice Answers

3 5
1. (a) −10 (b) 24 (c) 2 (d) 0 (e) 0 (f) 4 (g) −64 (h) 2

2. (a) 39 (b) − 53 (c) 2

3

3. (a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 1

4. (a) slope of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (1, g(1));
estimated slope ≈ −2
(b) slope of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (3, g(3));
estimated slope ≈ 0
(c) slope of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (0, g(0));
estimated slope ≈ 1

5. lim x2 + 2 = 3 and lim 2x + 1 = 3 so lim f ( x ) = 3

x →1 x →1 x →1

sin( x )
6. lim cos( x ) = 1 and lim 1 = 1 so lim =1
x →0 x →0 x →0 x